Chapter 1: General Introduction: Overview of reproductive biology in mammals

1. Introduction

Reproduction is the process by which organisms give rise to young ones of their own
kind. Among all physiological functions it is characterized by a unique feature, it
demands two different individuals of the same species, males and females, to fulfil it
Reproduction is essential for the survival of organisms. Therefore, it is a high priority
function of all mammalian species. Mammals are chordates whose young ones are
fed on milk from mammary glands of their mothers. Members of this class have
unique features.

- They have mammary glands.

- They have hair except in whales where it occurs only in fetal stage. Their
lower jaw is hinged into the skull directly.
- They have a muscular diaphragm which separates the thorax from the
abdomen. More than 5,500 species of mammals exist today and they are
grouped into 125 families. Examples of mammals include dogs, cats, mice,
monkeys, kangaroo, and humans.

2. Importance of mammalian reproduction

Mammals reproduce sexually. The main importance of sexual reproduction is that it

leads of diversity. The offspring produced genetically differ from each other and from
their parents. Diversity increases the organism’s adaptation. Another importance of
mammalian reproduction is that the mothers provide milk for the young ones. This is
important for the survival of the newborn because the milk contains important nutrients
and antibodies that protect the newborn from infections.

i. In mammals, regarding reproductive physiology involves three series of

mechanisms emerge:
ii. 1) elaborate mechanisms permit the production of specialized male and female
reproductive or germ cells, spermatozoa and oocytes;
iii. 2) a series of mechanisms, including sex behaviour, permit one male and one
female germ cell to fuse into an egg cell at fertilization, thus adding paternal and
maternal genetical information;
 iv. 3) the egg cell is then fostered during its development until a young individual
capable of independant life is produced.

3. Reproduction in the different groups of mammals

Based on the way they reproduce, mammals are grouped into three: The Monotremes; the
Marsupials, and Placental mammals.

- Reproduction in monotremes

Egg laying mammals are referred to as Monotremes. The duck-billed platypus and
echidnas are the only surviving species. They are found in Australia and New Guinea
only. The monotreme female do not have vagina and uterus. They have cloaca just like
in birds. The opening is used for excretion, for copulation and for laying eggs.
Fertilization in monotremes takes place internally when the sperms are deposited
through the cloaca. The eggs are leathery and remain in the body of the female for a few
weeks. The mother gives nutrients to the eggs. Echidna eggs are laid in a pouch while
platypus eggs are laid in burrows. They are incubated for about ten days before they
hatch through tearing the shell using egg teeth that are temporary. Monotremes have
mammary glands just like all other mammals. They, however, do not have nipples. The
importance of laying eggs is that the mother is out of risk involved with delivery, and she
doesn’t have to eat more. One disadvantage of this kind of reproduction is that the
offspring have less chances of survival.

- Reproduction in Marsupials

Marsupials give birth to young ones that are not yet fully developed. They have a very short
gestation period. The blastocyst attaches to a shallow depression in the uterus. The
chorionic membrane is in direct contact with the walls of the uterus that are slightly eroded.
For this reason, there is no efficient exchange of materials. After birth, the premature
newborn gets to the pouch where it drinks milk and continues to develop. The newborn
marsupials are referred to as Joeys eg Kangaroo.

- Reproduction in Placental/Eutherian mammals

In Placental mammals, the placenta helps in exchange of nutrients between the mother and
the fetus. The chorio-allantoic placenta also aids in exchange of respiratory and excretory
materials. After adhering to the uterus, the blastocyst sinks into the endometrium with the
help of enzymes produced by the outer. This increases the absorption surface which allows
for efficient exchange of materials. Eutherian mammals, as placental mammals are also
referred to give birth to offspring that are well developed. Examples of Placental mammals
include: humans, lions, cats, elephants, dogs among others. Placental reproduction is
important because the fetus becomes mature and large before birth. This is because of long
periods of fetal growth inside the uterus. Hence, they have an increased chance of survival.
The disadvantage of placental reproduction is that it is risky to the mother and makes the
mother to eat more food. Birth can result to a mother’s death.

4. Seasonal reproduction in mammals

The rotation of the Earth on its 23°-tilted axis and around the Sun imposes predictable
fluctuations in the environment on daily and annual timescales. These cyclical changes have
profoundly impacted evolution. The ability to timely perform specific functions provides a
significant adaptive advantage which improves fitness. Therefore, organisms developed
endogenous timing mechanisms to stay in tune with their environment, anticipate
forthcoming changes, and display the appropriate physiological response at the right time. At
temperate latitudes, most species rely on photoperiod to time seasonal switches in breeding,
fattening, migration, torpor ( a state of lowered physiological activity typically characterized
by reduced metabolism, heart rate, respiration, and body temperature that occurs in varying
degress especially in hibernating and estivating animals), and hibernation. Other cues such
as food availability, social interactions, stress, and weather can modulate the impact of
photoperiod. The overall impact of these “secondary” cues is stronger in the tropical zone,
where photoperiod displays comparatively weak annual variation ([1], [2], see Fig. 1). Here,
we first summarize our understanding of the molecular and neuroendocrine underpinnings of
seasonality, with a focus on breeding. In a second part, we recapitulate the methods
currently used to obtain out-of-season breeding in small seasonal ruminants such as sheep
and goats.

Some factors related to the external environment directly or indirectly influence the animals,
causing them to exhibit specific characteristics in their reproductive physiology. Among the
environmental variables, there is the daily photoperiod, which allows classifying the seasonal
species in short- day animals (buffaloes and small ruminants) and long-day (horses). Thus,
in these species the functioning of the hypothalamic-pituitary-gonadal axis is modulated by
the action of melatonin that is released in concentrations proportional to light intensity.
Melatonin influences the release direct of GnRH and indirect of gonadotropins (FSH and
LH), as well as gametogenesis influence, the synthesis of sex hormones and sexual
behavior. The aim of this review is to evaluate the influence of photoperiod on reproductive
physiology, analyzing the effects of circadian rhythm and the physiological aspects of
melatonin in the regulation and modulation of animal reproduction.