Course Inorganic Chemistry

Theme Pollution of the Moche River by

heavy metals

Teacher: Rolando Martínez Díaz

Diaz Jara, Josepth

Huaman Cedano, Percy
Infantes Suarez, Oscar
Reyes Solano, Yubel Isamar
MINING ENGINEERING

INDEX
Introduction
UNIT I..................................................................................................................................3
BASIC CONCEPTS OF MINING
MINING AS SCIENCE AND AS ART
MINERALS:.................................................................................................................................5
Important factors in the origin of minerals....................................................................6
Geological factors
Physical and chemical processes..................................................................................................................6
Mineralogenesis
Magmatics8
Origin of sedimentary minerals........................................................................................8
Classification of minerals.......................................................................................................9
CLASSIFICATION OF MINERALS BY THEIR OCCURRENCE AND THEIR USE:...............................16
METALLIC MINERALS.............................................................................................................18
NON-METALLIC MINERALS
UNIT II...............................................................................................................................23
THE ROCKS:.................................................................................................................................23
MINERAL DEPOSITS.........................................................................................................25
TYPES OF MINERAL DEPOSITS..........................................................................................26
SUBTERRANEAN LABORS
WHAT IS THE OBJECTIVE?.............................................................................................................29
THE STONE AGE
CharacteristicstCase of the Stone Age...........................................................................................31
Stages of the Stone Age.......................................................................................................32
MINES IN PREHISTORY
AGE OF METALS
MINING IN EGYPT
MINING IN ROME
TYPES OF MINING CARRIED OUT BY THE ROMAN EMPIRE.....................................................40
PERUVIAN MINING
UNIT III..............................................................................................................................42
MINING PROCEDURE AND BENEFIT
CLASSIFICATION OF MINING ACTIVITY................................................................................44
STAGES OF MINING ACTIVITY:...........................................................................................44
MINING ACTIVITY: METALLURGICAL BENEFIT.................................................45

Introduction:

Mining engineering is the branch of theengineeringthat is concerned with the

extraction of mineral resources. Taking into account the greater
specialization that society increasingly requires. Mining engineering
focuses its efforts on activities such as:

Extraction using techniques andmining works of the resources

minerals. The knowledge and use in explosive engineering.
Obtaining licenses and executing work plans, as well as
planning.
Mine operations engineer.
The Mining Engineer has a direct link with industries such as
the energy industry, or the geological one. But increasingly and as the
society develops in its educational areas new arise
specialization professions. In this way, the Mining Engineer tends to
act more like a manager of extraction factors in the operations
mines.
The Mining Engineer plays a significant role in the Economy, as
many countries that have a high GDP percentage from extractive mining industry
such as Chile, Canada, Australia, South Africa, or Peru.
In other countries, the contribution of the Mining Industry can have a contribution
lower than GDP:

Countries that import mining resources from regions with minerals of

higher quality or more competitive.
Countries with an economy more focused on services or tourism.
Countries with a technological or industrial economy.
It is the holder who carries out the professional activity of managing from the
extraction of natural resources. Its formation includes knowledge related to
to geology, materials, the environment, and a long list of disciplines with
objective of obtaining an extraction of demanded mineral resources by
the population.

Extraction of mineral resources: exploitation of underground mines,

open-pit mines, etc.
These specialties encompass mining operations and quarries, tunnels and
slopes, infrastructures ofcivil engineeringsurveys, geophysics y
geochemistryexplosivesphotogrammetry y remote sensing, hydrology
y
environment. In recent years, there has been a boom in rocks
ornamental in the professional field.
A mining engineer has the specific knowledge for his specialty.
application, management and direction, for the use of natural resources of
theEarthapplication of the same in the construction of materials
necessary for the development of thesocietycurrent and future; as well as the
creation and proper management of thesources of energyAll of this while maintaining
the balance with thenaturebeing the mining engineer an expert in the
wealth creation and sustained development, compatible with the rest of
activities that society demands.

UNIT I

BASIC MINING CONCEPTS

Mining is the productive activity through which areas are identified with
presence of minerals, they extract and process them so that we can count
with the metals we use in our daily activities (copper, gold, silver, etc.).
The diversity of minerals found throughout the national territory opens
the possibility of exploitation in many places providing direct work and
indirectly to many people.
And by exporting minerals, the country receives foreign currency that is useful for our
development, thus it generates a significant income of foreign currency to the national economy.
Miners are committed to exploiting and using natural resources from
efficiently, taking care of the environment, respecting the diversity of cultures,
customs and principles of our communities, acting with
social responsibility and complying with the laws.

MINING AS SCIENCE AND AS ART

Themining engineersThey use scientific and engineering principles to
extract y process the resources natural of the Earth.

The first task of a mining engineer is to find the right place to

excavate and build a mine. To do this, he works closely with
other specialists, in particular,geologists, who are specialists in the work
of to find deposits natural.

Mining as art showcases creativity in using, creating, and designing in

consequence explode. Mining engineers use computer technology
for the design of the mine. For example, they can make use of theassisted design
by computer (CAD) to create a three-dimensional model of the mine
proposal.

They study the options in great detail, including the size and location of
an open sky tunnel, and the axis systems. Then, they work again with
geologists to find out important factors, such as strength of the
rock and the ventilation of the tunnels, so that the extraction process is
sure.

Once the excavation work at the mine has started, the

Engineers supervise the drilling and blasting work. They choose a system.
the safe ventilation of potentially hazardous substances, and it
they are responsible for the removal of dust and gases from the work area.

Mining engineers can work in transportation and network areas.

communications. They design roads, railway links at ground level, facilities
port y accommodations for mine workers.

They are responsible for recovering valuable minerals and metals, as well as the
research and development of ways to separate mineral resources and
process them by crushing before grinding. They also use processes
chemicals y biological methods to separate some metals from others.

Mining engineers can coordinate the work of a team of

workers, including other engineers and repair workers
mines. They can specialize in a particular area of work, such as in the
development, exploration or extraction of materials in the mine.
MINERALS:

Concept: Minerals are natural substances that originate in the layer

Earth's rocky layer (lithosphere), and they are characterized by having a structure
homogeneous and a well-defined chemical composition. The minerals are
they are found, naturally, as part of the rocks. Rarely do they
They are found in isolated form. There are 3,500 known types of minerals in the
current affairs.
To understand what a mineral is, we can study some of its
characteristics:

It is found in nature, that is, it is not manufactured.

It has a fixed geometric structure, therefore it is solid.
It is of inorganic nature. The shell of a mollusk is not a mineral,
even if it contains minerals.
It has a fixed chemical composition. Although, sometimes, it may contain
a pollutant substance that changes its color.

Minerals are often found in nature forming masses.

inside the rocks. Then it is referred to as a vein or lode of a certain
mineral. Its discovery and exploitation determine mining activity

Origin of minerals: The origin of minerals is multiple, it is known

more than 5300 types of minerals and between 50 to 80 types continue to be found each
year, this great diversity is directly related to the variety of
chemical elements found in the earth, just like the high
temperatures and pressure to which these elements have been subjected during
the formation of the Earth's crust.
Taking into account that the most abundant elements in the Earth's crust
Oxygen and silicon are frequently found in minerals of type
silicates like quartz that are composed of these elements.

The geological processes required to give rise to minerals are

of the following types:

Important factors in the origin of minerals

o Formation temperature: It is thetemperatureto which it crystallizes
the mineral ranges from low temperatures when the formation occurs
in sedimentary rocks, up to very high temperatures when the
formation occurs in igneous rocks.
oPressure in training: The other important factor in training or
the origin of minerals is pressure, this factor is especially
relevant in metamorphic origin minerals.

Geological factors
It should be clarified that minerals are not the same as rocks; rocks
they may or may not have minerals in their composition and when they do have them, they can
being of different types, for example, a rock like granite is formed by
types of quartz. Geological factors also influence the origin of the
minerals through:

oIgneous processes: These processes refer to the minerals that

they come from volcanic magma found inside the
earth's crust, these processes produce various types of
minerals like metallic ones.
oMetamorphic processes: It is the formation of minerals through changes
of temperature and pressure, this type of process results in
minerals like marbles and garnet. This procedure is not usually
to yield metallic minerals.

Physicochemical processes
The physico-chemical processes are divided according to the source of energy that
originate the minerals:

oEndogenous: They are the mineral formation processes that depend on

from the thermal energy of the Earth's crust, occur at
high temperatures and pressures. The crystallization processes of the
magma rocks range between 700°C and 1200°C, with pressures
ranging from 500 kilo bars to 5500 kilo bars.
oExogenous: Exogenous processes occur on the surface of
the earth or very close to it, occur due to the action of the
biosphereatmosphereand the hydrosphere over the lithosphere. They produce a
destruction of already formed rocks and minerals creating new ones
minerals. Exogenous processes are very varied but the most
Sedimentation and weathering are important.
Mineralogenesis

Magmatic
Magmatic minerals, as their name indicates, originate from
magma, it has a great diversity of elements in its composition, steam of
water and other gases. The phases of the magmatic process associated with the origin of
the minerals are:

oOrtho-magmatic phase: It goes from the highest temperatures of the

magma up to 1000°C. The first minerals to crystallize
olivine, pyroxene, and accessory minerals such as diamond, with
subsequently the amphiboles and biotite, then the plagioclases and
finally the quartz.
oPegmatitic phase: At temperatures below 1000°C and up to
At 600°C, many gases are produced; these penetrate the cracks and
cavities in rocks already formed giving rise to crystals like the
aquamarine, topaz, beryl and tourmaline among others.
oPneumatic phase: At temperatures ranging from 600°C to the
At 400°C, many gases tend to escape through the
fractures, and that when they react with already formed minerals they give
as a result new minerals such as topazes and garnets.
oHydrothermal phase: At less than 400°C and up to ambient temperature
minerals are produced from hot aqueous solutions that
they are deposited in fractures forming veins or impregnating rocks
porous, as a result, sulfide minerals such as crystallize.
pyrite.

Origin of sedimentary minerals

These minerals are formed when rocks undergo weathering processes.
The free minerals are deposited or transported by the
water currents until they settle. Through this process, it is possible to
form deposits of precious minerals such as gold and platinum.

oMetamorphic

Regarding the origin of metamorphic minerals, it is important to highlight that they are minerals
formed by changes in the physical and chemical structure of rocks
caused by variations in temperature andpressure. The main types
of metamorphism are:

o Contact: These new minerals are produced when magma passes.

in the cracks and fissures of already formed rocks, the contact of this
Material at high temperature leads to the formation of minerals.
new that is related to the type of rock, for example, if it is
silicates are produced from dolomite.
 oRegional: It occurs at the edges of the convergences of the
tectonic plates.

Classification of minerals
Chemical classification divides minerals into groups based on their compounds.
chemicals. Any known mineral can be integrated within these
groups, as almost all of them include one of these
compounds.

Native elements: they are those found in nature in

free state, pure or native, without combining or forming compounds
Chemicals. There are approximately 50. Examples: gold, silver, sulfur.
diamond.

oSulfurcomposed of various minerals combined with the

sulfur. There are approximately 300 examples: pyrite, galena, sphalerite,
cinnabar.
oSulfosalesminerals composed of lead, silver, and copper
combined with sulfur and some other mineral like arsenic,
bismuth or antimony. Examples: pyrargyrite, proustite.

PROUSTITA

Oxides: product of the combination of oxygen with an element.

Examples: olivine, corundum, cassiterite, bauxite.

 CORUNDUM

oHalidescompounds of a halogen with another element, such as the

chlorine, fluorine, iodine or bromine. Examples: common salt, halite.

HALITA

oCarbonatessales derived from the combination of carbonic acid

and a metal. Approximately 200 examples: calcite, azurite, marble,
malachite.
 CALCITE

oNitrates:sales derived from nitric acid. Examples: sodium nitrate (or

from Chile), saltpeter or potassium nitrate.

NITRATE

oBoratosconstituted by mineral salts or esters of boric acid.

Ejemplos: borax, rasorita.
 BORAX

o Phosphates, arsenatesyold datasales or esters of the acid

phosphoric, arsenic, and vanadium. Phosphates are approximately
aproximadamente 200 ejemplos: apatita, turquesa, piromorfita.

APATITE

Sulfates: salts or esters of sulfuric acid. Examples: gypsum,

anhydrite, barite.
 BARITE

Chromates, tungstates, and molybdates: compounds of chromium,

molybdenum or tungsten. Examples: wolframite, crocoite.

CROCOITA

Silicates: silicic acid salts, the fundamental compounds of

the lithosphere, forming 95% of the Earth's crust. They are
approximately 500 examples: silica, feldspar, mica, quartz,
pyroxene, talc, clay.
 Feldspar

Radioactive minerals: compounds of emitting elements

radiation. Examples: uraninite, thorinite, thorianite.

TORITA

CLASSIFICATION OF MINERALS BY THEIR

OCCURRENCE AND ITS UTILITY:
It is called that the set of all the leftover minerals that are found
associated with the lamena in the rock extracted from a deposit. Laganga makes that
the metal law decreases, so it is necessary to separate it from lamena, as
first stage in the concentration and extraction of the metal.

4.1. Mena
Unamenade onechemical element, generally ametalit's amineralremove
which can extract such element because it contains it in sufficient quantity
in order to take advantage of it. Thus, it is said that a mineral is an ore of an element
chemical, or more specifically of a metal, when through a process
ofminingthat mineral can be extracted from adepositand then,
by means ofmetallurgyobtain the metal.1

4.2. Ganges
Lagangaes is a rock that is discarded when extracting [Link] adepositof
certainmineral, due to a lack of economic value or being too costly to
utilization. It is possible that a mineral considered as gangue in a
a deposit may be of interest in another, or that improvements in extraction techniques or
industrial uses make the processing of materials profitable
previously considered a bargain.
The profitability of a mine depends on its richness in the expected metal, thus
as in the way it is presented. If the ore and the gangue are found
mixed, and the physical and chemical processes of separation and preparation are
too expensive, the ore may not be profitable. The ore is not profitable either.
whose volume is limited, or that whose situation prevents exploitation.
accessible.
METALLIC MINERALS.

Metallic minerals are non-renewable resources. renewablethat are present in

theearth's crustin large quantities and that are produced naturally
in rare concentrations. As can be assumed, they contain one or more
metal elements, which is why many have a characteristic shine. The
mineral deposits are formed by a wide variety
ofmineralsthat contain valuable metals for the beinghuman, like thegold,
thecopper, thenickel, theleadand thezinc. They are extracted in areas where they are concentrated.
as a consequence of natural processes such as thepressurethe heat,
theorganic activities, among others. These processes last for
millions of years. To separate the metal from the ore, it is necessary to break it and
chemically treat it.
Among the most important metallic minerals, they can be grouped into a
modest list, the most widespread based on their economic importance and
from the exploitation of man, therefore we have:

Iron: This transition metal is the fourth most abundant element.

in the Earth's crust, representing 5%, it is malleable, gray in color
silver-colored and exhibits magnetic properties, extremely hard and
heavy.

Gold: It is a soft, shiny metal with a yellowish color, which

it is ductile and malleable, it is also considered a heavy metal. Gold
does not react with most chemicals, but is sensitive
to chlorine and aqua regia. This metal is normally found in a state
pure, in the form of nuggets and alluvial deposits.

Platinum: It is a grayish-white transition metal, precious,

heavy, malleable and ductile. It is resistant to corrosion and is found in
different minerals, often along with nickel and copper; also
can be found as metal. It is used in jewelry, equipment of
laboratory, contacts electric, fillings and catalysts of
automobiles.
Nickel: Nickel is a chemical element that appears in the form of
metal in the meteorites together with iron (forming the
kamacite and taenite alloys) and is found in the Earth's core
also alongside iron and iridium, forming among these three metals a
incredibly hard and heavy alloy. Combined is found
in various minerals such as garnierite, millerite, pentlandite, and pyrrhotite.

Copper: It is a reddish-colored transition metal with a metallic luster.

which, along with silver and gold, is part of the so-called family of
copper, is characterized by being one of the best conductors of
electricity (the second after silver). It was one of the first
metals in being used by humans and it is the third most metal
used in the world, behind iron and aluminum.
Aluminum: It is a non-ferromagnetic metal. It is the third element.
most commonly found in the Earth's crust. The compounds of
Aluminum makes up 8% of the Earth's crust and is found
present in most rocks, of the vegetation and of the
animals. As metal, it is extracted solely from the mineral known as
the name of bauxite, by transformation first into alumina through
the process Bayer and a continuation in aluminum metallic
through electrolysis.

Chrome: Chrome is a hard, brittle, steel-gray transition metal.

brilliant. It is very resistant to corrosion and is used
mainly in metallurgy to provide resistance to corrosion and a
glossy finish.

Selenium: Selenium can be found in various allotropes.

Amorphous selenium exists in two forms, the vitreous, black one, obtained by cooling.
quickly the liquid selenium and the red, colloidal, which is obtained in
reduction reactions; selenium is used in various
electrical and electronic applications between other cells
solar panels and rectifiers.

Lead: It is a heavy metal with relative density or specific gravity,

silver-colored with a bluish tone, which fogs up to acquire a
matte gray color. It is flexible, inelastic and melts easily. The
The most commonly used lead compounds in industry are oxides of
lead, tetraethyl lead, and lead silicates.

Uranium: Uranium has the highest atomic weight of all.

elements found in nature, is approximately a
70% denser than lead, though less dense than gold or
tungsten. It is slightly radioactive and occurs in nature in
very low concentrations (a few parts per million or ppm) in
rocks, soil, water, and living beings. For its use, uranium must be
extracted and concentrated from minerals that contain it, such as by
example lauranite.
 Vanadium: It is a ductile, soft metal of silver-gray color and little
abundant. It is naturally found in different minerals; there are about
of 65 different types and in fossil fuel deposits and
is mainly used in some alloys.

As we can see, metal minerals are important in all

our activities, fundamentally as raw materials, representing
an important potential to develop.

NON-METALLIC MINERALS
Non-metallic minerals make up the majority of our planet, these
They can be found in three states of matter at room temperature:
solid, liquid, and gas. Solid non-metallic minerals can be hard.
as hard as diamond or soft as sulfur. They vary greatly in their appearance, not
They are shiny and the temperature required to melt them is lower than those
of metals (although diamond, a form of carbon, melts at 3570
Many non-metallic minerals are found in all living beings:
carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, phosphorus, and sulfur in quantities
important. Others are trace elements (these are minerals that the organism
requires in extremely small amounts - less than 100 mg daily
like fluorine, iodine, arsenic, magnesium, silica, and chromium.

The minerals non-metallic that he they find in

our country, are scattered in a prospective manner for exploitation in
some states, including Zulia, Falcón, and Lara; but they are located
scattered throughout our geography, as previously mentioned, are
the most abundant minerals on our planet. Some of these minerals
non-metals are:
clay, sands and sandstones, barite, bentonite, kaolin, quartzites, dolomite,
feldespatos, granito, mármol, gravas, caliza, pirofilitas, sal común, sílice, talco,
gypsum, phosphate rocks, sulfur, limonites, slates, schists, micas, coal
diamond, granite, phyllites, basalts, among many others.

As can be seen, there are minerals as such on that list, but likewise
there are three types of rocks, namely, igneous, sedimentary
and metamorphic. The uses given to non-metallic minerals are very
varied and extensive, so I will mention the most common ones:

Arena: fundamentally composed of silica. It is used for the

manufacturing of crystals and concrete, essential for construction of
any building.
Cal: formed by calcium and oxygen. Used since antiquity in the
construction of housing, and even in their painting.
Limestone: rock formed mainly by a compound of calcium, found
commonly in nature as a reservoir of hydrocarbons. Used
for the manufacture of cement.
Granite: formed by quartz, feldspar, and mica, is the main type of rock.
on the bark
land. Used in the construction of houses and public buildings due to
its durability.
Gypsum: used in various industries, including in the industry of the
construction for the
cement manufacturing and drywall, as thermal insulation, as well as for the
manufacturing of
molds (used by dentists or sculptors) and chalk for blackboards. It is used in
agriculture
as a fertilizer because its chemical composition is rich in calcium and
sulfur
Clay: known since ancient times, was used in the manufacturing of
ceramics due to
its great plasticity, as well as for construction. In modern times it has
was used for the
manufacturing of brick, porcelain, and earthenware, as well as in industrial processes
like that of
manufacturing of cement and paper.
Sulfur: used in various industries, such as for the
manufacturing of
car batteries, gunpowder, as fertilizer in agriculture and as a fungicide
(anti-fungi)
in goldsmithing for the oxidation of silver, in rubber production, in the
industry
winemaking, among others.
Barite: it is a mineral of the sulfate type and is commonly found.
with the minerals
metallic. It is used as a pigment, in the production of hydrogen peroxide,
for the
preparation of sludges used in the extraction of oil and natural gas, in the
manufacturing of
synthetic resins and glass.
Bentonite: type of clay used in construction for
land support and
as sealing material, for the production of lubricants, in the manufacturing
of mud for
the extraction of hydrocarbons, among others.
Anthracite Coal: a variant of mineral coal, is used as fuel.
in the most
various industries: electricity generation, foundries, cement, and
even for
domestic use.
Diamond: derived from carbon, its utility varies in its type and can be used
in the jewelry industry, in drilling
oil lots, and for the cutting of pieces due to their high level of hardness.
Mica is found in nature alongside minerals such as quartz.
Thanks to your
heat resistance, as well as its elasticity, is used as an insulator
electric and thermal
for the protection of machines.
Common salt: or better known as table salt. It is found in the
salt flats and it is
composed of sodium and chlorine, widely used in cooking universally
for
season and preserve food.
Talc: white or blue in color, it is used in various industries including
for manufacturing
of paper, in the cosmetic industry to prevent skin irritation, and
even as part
of some plastics.
UNIT II

THE ROCKS:
Rocks can be classified by their composition, permeability,texture, but
The usual practice is to classify them based on their origin, that is, based on how
be han formed. According to this they exist 3
groups: sedimentary, metamorphic, and magmatic (or igneous):
Classification:

Sedimentary rocks: They originate from the deposits resulting

from the action of external geological agents (rivers, glaciers,
wind, ...) on any rock, just as by chemical precipitation
the biochemistry of substances dissolved in water. They form in areas
superficial of thebarkterrestrial and, therefore, under conditions
low P (pressure) and T (temperature) relatives.

Clay (sedimentary rock)

Metamorphic rocks are formed by the transformation of any type of

rock due to the effects of high P and/or T, but without reaching the
fusion of minerals. They originate in the interior of the Earth.
 slate (metamorphic rock)

oLasmagmatics come from the solidification of amagmathe

cooling (magma consolidation). They can form inside
from the Earth or on the surface.
The processes that transform some rocks into others are
the external geological processes and the internal ones. The former occur in the
surface of the Earth y son
theweathering, erosion, transportysedimentationall of them produced
by the different external geological agents. The second ones occur in the
interior of the Earth and are among other things the melting and solidification of rocks
due to variations in P and T.

granite (magmatic rock)

Through weathering, erosion, transport, and sedimentation, any type of rock

the terrestrial surface (sedimentary, metamorphic, or igneous) is altered and
after their fragments (sediments) are deposited, which little by little
They will convert into sedimentary rocks. These, when buried, undergo increases
of P and T that cause them to transform into metamorphic rocks. If P and T
they continue to rise, they merge and give magmas that can cool in the
interior or exterior (when ejected by volcanoes), originating in
both cases igneous rocks.

Due to movements of the lithosphere and other factors, any rock of the
surface can be buried and/or undergo high P and T that turn them into
metamorphic, a rock can also melt at a given moment and originate
after magmatic rocks, or a rock from the interior can remain in the
surface and start the cycle from the beginning.

MINERAL DEPOSITS
A mineral deposit is a natural concentration of minerals in the crust.
terrestrial. The concentration of a certain mineral is called the "grade" of a
mineral deposit. Within mining, a mineral deposit is classified
for mineral concentration grades high enough that
economic sea for mining exploitation to extract them. Essentially, this
means that for each ton of rock that contains the desired minerals, the
costs of removing minerals from the rock and separating the element from the
minerals are lower than the value of the material per ton of rock. The rock
What is worth extracting is called mineral.
While natural processes lead to the local concentration of minerals
metallic, metals are distributed all over the earth, even in the water of
sea and organisms, including our own bodies.

TYPES OF MINERAL DEPOSITS

There are many natural processes that result in the concentration of minerals.
that contain minerals, creating mineral deposits. These are the most
habitual
Deposition of salts and minerals from the evaporation of lakes and water
from the sea (for example, deposits of salt, nitrate, and potash)

Ancient chemical deposition of minerals in the ocean floor

marine. For example, iron was deposited in layers on the bottom of the
It was formed billions of years ago as the mineral oxide hematite.
Today, these layers of iron-rich rock are called formations.
iron with bands and are an important source of mineral of
iron in Australia, Canada, and Brazil.

The settlement of heavy minerals such as sulfides or oxides of

chromium in the background of a molten magma cooling chamber.
This gravitational process produces concentrations of minerals
heavy at the base of the chamber. Many nickel deposits,
platinum and chromium sulfide are formed in this way.

The simple erosion of rocks can leave behind a residue of soil.

oxidation of concentrated metal minerals. In environments
tropical, the rocks that do not have enough metal to be extracted
they wear out on a soil called regolith or laterite. The oxides of
 aluminum and nickel can be concentrated because other elements are
they have eliminated as part of the process to the open air. The countries
tropical areas reap the rewards of their climate by providing to the
world its aluminum-rich eroded rock called bauxite, the source
world aluminum. The nickel laterite deposits also
they form in the open air and provide a large part of the nickel of
world.

The alluvial mineral deposits are formed by the

damage from the elements on the land. For example, those of the Himalayas.
they are being dragged and leveled at a rate of 1 kilometer of
elevation every million years. The rocks that contain minerals
metallic materials degrade due to this wear, they erode and
transported as particles of granite, gravel, and sand in streams and
rivers. The heaviest minerals such as gold, platinum, tin and
uranium is deposited at the bottom of streams and rivers where it
concentrate. This is the reason why the beds of streams,
ancient and current, are where search engines look for nuggets of gold
and other heavy metal minerals.

Hydrothermal mineral deposits form when the

minerals are deposited and concentrated from hot waters
(hydrothermal) that are heated by molten magma and
they are promoted to spring on the surface of the earth. The

metal sulfide minerals deposited by hot springs

they generally focus on the cracks and faults along the
Which fluids rise to the surface. Most of the
deposits of gold, silver, copper, lead, zinc and molybdenum are
they form in this way. Geysers like Old Faithful in
Yellowstone is the superficial manifestation of these systems.
hydrothermal sources that can provide geothermal energy and
mineral resources.
SUBTERRANEAN WORKS
It is the exploitation of mineral resources that is developed below the
land surface. The exploitation of a deposit through mining
underground mining is carried out when open-pit extraction is not possible due to
economic, social, or environmental reasons.
In comparative terms, the machinery used in underground mining
it is much smaller than the one used in open pit mining, due to the
limitations imposed by size.

A deposit is exploited underground when it presents a

sterile cover of thickness such that its extraction from the
surface proves uneconomical
• Mining Development: It is any excavation that is carried out in waste material.
It aims to be able to access a mineralized body.
Mine Preparation (underground mining): It is all excavation
that takes place inside the mineralized body and has the function of
to facilitate the start-up, extraction, and transport of the mineral
WHAT IS THE OBJECTIVE?
The objective is to extract the rocks that contain minerals of
deposits that are found under a cover of waste of thickness
considerable, for example inside a hill For this, buildings are constructed
underground work in the rock from the surface to access the areas
mineralized, underground work can be horizontal (tunnels,
galleries), vertical (shafts) or inclined (ramps) and are located in different
levels that allow to fragment, load and transport the mineral from the
the interior of the mine to the destination places generally located in
surface.

5. PERU A MINING COUNTRY

In
the

Peru, the oldest metallurgy dates back to the Chavín culture, which worked with gold.
mixed with silver and copper (a recount of metallurgy is carried out in the
pre-Columbian era. However, mining as the axis of the social system and
The economy begins with the Spanish conquest. The evolution of the economy.
Colonial was determined by mercantilist orientations, for
that its primary objective aimed at the maintenance of sovereignty and the
empire, strengthening national wealth in the metropole. Hence the achievement of
this goal would depend on the abundance of money through accumulation
of gold and metals
precious.
The interest of the conquerors and European explorers is evident.
for the precious metals that were abundant in the Andes. In 1532, the liberation
Inca Atahualpa demanded the transfer of large quantities of gold and silver.
the speed at which the metals were collected sparked the idea in the
conquistadors of
that Inca culture had an enormous wealth, the same that
they rushed to loot. Thus, during the time of the Conquest, two stages are observed:
a first in which the simple collection of precious metals occurs
accumulated by the Incas and a second in which the exploitation is carried out
mining deposits.
The Spaniards showed their interest in sources of gold and silver, focusing their
attention to the mines that had given such riches. However, it was not easy
to find them. In the time of the Incas, there was not much
systematic exploitation, given that gold and silver had no monetary value.
These were mainly displayed in objects owned by the nobility and
they were used as decorative elements. Thus, the Spaniards found few
mines in the pre-conquest, and the history of mining in Peru began, in
reality, with what happened in colonial and republican times. Under the
Spanish domination brought about several fundamental changes.
economic and social. Gold and silver were coveted as they were synonymous
of wealth: practically all the pieces of art disappeared in the
furnaces of the conquerors to be turned into ingots and coins. This
it gave a lot of sudden wealth to the Spanish Crown, which imported implements and
the appropriate technology for a more intensive exploitation of the
mining, also thanks to the use of the
indigenous force. While the Viceroyalty was being established, the possibility of finding
and looting treasures was coming to an end. Although it is true that they continued to organize
expeditions aimed at finding the mythical cities of gold, these never
they found. What the travelers discovered were some worked mines at
small scale since pre-Hispanic times, where metals, such as the
silver was mixed with other minerals. This situation
forced the organization of mining activity (Waszkis, 1993). The period that
it covers the years 1548-1578 and is of singular importance in the history of
mining in Peru. The civil wars between the conquerors ended and
a new era of peace and order began for the royal administrators. In
this period sees the discovery of the Potosí mine, in 1545, the first large-scale mine,
being very profitable in the exploitation of the mining wealth of the viceroyalty
(Waszkis, 1993). Almost at the same time as the discovery of Potosí, Santa is found.
Bárbara, near
Huancavelica (1563). This was the only significant mercury mine in the entire
South American continent. Thus, when the high degree of surface deposits
from Potosí gave way to lower grade minerals, the mercury from Santa Bárbara
it came like a fortune. In this way, it allowed for a second momentum to the
silver exploitation through the large-scale application of mercury in the
amalgamation. As a consequence, the continuous and massive flow of silver from
South America, mainly from Potosí, caused numerous changes in
Europe, both in finance and in trade and industry (Whitaker,
1941). The exportable product from the Huancavelica mine, the mercury in solution,
it was transported in large quantities and for many years towards the
Silver deposits of the Altiplano. The long journey of mercury to Potosí
it included sections by land, Huancavelica-Chincha, on the back of a mule and from
calling, maritime stretch Chincha-San Jerónimo-Arica and, from there, new
land route (Maldonado &
Estacio, 2012).

Peru is a country with a lot of potential in natural resources, constituting the

mining is one of the sectors with enormous development possibilities, therefore
promote investment both national and foreign in this area and create the
mechanisms that facilitate easy access to investments is one of the
state policy priorities.

The mining industry has become, and continues to be, one of the pillars
fundamentals of the national economy, which concentrates a series of
activities and processes where different areas of knowledge converge and
professional fields.

Within this perspective, we offer potential mining investors

nationals and foreigners this Manual designed with the purpose of
to provide them with basic guidance and provide them with updated information
about topics related to the development of the mining industry.

THE STONE AGE

The Stone Age corresponds to the first era or stage of what is known
like thePrehistoryIt is called that because stone was the material.
main and characteristic that was used in that time for the elaboration of
weapons, tools, and other objects to carry out daily life tasks.

Characteristics of the Stone Age

It took place after the glaciations.
It turned out to be a time of manyinventions and discoveries,
taking into account how little was had.
Elfuegose became the main element of evolution of the
man.
Lacaza and the fish improved a lot after the processing of
weapons for this purpose.

Navigation is known, with the creation of boats and canoes.

 Man developed his thinking ability much more.
After the glaciations, man began to leave behind his life
hownomadand enter into thesedentary lifestyle.
Although stone was the main material for weapons and tools,
it was also combined with other materials.
Agriculture began to develop as a result of the
sedentary lifestyle.

Stages of the Stone Age

The Stone Age is divided into several stages, which we will mention.
continuation:

PALEOLITHIC

o Lower Paleolithic: This period was the longest, as it

calculates that it began approximately in the year 2,500,000 B.C. and

culminated in 100,000 B.C. when man still had very

rooted nomadic customs, moving from side to side in
search for food, water, and a safe place to live for periods
very short in time. They used caves, some river terraces
and other small hidden and warm places. During this period the
man was characterized by being a hunter, gatherer, and fisherman for
survive. Moreover, it evolved into what it
known as Homo habilis, to later become a Homo
Erectus, with the same upright posture as modern man.
o Upper Paleolithic: This period lasted around 25,000 years,
from approximately 35,000 BC to 10,000 BC
where man evolves even further and reaches what is known
like Homo sapiens sapiens, which has even greater capacity
mental and better understanding to acquire new knowledge. In
this period perfects the technique of lithic toolmaking
adding the production of harpoons, spears, and knives, also
to develop art about hunting stories or other experiences.
 NEOLITHICAlso known as the New Stone Age, it was the
last period of the Stone Age and spanned from the year 5000 BC.
until around 3000 B.C. During this stage, it was known as the
sedentary culture, where housing was created to inhabit a region of
permanent way and develop agriculture and livestock to
stay fed. Furthermore, it was during this period that the
trade, establishing exchange as a means to survive. Now
they leave behind the predatory culture that lived off hunting and fishing

mainly, a commercial culture, based mainly on the

production.

MINES IN PREHISTORY

The distribution of mining operations for metallic minerals in the

Iberian Peninsula during Prehistory is intrinsically linked to
existence of the resources known at each moment. The mineralizations
Copper in the Iberian Peninsula particularly affects areas of Andalusia
(Huelva, Córdoba, Jaén, Sevilla), where there is the highest concentration of
sulfur deposits of the earth, Extremadura (Cáceres), Catalonia (Girona, Lleida)

Tarragona), provinces of the Cantabrian Mountain Range or nearby (Asturias,

León, Palencia), Galicia and Navarre.

AGE OF METALS

Stone Age From the appearance of man until the year 4000 B.C.
The Lithic or Stone Age extends from the first appearance of man.
until around 4000 B.C.

It corresponds to the time when man made almost all of his tools and
stone weapons.
In this period of thePrehistory, the man made of stone much of his
tools for work, hunting, and fighting (which he later made of bronze and, finally, of
iron, then called tools).

The use of stone did not exclude that of wood, pole, bone, ivory, etc., nor
at least some metals that are easy to work with, such as copper, gold, silver, and
lead. Although, it is true that stone was used more than other materials.

In the search for useful stones for the manufacture of their first
tools, surely the man came across some lumps of copper and
of malleable gold, since nature often provides them in this way.

The oldest artificially shaped metal objects of which there are

there is news about some copper coins found in northern Iraq; they
calculate the probable date of its manufacture between the eighth and ninth
millennium BC. Apparently, these pieces are made of natural copper and were
formed by hammer and anvil.

This era, most prehistorians divide it into two: age of

Bronze and the Iron Age.

5.1. Copper Age

since the year 6,500 B.C.

Copper was the first metal that prehistoric man began to use.
which was very easy to obtain and was found on the surface of the earth
mixed with other minerals. The first elements made from copper
they have been vessels, arrowheads, and tools for plowing the land. Also
it was used to make ornaments that were generally used in rituals
funeral.

But the fundamental contribution of the Bronze Age is that man discovers
that through smelting it can separate copper from the rest of the minerals. It
This is how metallurgy begins, and although copper is a soft metal (for the
the construction of weapons and tools was better with stone) its handling is
an extremely important step, as it represents the prelude to the creation of the
bronze. Bronze Age (starting around 2800 BC, approximately)

From the alloy of copper with tin, a more resistant metal results:
bronze. The first place where bronze was obtained is what is currently
we know asArmenia, in the year 2800 B.C., and it quickly began to
to market, with the Aegean Sea being the main area for the trade of this metal.
19.2 Age of Bronze

From the year 2500 to 1000 BC.

The first metal that men work with is copper, which gradually goes
replacing the stone, and from which similar instruments are made
those manufactured with it.

However, when copper is alloyed with tin and bronze is produced,

presents greater resistance and better quality for being worked on, then the
most of the instruments and containers used by men are made
with this material the Bronze Age begins, which in the economic life,
characterizes why agriculture achieves such development that it reaches for
to keep those men who are dedicated to exploiting and trading the
new metals.

InEuropethis period of thePrehistorybegan around 2500 BC and

ended around 1000 B.C.

The Age of Bronze gives rise to a culture that was distinguished by the use of the
bronze for the production of weapons, decorative objects, and various utensils.

From theIberian Peninsula(Almerian and Argatic cultures) expanded,

from the valley ofGuadalquivir Riverto the North, the glass culture
campaniform, sign of the beginning of the Bronze AgeEuropeanIn Galicia, one
they were finding the richest tin deposits, which was necessary for the
the production of bronze (which is an alloy of copper and tin). Meanwhile, the
the richest copper mines were located in the Portuguese Algarve and in the
Province of Huelva(Andalusia, Spain), whose exploitation began in
distant times.

The swords found in the estuary ofHuelvaconfluence of the riversRedy

Odielthey are very characteristic: the blade and the handle are made of a single piece
of casting, and along the blade runs a central rib. In the findings of
HuelvaThe tips and the spearheads are very abundant. In all these
pieces draw analogies with those used inEuropeWestern.

A foundry workshop needed, in addition to furnaces, crucibles, spoons,

funnels, matrices, hammers, anvils, files and instruments for engraving and
to chisel.

19.3. Iron Age

From the year 1000 to the 6th century BC.

The Iron AgeEuropeanstarts around 1000 BC and ends in the century

I am C.
Iron minerals are very diverse and abundant. They are found both in the
land surface as in the underground. The work of iron and, especially,
The extraction of its minerals is very difficult and requires high temperatures.
The steel industry began humbly, initially producing objects.
of decoration and later farming tools and instruments of peace (such as axes of
car, chains, etc.)

For quite some time, weapons made of bronze continued to be manufactured, but when
the man had weapons and iron work tools, being true
tools, new times opened up for him, ways of living different from
the pasts.

This period begins with the culture of the urn fields and the condition for its
the emergence was the existence of iron ore deposits and the
foundries, in addition to the existence of exploitable salt mines.

In this way, mining and metallurgy set in motion a social structure.

increasingly defined: farmers, artisans, merchants, etc.

One of the most important features of this stage is its swords,

that first they were made of bronze and later of iron. They also appeared
the fibulas (buckles, safety pins), which replaced the large needles of the
culture of urn fields. At first, the remains continued to be buried
incinerated mortals. Later, it changed to burial in mounds.
placed on cars. Finally, in late times, the death of the lord gave
place for the sacrifice of his wife and his servants, who were buried with him.

But these activities bring with them the exploitation of some and the
enrichment of others.
MINING IN EGYPT.
The Egyptians had gold mines mainly in the eastern desert.
(between the Nile Valley and the Red Sea) both in its territory and in Nubia.
Except for the gold nuggets from secondary deposits found in places like
Umm Eleiga could have been collected by pre-dynastic populations from
desert, most of the Egyptian gold comes from the exploitation of gold
primary in mines where, at best, the average is around 30
grams of gold per ton of material worked (fig. 3), although in many
places this relationship is reduced to 1-10 grams of gold per ton of material,
figures that give a real idea of the cost of obtaining it.

Spectacular collar of King Psusennes I (circa 1000

a.C.) composed of hundreds of gold beads
9 mm in diameter. The necklace was found by
Pierre Montet in 1940 in the intact tomb of
monarch (Cairo Museum)
 Gold-bearing quartz from the mine of
Hangaliya (Egypt). The Egyptians had to process
tons of material in order to achieve
a few grams of gold (Photograph by Richard of

The Egyptian explorers realized that the green spots of

Malachite could indicate the presence of gold in gold-bearing quartz veins.
Since the first dynasties, almost 5000 years ago, they began to use
mortars and heavy stone hammers to crush the quartz out of the
mines. Probably, the miners of the Ancient and Middle Empire were
desert inhabitants employed by the Egyptians but starting from the Empire
New, when the exploitation of the Nubian mines increases, the
mining populations grew significantly.

Anvil y
hard stone mortar, generally dolerite, andesite, or graywacke, used
for the reduction of the pieces of quartz extracted from the mine (Photograph
Rosemarie and Dietrich Klemm.
The gold-bearing quartz mines exploited by the ancient Egyptians are very
easy to identify, as their technique essentially consisted of following the
gold-bearing quartz veins. Since they are not very wide, the excavation
generally took the form of a trench. But we also found wells and
galleries. An example of this, from the Byzantine era, can be found in Bir.
Umm Fawakhir.

MINING IN ROME.
Laminating was one of the main activities carried out by the Empire.
Roman in the northwest Iberian Peninsula. The presence of gold and other minerals
it served as an incentive for Rome to decide to settle in Asturian lands,
lionesses and Galician.
In the land of Asturias, mining had its origins in the Neolithic and until the arrival of
Rome was characterized by being small farms intended for
to supply goldsmiths and blacksmiths. With the arrival of Rome these forms of
exploitation was considered unproductive due to a reduced number of
miners and because their tools and techniques were somewhat archaic. The Empire
imposed a much more abrasive mining with the environment and much more
productive, however, this productivity did not enrich the indigenous people, as
on the contrary, the majority of the extracted mineral was immediately sent to
Rome. The mines and the land assigned to them were publicly owned.
at no time were they privatized and everything that was extracted belonged to the State
many of the indigenous people were converted into slaves and
condemned to perform forced labor, others continued to be workers
free but with the difference that now they were salaried, the workers of
the mine could not dispose of the mineral, in exchange for their work they received a
economic remuneration that was set by the prosecutors.

TYPES OF MINING CARRIED OUT BY THE EMPIRE

ROMANO.

Among the extraction methods practiced during the Romanization in the

In the northwestern peninsula, the batting, the open-air trenches, and the ruin stand out.
mountain. Mining work was seasonal; during the winter the mines
mountain ones were paralyzed due to the harshness of the weather, with the arrival of the
warmer months, activity resumed from spring.

The technique of batting was a form of mining that was already used in ancient times.
pre-Roman, with the arrival of Rome it continues to be done, Pliny mentions this
way of extraction gold of rivers with wood shavings, (gold deposited in the eddy)
from the river) and the Romans used it as a means of systematic prospecting. The
the quality of the area could be verified based on the gold found in a
concrete basin. The people in charge of the basins were called aureans and
aureanas, these people were the ones who conducted the different samplings in
the riverbanks, for this they collected soil from the riverbed in a kind of
with a bowl and small circular movements they managed to separate the
gold from the rest of the sediments, the amount of nuggets or flakes deposited in the
The pan allowed one to get an idea of the gold that could be obtained in that land.
Among the places that experienced the strike, the basins of the Eo River stand out,
from the Navia River and the Navelgas River, in this latter locality is located
currentlythe gold mining museum.
Another method of extraction was the open-pit trenches or aurum talutium.
where gold used to be found on the surface, in free state or combined with sulfides,
the extraction work was done by breaking the rock and creating passages to
open sky to then wash the excavated earth. This form of extraction
it was used to make larger prospecting after the pan, it was a
second step to confirm the presence of gold, indicated what could
to be found underground in order to carry out a large exploitation. This type of
mining has been found in Ablaneda, Santiago de Cerredo, Lavadoira or
Iboyo among others.
Elaurum aurrigaese has identified with exploitation through alluvium to
open sky and the aurum canalicium with the gold obtained through galleries and
underground wells. Both forms are related to laruina montium,
this was the most productive method of extraction and the one that required a number
greater number of workers. To extract the mineral through the ruin of the mountains was
a prior preparation of the land is necessary.
First, prospecting was done with pans and trenches to locate the
gold-rich areas.

Secondly, the area was deforested and large channels were created.
(ancient) that carried water from the nearest river, spring, or fountain
up to the upper part of the area to be exploited and up to the washing areas, this water
was accumulated in reservoirs.
The third step was to prepare the underground galleries that could be
Cuniculi galleries were small tunnels used to locate the...
more profitable veins, and the braced galleries, much longer than the
previous ones aimed at transporting the mineral outside. Inside the mine
pits were also created, these were intended for ventilation, to the
vertical extraction of the mineral when it was in pure state and to create
corridors to be able to move from one gallery to another.
The last section of the mine corresponded to the channels and washing areas and the
waste area. The washing channels were conduits made with
wood in whose soil were placed plant meshes intended to trap the
mineral, the gold, being heavier, remained trapped at the bottom and the rest of
sediments were carried by the water to the waste areas, place
where the rest of the stones, earth, etc. was poured.

PERUVIAN MINING
Its geological wealth, the availability of cadastral and geological information of
quality, the offer of top-tier suppliers and the promoter legal framework
the current private investment in the country makes Peru one of the
most attractive destinations for mining investment in the world.

Peru is a country with an ancient mining tradition, a tradition that it maintains and cultivates.
thanks to the presence of leading companies at an international level. We have
a huge geological potential, the presence of the Andes mountain range to the
Throughout the territory, it constitutes our main source of mineral resources.
Worldwide and in Latin America, Peru ranks among the top.
producers of various metals, (gold, silver, copper, lead, zinc, iron, tin,
molybdenum, tellurium, among others), which reflects not only the abundance of
resources and the production capacity of Peruvian mining activity, but of
the stability of economic policies in our country.

The minerals produced in Peru are in high demand in the market.

current world, whose development is based on production and industry. States
United States, China, Switzerland, Japan, Canada, and the European Union are the main ones.
claimants.

UNIT III

MINING PROCEDURE AND BENEFIT

Mining Procedure:
CLASSIFICATION OF MINING ACTIVITY

STAGES OF MINING ACTIVITY:

Prospecting: search for the mineral deposit (Staking) in areas with
geological anomalies. After the search, a petition for the area is made in
concession to the Public Mining Registry (100 hectares minimum).
Exploration: studies with more advanced techniques to develop the profile of
Deposit. If it is promising, further exploration to prepare the Study of
Project feasibility (calculation of reserves and extraction costs)
treatment). Then, searching for funding and obtaining
state authorizations to begin operations under regulations
environmental.
Development and Preparation: work to reach the ore,
two methods of exploitation:
Underground: different types of tunnels are used (galleries,
chimneys, shafts, ramps). Main mining tunnel: shaft.
Superficial or open cut.
 Exploitation: work that is carried out to extract the mineral, it depends on the
exploitation method:
Subterranean: drilling, blasting, hauling, transportation outside of the
mine.
Open pit or surface: drilling, blasting, loading, and transportation.
Concentration: once outside the mine, metallurgical treatment is given to the
mineral to increase its purity. Advanced technology allows recovery
minerals with low content.
Marketing of concentrates: sales to smelters and refineries in
Peru or abroad.
Foundries and refinery: casting (the largest amount is removed)
impurities through high temperatures) and refining (is achieved the
maximum purity.

MINING ACTIVITY: METALLURGICAL BENEFIT

In nature, pure or native metals are very rare, so

Occasionally, concentrations of them are found. Most of the metals
they are chemically associated with other elements forming
compounds known as minerals. To the process that involves extraction
The process specific to metal mining is called Metallurgy.

Metallurgy. It is the art of extracting metals from their ores, refining them and
prepare them for use. The process involves modifying the nature
chemistry of minerals to separate the metal from its compounds
sulfuric, oxides, silicates, or carbonates. These methods depend heavily
of the type of ore and its chemical composition.

The metals obtained by the different methods of extractive metallurgy,

they generally contain impurities such as: other metals, non-elements
metallic, small residues of slag and dissolved gases, which affect or
they favor the properties of the metal or metals of interest. The removal of such
impurities are necessary to allow the metal to be worked
subsequently. A metallurgical study aims to define a process
that achieves the maximum recovery of the metal at the lowest cost allowing
make a project viable.

Separating and extracting metals from mineral concentrates is a

delicate work that requires a lot of skill. It is currently done in
smelters or refineries and implies or may imply the benefit
The Transformation.
BENEFIT (refinement). A process or set of processes by which or
how the ore and the gangue are separated.
Washing. The sludge and organic material present in some are eliminated.
minerals.

Crushing. Decrease in the size of rock pieces

coming from of the mine.

Milling. Reduction of particle size relatively

thick remnants left by the crushing.

Homogenization. Mixing of the grinding to compensate for the

variations in grain size and chemical composition.

Classification. Separation of a mixture into two or more fractions

in base the size.

Concentration. Separation of the useful mineral or metal from the gangue.

Gravimetric. It takes advantage of the difference in densities of the material.

a separate use one large quantity of water

Flotation. It uses a complex physical-chemical process (reagents)

for the separation of material.

Magnetic. It takes advantage of the attraction of certain minerals towards a

magnetic field.
Flowchart for Mineral Benefits
TRANSFORMATION: mechanical or chemical modification of the mineral
extracted and processed through an industrial process, after the
which results in a different product that is not identifiable with the mineral in its
natural state.

Hydrometallurgy. Recovery of metals from their ores or from

their concentrates, dissolving them using some reagent to then
to precipitate it leaching

Pyrometallurgy. Heat is used for the extraction of metals.

(tostación, calcinación, coquización, fundición, cocción, secado,
refining, etc.).

Biometallurgy. Obtaining metal through a process entrusted to

the action of bacteria.

Electrometallurgy. It deals with the extraction and refining of metals.

for the use of electric current (electrolytic process or electrolysis).

BIBLIOGRAPHIC REFERENCES:
Thompson Mark (2001). Stone Age and the Metal Ages. Retrieved from
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James G. Introduction to the study of minerals and rocks. Retrieved from
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Drag W (2008). CLASSIFICATION AND CYCLE OF ROCKS. Retrieved from
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RodriguezR (2017). Non-Metallic Minerals. Retrieved from
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The world of metals (2002). Metallurgical processes and benefits.
Recovered of
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Francisco G (2008). Metal and non-metal minerals. Retrieved from

[Link]
Vassallo P (2016). Metallic Mineral Deposits. Retrieved from
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Crescencio C (2000). Generalities of Mineral Deposits. Retrieved from
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