Valve Train

Group No. 3:
BelovedYamil No. 54,270
Balbi Andres No. 54,647
Cabrera Alejo No. 54.725/7
Collada Gorosito María José No. 55,529/0
Moreno Mauro No. 54,656/2
 Kinematic Chain of the Distribution of
4-Stroke Internal Combustion Engines
Next, we will develop a general study of the mechanisms of
valve actuations in 4-stroke internal combustion engines
referring to all the elements that compose it, whether they are
springs, rods, strikers, etc.
We will also disclose the advantages of the different systems that
they exist in general.

Development
According to the arrangement of the valves, the engines are with Side Valves.
or with valves in the head.
The side valves or L-type, which were very popular in the past, are now
adopted only for small engines with low compression ratio, by
so much with relatively large combustion chambers.
We can mention engines like the well-known Villa of Argentine manufacture, or
some engines that the IKA vehicles brought in the 60s where
they were called 'Continental' engines.
The Valves to the Head are arranged at the top of the cylinder.
thus allowing a more compact and rational form of the chamber
combustion, achieving higher efficiencies in the engines.

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Valve:

The valve consists of two parts: 'the head', which is used to close the
pass light, and the 'stem' that is used to guide the movement and to
transmit the load of the return spring to the head.
The closure is made on a generally truncated conical surface of the
periphery of the head; this surface rests on a seat that has its
slightly narrower conical surface than that of the valve, ensuring
thus the airtight seal even if the valve wears out.
On very rare occasions, the conical surface is replaced by a surface
plane, normal to the axis of the stem. This solution allows obtaining the area of
desired gas passage with less valve displacement, therefore
That with equal acceleration, the valve can open and close in a time.
smaller, but the closure is not that good.
The valve opens by moving inward into the chamber of
combustion and this is favorable for the airtightness, because the pressure
the interior of the fluid opposes the opening. Next we see the figure of
a valve for a conventional 4-stroke engine:

The total displacement of the valve to open the duct ('lift') is

achieve at the right moment and time through an eccentric or
cam that rotates driven by the crankshaft. The cam transmits the movement
alternative to the valve through several different mechanisms depending on where it is
located the camshaft. If it is located in the engine block, it
They need a pusher, a rod, and a seesaw to transmit the
movement towards the top.
If the camshaft is located in the cylinder head, only with a
rocking in certain cases or a hat we achieve the movement
alternative in the valve that we need.

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Here we show the different types of valve actuators:

Figure 1 is a side camshaft that controls the valve via a rocker.

rod and rocker. The rest of the figures have a cam at the head,
some with rocker arm drive others directly on the stem
from the valve.
The distribution system using rods has been a configuration
traditional in combustion engines, but in recent times its
application has fallen out of use, in favor of distributions with one or more
overhead camshafts which directly operate the valves.
This system provides a number of advantages regarding distribution by
rods. Due to the mechanism of opening and closing of the valves
they carry out an alternative movement, the designers have sought a
drastic reduction of moving parts and weight, thus achieving a greater
duration of all mechanisms at high engine speed.
The valve and the pusher or rocker are kept in contact with the cam.
thanks to the action of a spring. This can be simple or multiple.
The operation of the intake valve must be such that it ensures the
maximum possible filling of the cylinder; that of the exhaust valve, such that the
compression in the exhaust (that is, the resistance to the passage of gases)
the burns) be as minimal as possible. To this end, it is necessary to meet
the following conditions:

a) opening and closing at the most appropriate moments.

b) Opening and closing as quickly as possible to achieve the maximum
passage section during most of the available time
for the intake and exhaust.
c) Minimal resistance to the flow of fluid.

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Hollow valves filled with sodium:

In high-power engines, subjected to hard work, this is used.

special type of valve that has the property of self-cooling at high
speed due to a procedure consisting of filling the interior of the
metallic sodium valves. Self-cooling is possible because sodium
it is an excellent thermal conductor that has a very low melting point (98º.
C) and has a density of 0.97 g/cm3.
Sodium becomes liquid when the engine is running and the forces of the
the masses shake it from one side to the other inside the shaft.
Sodium then conducts part of the heat generated during combustion.
from the valve dish to the stem sector. In that place, the
heat through the valve guide. The reduction of temperature
accumulated in the valve plate fluctuates between 80ºC and 150ºC
The side effect is weight loss.
Hollow and empty intake valves are used solely for the purpose of
reduce the masses.
Tempered seats coated with stellite: the exhaust valves
specials have to withstand great efforts due to the high
temperatures and wear. For this reason, it is necessary to reinforce its seat by
tempering or coating it with stellite, a suitable material for this type of
effort. In the case of high-performance engines, the valve seat
The admission is tempered by induction. This prevents the seats from wearing out.
by impacts.
Valve stem tip: the stem tip bears a great load.
for the activation of the valve (rocker, lifter, rod). To avoid a
premature wear in this area of the valve, it is induction tempered
tip of the same. When the type of steel with which the shank is made
it does not allow hardening, it is coated with stellite or a small plate is welded to it
temperate.

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Levers, Pushers, Rockers:

The valve remains closed thanks to the spring, and is opened by the cam.
Since the valve must open and close once for each cycle, the cam
must make one turn for each cycle, that is, in 4 engines
times, a turn every two of the crankshaft.
The organ in direct contact with the cam can have rectilinear motion.
if it is a pusher or curvilinear movement if it is about a
seesaw. The seesaw consists of a lever generally
articulated at a midpoint; however, it can also have the
articulation at one end. Rocker with intermediate articulation:

In the case of the pusher, the surface in contact with the cam can be
flat (flat heel) or convex (roller or skate) as shown in
the following figure:

The pushers and the rockers are equipped with a system of

regulation of the game or slack. Indeed, it is necessary to leave a small
game that allows variations in the length of the valve and the

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thermal deformations caused by temperature variations of the
cylinder, from the cylinder head and the parts of the distribution. The
game regulation is generally achieved with a screw or with
calibrated thickness shims (cup pusher).
In certain engines, automatic regulation has been introduced through
hydraulic pushers that operate by the action of oil pressure
lubricant.
One detail worthy of consideration is, for flat pushers, the
eccentricity with respect to the cam, this displacement generates a
rotation movement of the pusher around its own axis, so that
change the position of the contact, thus reducing the wear of the plate.
In the following figure, this detail is observed:

The displacement and the opening times of the valves defined by the
The distribution diagram is obtained by providing dimensions and shape.
suitable for the profile of the lever.
Theoretically, the best results would be achieved if it were possible to open and
close the valves instantly. The limitations due to the
mechanical solicitations, to the dimensions of the springs and to the
silent operation requires opening and closing valves gradually.

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Spring Load:

During sections 1-2 and 4-5, the inertia of the valve and the pusher is
opposes the movement and joining the load of the spring causes an increase
of load on the cam, while in sections 2-3 and 3-4 the inertia tends to
overcome the spring load and separate the pusher from the cam.
To keep the pusher in contact with the cam, the spring must
provide in sections 2-3 and 3-4 a load that activates the valve
and the organs interposed between it and the lever have a positive acceleration at
less than or equal to the negative acceleration determined by the profile.
Indicating with Amthe maximum negative acceleration (calculated for the
maximum number of engine revolutions) in m/s2, and with Q the mass in
Kg. of the parts that make up the valve control mechanism, the
load F that must be balanced by the spring at the maximum point
displacement will be given in N:

F = Q. Am

The spring is calculated so that its load is 1.3 to 1.5 F. This load, as
it has been said, corresponds to the fully open valve position; in the
instants when the valve is partially open the required load
it is smaller; the spring, by stretching, provides a respectively smaller load.
When a spring with evenly spaced coils is loaded slowly, the
total deformation is equally divided among the different coils because
each one is subjected to the same load. On the other hand, if the spring is
subjected to a sudden increase (or decrease) in the applied load, the
the inertia of the coils intervenes to modify the behavior, therefore

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that the coils closest to the end to which the load is applied
they experience an approach (or in their case a distance) that
transmits from one coil to the successive ones until reaching the opposite end
of the spring.
Therefore, under the action of the lever during the period of movement with
positive acceleration approaches the closest turns to each other
pusher, while in the period of negative acceleration the masses of the
spirals, when decelerating, produce an inertial force that has the same
direction that the movement produced by the cam, so that it
the most distant coils of the pusher come closer to each other. As a result
finally, it is found that the central portion of the spring moves closer
alternatively at one and the other extreme.

This phenomenon often causes the breaking of the springs. As in all

systems subjected to vibrations, the most dangerous vibrations are
they verify when there is "Resonance" between the exciting impulses and the
natural oscillations of the spring. This situation generally occurs at high
RPM and causes abnormal vibration in thevalve train, which that
it changes the opening and closing point of the valves. Under these conditions the
the motor loses synchronization and its performance is limited.
In such a case, the coils deform to a greater extent than expected in the
normal calculation and the spring may break.
Therefore, the previously described phenomenon must be taken into account and the
overloads that derive from it; it is sufficient to remember that the coils most
requested result to be those closest to the extremes, where
therefore, breaks always occur.
The problem can be solved by applying several springs.
(generally two) for each valve and making the thread pitch helix
variable, greater in the center than at the ends.
The experience gained from a large number of springs allows
establish the following conditions, valid for the best materials
suitable for this particular use:
1) it is not advisable to exceed the solicitation of the spring rod
limit of 750 N/mm2(77 Kg/mm2)

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 to eliminate any possibility of resonance with all harmonics
up to the 12th order inclusive, the natural frequency of vibration of
the spring should be at least 13 times the number of revolutions of the
distribution tree and therefore for the most part of the
automobile engines, where the camshaft rotates at about 2500
rpm, the values of the natural frequency of the springs are
around 33,000 cycles per minute (550 Hz) and more.

In the spring project, it is important to take into account the influence that
they have on the material's fatigue limit the working temperature and the
thermal treatment to which the spring has been subjected. Remarkable
the importance of the stabilization treatment that, once done to the
appropriate temperatures, eliminates internal tensions, prevents further
structural transformations at the operating temperature, and prevents in
consequence the decrease of the spring load after a brief
initial operating period of the engine.
It turns out that for the types of springs commonly used in engines
for self-vehicles it is impossible to increase their own frequency without
also increase the material solicitation.
The valve spring is made of high-tech alloy. It must
to have the same recovery strength throughout its useful life.
In racing engines, valve springs are crucial components.
so that the engine maintains its synchronization at maximum revolutions. The
The manufacturing of these components involves a long research work.
previous. View of some double springs used in vehicles
competition

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Game between valve and control organ:

It is necessary for there to be some play to allow for expansions.

thermal conditions that occur during the operation of the engine.
The exhaust valve stem is subjected to a higher temperature.
than that of the cylinder and for this reason it expands more: if in cold it does not
leave a sufficient clearance between the valve and the pushrod, when hot the head
the valve would remain separated from the seat even during the period of
closure because it would cause a leakage of gases and the valve
would soon be irreparably damaged by the absence of the
cooling that is normally achieved through contact with the
seat. This game is achieved through regulators in the rockers,
or in the case of a camshaft at the head with direct action on the
valves use perfectly calibrated pads in their thicknesses such as
is visualized in the following figures:

In vehicle engines, a variation of tolerance is normally adopted.

between 0.15 and 0.40 mm. The exhaust valve always has more play than
the admission one, because, like the exhaust one, it gets hotter than the one of
admission suffers a greater expansion.

The effective movement of the valve compared to the movement

defined by the lever:

If the valve movements are compared to those of the cam,

naturally taking into account the eventual relationship between the arms of
seesaw, launcher, rod, a certain discrepancy is discovered.
If the joint between the lever and the valve were composed of elements of
infinite rigidity, the valve displacements would correspond
exactly to those defined by the cam profile. But in reality the
set of mobile elements is composed of parts that present a
certain degree of flexibility, so the movements of the valve

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they differ slightly from the taxes imposed by the draft. Here it
appreciate a drawing that demonstrates the equivalent elastic system:

To modify the valve displacement, the also intervene

inertia forces originated by accelerated or decelerated movement of
the organs of the mobile system, which also cause variations in the
deformations.
At a high number of revolutions, another phenomenon intervenes to modify
even more the displacement of the valve with respect to that given by the cam.
It is about the vibratory movement of the cam-valve connecting chain.
according to the system's natural frequency.

Oscillatory movement that at high regimes may influence that of

the valve

The vibratory motion of the lever-valve connecting chain can

to provoke disturbances of notable magnitude, the most common of which
consists of noise, with clearly distinguishable different peaks, that
produce especially at a high number of revolutions. In the cases
more serious, coinciding with these highs, can have phenomena
of power instability and also prolonging operation
under these conditions, breakage of valves, springs, rocker arms, etc.
The problem arises when the valves start to bounce, that is to say the valves
they do not follow the lift profile. If this happens, it is likely that the pistons
they reach the upper dead point and touch the open valve giving rise to
the break.
Attempts have frequently been made to put an end to these phenomena by means of
totally empirical, either reinforcing the organs or limiting the
closing speeds and the accelerations of the valves, even at the cost of
a reduction in volumetric performance.

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It has been experimentally proven that variations in the law
imposed by the acceleration function of the cam on the kinematic chain of
command, and due to its elasticity, the actual movement of the valve can
present notable differences from what was initially planned, in the form of
transient oscillations superimposed on it. This phenomenon remains
significantly illustrated by the diagrams of figure 4 obtained
experimentally and which, compared to the theoretical ones, do not have in
it accounts for the vibratory movement, highlighting the superposition of a
oscillatory motion on the fundamental imposed by the cam.

The section of negative accelerations is particularly delicate, in terms of

they can lead to acceleration spikes that generate forces
higher than the spring load and cause the interruption of the chain
kinematics. The section of positive accelerations, increasing the value of the
force acting in the direction of closing the kinematic chain, does not influence
the regularity of the valve movement.
Usually, more springs are added, but by adding more
springs require greater forces to compress them, that is why
They place rods with a larger diameter to withstand buckling. Without forgetting
that the camshaft is subjected to higher stresses, making it
surface treatments like nitriding, etc.
The oscillations of the movement at the close of the
valve, as far as impact speeds of the valve can be verified
against the seat much higher than the corresponding theoretical ones

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cam profile; the impacts against the seat can be so violent
to provoke the rebound of the valve mentioned above.
Logically, if the kinematic chain of the valve train is shortened, the
precision increases significantly. The deformation is, in this way,
despicable and only the elasticity of the distribution chain and its tensor
they could contribute to a delay with respect to what was projected.

Conclusion

The rod system has serious limitations for the engine to pass a
determined rotation regime. When placing the camshaft in the head,
removal of pushers, rods, and in many cases even the
balancers, allows the opening and closing control system of the
valves act more quickly, which means being able to reach
much higher turnover regimes.
Additionally, another supplementary advantage of the overhead camshaft is in
the reduction of weight, space, and number of moving parts in the engine. To
disappear the rods with their pushers and the accessories for their
coupling to the rockers, the number of necessary parts is reduced by 30%
to carry out the distribution, and on the other hand, the location of the camshaft
at the head, simplify the engine block design.
With the camshaft in the head, the cams act directly on the
Valve stems, through pushers, hydraulic lifters or the
traditional rockers, although the latter is already a less common practice
used. To avoid the wear that will be caused by the rubbing of the cams of the
tree on the valve stems, a snorkel is also used in
inverted glass shape having the advantage that it slides along
a perforated guide in the head large enough to accommodate
the spring set of the valve as if it were a hat. Also
The use of the valve spring is widespread as if it were a hat.
The use of hydraulic sights with adjustment is also widespread.
automatic and without play, which eliminates the
periodic adjustment operation and significantly reduces the noise level in
the distribution system.
The direct actuation of the valve from the same cam of the shaft,
greatly simplifies the operation of the valves and is a method
especially suitable for engines that reach high RPMs
and elevated powers. Given the great simplicity of this configuration,
it is also used in low displacement engines.

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We remember that for each type of control there is a past critical regime.
in which inconveniences such as noise, vibrations, movements are verified
uncontrolled valve activity and sometimes even the rupture of an organ.
The maximum revolution rates of engines with valves in the
The cylinder head operated by pushers and rockers is around
from 6000 to 7000 rpm for engines intended for cars
sporty and reach 8000 to 8500 rpm for small motorcycles
engine displacement (125 to 175 cc)3).
In racing engines with valves actuated directly with one or
better with double overhead camshafts reached, for displacements
units not exceeding 175 cm3even 11,000 to 12,000 rpm.
The advantage of one system over the other becomes evident, and the
current trend of engines to place camshafts at the head.

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