AL-RASHID INDIAN SCHOOL

BLOCK-2
THERMAL PHYSICS
2.1 KINETIC PARTICLE MODEL OF MATTER

States of matter
All matter can exist in three states — solid, liquid and gas.
SOLIDS LIQUIDS GASES
 Solids have a definite  Liquids have a  Gases have no definite
shape and volume. definite volume but shape or volume as these
 The particles in a solid are their shape depends depend on the dimensions
close together and in fixed on the container they of the container.
positions. are kept in.  Low density
 High density  High density  Compressible
 Incompressible  Incompressible  Can flow and take the
 Cannot flow  Can flow and take the shape and volume of the
shape of the container
container

Changes of state
 The state of matter depends on the temperature and the pressure the matter
is under. Changing the temperature of matter can change it from one state
into another.
 Each state has its own characteristics, and a material can change from one
state to another.
 Particle model of matter
What is the kinetic particle model of solids, liquids and gases?
 All matter is made up of tiny particles called atoms or molecules. Most atoms
join together to make molecules.
 The kinetic particle model of matter states that the tiny particles that make
up matter are always in continuous random motion. This model is used to
help us understand the properties of each state of matter.
Solid liquid Gas
 Particles are closely packed  Particles are slightly  Particles are far apart from
together. further apart than in one another.
 the particles in solids have solids.  There is very little attractive
strong attractive forces  The attractive forces are force between them.
between them. not as strong as the  That is why gases have no
 That is why solids have a particles in solids. fixed volume or shape.
fixed volume and a fixed  The particles in liquids can  The particles move around at
shape. move around freely. high speed, so gases can flow
 The strong attractive forces  That is why liquids can and fill the space they are put
hold the particles in fixed flow. They do not have a into.
positions. That is why solids fixed shape but take the  Randomly arranged
cannot flow shape of their container.  Small number of particles per
 Usually in a regular pattern  Randomly arranged unit volume
 Large number of particles  Slightly smaller number of  Particles move randomly at
per unit volume particles per unit volume high speeds.
 Particles vibrate about a  As well as vibrating, they
fixed position. can at the same time
move rapidly over short
distances, slipping past
each other in all
directions.
What happens to the motion of particles with change in
temperature?
 When an object is heated, the temperature of the object increases.
 The average kinetic energy of the particles in the object increases and the
particles move or vibrate faster.
 When an object is cooled, the temperature of the object decreases.
 The average kinetic energy of the particles in the object decreases and the
particles move more slowly.
 The lowest temperature where the particles have the least kinetic energy
occurs at –273°C.
 This temperature is also known as absolute zero.

Brownian motion is the evidence to support the kinetic

particle model of matter.
 Brownian motion refers to the random movement of microscopic particles in
a fluid due to the collisions by the molecules of the fluid.
 We can only see microscopic particles under the microscope as the molecules
are too small to be seen.
 Examples of microscopic particles are pollen grains and smoke particles.
EXAMPLE:
 The smoke particles in the glass cell
are constantly bombarded from all
sides by the air molecules. The
larger smoke particles can be seen
to move in random straight lines in a
zig-zag pattern (see diagram).
 This random movement is due to
collisions between the very light but
fast-moving air molecules, which are
too small to be seen, and the smoke
particles, which are larger and can
be seen.
 HOW GASES EXCERT PRESSURE?

 The gas particles are moving randomly

in all directions. They collide with one
another and with the walls of the
container.
 The pressure on the container is caused
by the constant collisions of many
particles with its walls.
 When the particles collide with the
walls of the container, they exert a
force on the wall.
 The force from one collision is small but
as there are many particles colliding all
of the time, the force exerted is large.
 We learnt that pressure is force per
unit area. Hence, the force exerted by
the collisions of gas particles on the
container gives rise to the pressure on
the container.

Explanation, in terms of the momentum of particles, how a gas

exerts a pressure.
 Moving particles have momentum OR particles hit walls.
 Momentum changes when particles hit walls.
 Force exerted (by particles) due to (rate of) change of momentum.
 Pressure is (total) force (of particles) per unit area (of wall).
HOW DOES THE PRESSURE OF A GAS VARY WITH ITS TEMPERATURE?

As the temperature of a gas increases,

the pressure increases because:
 the molecules or particles have greater
kinetic energy
 they hit the walls of the container
harder
 they hit the walls of the container
more often.

Pressure–temperature graph of a
gas at constant volume

HOW DOES THE PRESSURE OF A GAS VARY WITH ITS VOLUME?

If the temperature of a gas remains constant, the pressure of the gas changes
when it is:
 Compressed – decreases the volume which increases the pressure
 Expanded – increases the volume which decreases the pressure
From Figure, when the volume of the gas is halved, the pressure of the gas is
doubled. The decrease in the volume resulting in a proportional increase in
pressure is known as inverse proportionality.

P∝
PV =CONSTANT
If several pairs of readings, p1 and V1, p2 and V2, etc. are taken, then it can be
confirmed that
p1 V1 = p2 V2 = constant

Pressure-volume graph of a gas at Pressure-1/volume graph of a gas at

constant temperature constant temperature

This is Boyle’s law, which is stated as follows:

The pressure of a fixed mass of gas is inversely proportional to its volume if its
temperature is kept constant.
HOW DID ABSOLUTE ZERO LEAD TO A NEW TEMPERATURE SCALE?
 The kelvin temperature scale begins at absolute zero, 0 K is equal to -273 °C
 An increase of 1 K is the same change as an increase of 1 °C
 It is not possible to have a temperature lower than 0 K
 This means a temperature in kelvin will never have a negative value
To convert between temperatures θ in the Celsius scale, and T in the Kelvin
scale, use the following conversion:
T (in K) = θ (in °C) + 273

THERMAL EXPANSION
The expansion of materials as they get hotter is called thermal expansion.

 Solids, liquids and gases increase in volume or expand when heated.

 The greater the temperature rise, the greater the expansion.
 When cooled, the volume will decrease, i.e., it will contract.
 The amount that solids expand is so small that it cannot be detected visually.
 Liquids expand more than solids for the same temperature rise.
 Gases expand much more than liquids. The warmth of your hands is enough
to make air expand by a large amount.
 WHY DO SOLIDS, LIQUIDS AND GASES EXPAND BY DIFFERENT AMOUNTS?
 Heating materials gives the particles more kinetic energy.
 In solids, the particles vibrate more vigorously. Strong forces between them
results in a small expansion.
 In liquids, the particles move around faster. The forces between the particles
are weaker as compared to solids, so the expansion is greater.
 Gas particles move about the fastest as compared to solid and liquid.
particles. Gases have the greatest expansion because there is little force
between the particles.
 When materials are heated, the particles themselves do not expand, but
the volume that they occupy does.
EXAMPLES
Bimetallic strip
If equal lengths of two different metals, such as copper and iron, are riveted
together so that they cannot move separately, they form a bimetallic strip
(Figure a).
When heated, copper expands more than iron and to allow this the strip bends
with copper on the outside (Figure b). If they had expanded equally, the strip
would have stayed straight.

A bimetallic strip: a) before heating; b) after heating

Fire alarm
Heat from the fire makes the bimetallic
strip bend and complete the electrical
circuit, so ringing the alarm bell
(Figure).
Thermometers use thermal expansion of liquids to
measure temperature. As the liquid inside the bulb
gets hotter, it expands up the thin glass tube inside
the thermometer.

Hot air balloons use a burner to heat up the air inside

the balloon. The hot air expands, which makes it less
dense than the air outside. This makes the balloon
rise.

SPECIFIC HEAT CAPACITY

What is Internal energy?
The particles in objects are always in motion—either vibrating back and forth (in
solids) or moving around separately (in liquids and gases). When you heat an
object, the particles within it gain kinetic energy and move faster.
The total kinetic and potential energy of all the particles in an object make up
its store of internal energy (thermal energy).

What is Temperature?
The kinetic particle theory regards temperature as a measure of the average
kinetic energy of the particles—the faster the particles are moving, the higher
the temperature.
 Increasing the temperature of an object increases its internal energy
because the kinetic energy of all the particles increases.
Important points to remember
 The internal energy of an object is not the same as its temperature.
 Temperature is not a measure of an object’s total internal energy. A large
object can store more internal energy than a small object even if its
temperature is lower.

Specific heat capacity

Specific heat capacity c is defined as the amount of thermal energy required to
raise the temperature of a unit mass (e.g., 1 kg) of a substance by 1°C (or 1 K).

Formula for specific heat capacity

The formula below shows how we can use the specific heat capacity of a
substance to work out how much energy is needed to raise its temperature.
ΔE = m c ΔT
m = mass
c = specific heat capacity ΔE
ΔT = temperature rise

m c ΔT
Note: ΔT or Δθ both indicates temperature change

Finding specific heat capacity of a solid

Objective
To determine the specific heat capacity of a solid
Apparatus and materials
Metal block with holes drilled in for heater and temperature sensor,
temperature sensor and data logger, electrical heater, d.c. power
supply, ammeter, voltmeter, connecting leads, insulating felt cloth for metal
block, electronic balance, stopwatch
 Procedure
1. Measure and record the mass, m,
of the solid with an electronic
balance.
2. Wrap the block with felt cloth.
This is to reduce heat loss to the
surroundings.
3. Connect the d.c. power source to
the heater and put the heater
into one of the holes of the block.
Place the temperature sensor
into the other hole (Figure).
4. Connect the temperature sensor
to the data logger. Set the data
logger to record temperature.
5. Start recording the temperature.
Note the initial temperature T1.

6. Switch on the power supply for t seconds.

7. After t seconds, switch off the heater. Continue recording the temperature for a
while. Note the highest temperature T2 reached.
Calculation
 We get power of the heater (P = I X V)
 Here I = current and V = Voltage
 Since we used it for t seconds, the thermal energy ΔE = power x time
 So, ΔE = I X V X t
 Assuming all of the thermal energy provided by the heater is absorbed by the
solid block,
ΔE = m x c x ΔT
Where, ΔT = T2 – T1(Final temperature- Initial temperature)
 Therefore, the specific heat capacity of aluminium is given by
𝚫𝐄
c= HERE,
ΔE = I X V X t
𝐈𝐕𝐭
c=
Note: Since we assume that no heat is lost to the surroundings in the calculation
above, good insulation is important in this experiment
 Finding specific heat capacity of a liquid
Objective
To determine the specific heat capacity of a liquid
Materials
Polystyrene cup and polystyrene lid with holes for heater and temperature
sensor, liquid e.g., water or oil, electronic balance, temperature sensor and data
logger, electrical heater, d.c. power supply, ammeter, voltmeter, connecting
leads, stopwatch.
Procedure
1. Measure and record the mass of
liquid m.
2. Pour the liquid, whose specific heat
capacity c we want to determine, into
the polystyrene cup.
3. Place the heater and the temperature
sensor in the liquid (Figure).
4. Connect the temperature sensor to
the data logger. Set the data logger to
record temperature.
5. Start the recording of temperature.
Note the initial temperature T1.
6. Switch on the power supply for t seconds.
7. After t seconds switch off the heater. Continue recording the temperature for a
while. Note the highest temperature θ2 reached

Calculation
 Thermal energy supplied by heater, ΔE = I X V X t
 Thermal energy absorbed by liquid (ΔE) = m x c x ΔT
 Assuming all the thermal energy supplied is absorbed by the liquid, (i.e., no
heat loss to the surroundings),
thermal energy supplied by heater = thermal energy absorbed by liquid
ΔE = m x c x ΔT Here,
ΔE = I X V X t
I V t = m x c x (T2 – T1) ΔT = T2 – T1(Final temperature- Initial
temperature)
𝐈𝐕𝐭
 Therefore, the specific heat capacity c of the liquid is given by c =
𝐦 𝐱 (𝐓𝟐 – 𝐓𝟏)
 CHANGES OF STATE
What happens to the temperature when materials change state?
Let’s study temperature-time graph of water during its change of states.

Important points obtained from the above graph are:

 Energy must be provided for melting or boiling.
 Energy is given out during solidification or condensation.
 The temperature of a substance remains constant whilst changing state at its
melting point or boiling point. The temperature remains the same until the
change of state is complete.
 The melting point is the temperature at which a solid turns into a liquid. The
melting point of pure ice is 0°C.
 The boiling point is the temperature at which a liquid turns into a gas. The
boiling point of pure water is 100°C.
 When melting or boiling, all the supplied energy is being used to weaken or
break the bonds between molecules.
 During condensation reverse of boiling occurs, forces pull the particles closer
and energy is released, the molecules slow down and the bonds are
strengthened or formed.
 These bonds bring the molecules closer together and the substance becomes
liquid.
 When solidification reverse of melting occurs, the temperature drops and
fewer molecules have enough kinetic energy to overcome neighbouring
attractions. The molecules can only vibrate, the substance gains a shape of its
own and becomes a solid.
Summary
 When a substance melts or boils, the energy supplied is used to overcome
the forces between the particles, so the temperature remains the same,
resulting in a flat section on the graph.
 When a gas condenses or when a liquid freezes, the formation of bonds
releases energy and so keeps the temperature constant.

What is evaporation?
Evaporation, like boiling, involves a change of state from liquid to gas.
Below three points explain in kinetic theory of matter on how evaporation
occurs

Conditions affecting evaporation

 Temperature
 Although evaporation can occur at any temperature, raising the
temperature of the liquid will increase the rate of evaporation. A warmer
liquid means that a greater number of molecules at the surface layer are
energetic enough to escape.
 Surface area of the liquid
 The rate of evaporation increases when a larger area of liquid is exposed.
This is because evaporation only takes place at the exposed surface of a
liquid. A larger exposed surface area means more molecules can escape
from the liquid.
  Wind or draught
 Moving air removes the liquid molecules as soon as they escape from the
liquid surface. This makes the air surrounding the liquid drier. Therefore,
the rate of evaporation increases when the surrounding air is moving

Why does evaporation cause cooling?

 When evaporation occurs from a liquid and the average kinetic energy of the
remaining particles decreases, the liquid cools.
 If an object is in contact with the liquid during evaporation, thermal energy
will flow from the object to the liquid. The object will cool until its
temperature equals that of the liquid.
Example
 On a hot day, your body perspires. The sweat evaporates from the surface of
your skin.
 During the evaporation process, water molecules with enough kinetic energy
escape into the air. These water molecules have to overcome the attractive
forces among themselves as well as the pressure of the atmosphere.
 The fastest moving molecules escape into the air, leaving behind the
molecules with lower kinetic energy.
 The average kinetic energy of the water molecules in the perspiration thus
decreases, resulting in a lower temperature. The evaporated water molecules
carry away the body’s latent heat into the air, cooling the body down.

NOTE: PRESPIRATION MEANS THE PROCESS OF SWEATING

Differences between boiling and evaporation

BOILING EVAPORATION
 Occurs at a particular temperature  Occurs at any temperature
 Takes place throughout the liquid  Takes place only at the liquid surface
 Bubbles are formed in the liquid  No bubbles are formed in the liquid
 Temperature remains constant  Temperature may change
 External thermal energy source  External thermal energy source not
required required
 Relatively fast  Relatively slow