CHAPTER II

THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK

Background of the research

The purpose of the research study is to evaluate the

milk production performance in supplemented dual-purpose cows
with mango silage (Mangifera indica), in the production unit "Los
Samanes Located in the Muñoz Municipality, Quintero Parish, Sector 'El'
Manguito, from the State of Apure. Reason for which a review was carried out
relevant background to the research.
Suarez (2011), The research work of this author consisted of
banana silage as a feed supplement for cattle in the
second third of lactation. Evaluated three levels of banana silage in cows
sahiwall mestizas from 5 to 7 years of age the second third of lactation (8, 12
16 kg / animal / day), compared to a control treatment
(feeding with forages) through a completely block design.
azar (DBCA), evaluating different productive characteristics over 120
research days.
Establishing statistical differences (P < 0.05) between the different
evaluated and determined treatments that the best level used of
Banana reject silage was 16 kg, resulting in greater profit.
of weight and milk production in animals supplemented with this level
with a weight of 18.5 kg and a production of 13.54 liters/cow/day.
In contrast, the lowest productive response was obtained in the group.

control with a weight gain of 14.75 kg and a production of 8.28

liters/cow/day. On the other hand, the cost-benefit ratio was higher than
use 16 kg of rejected banana silage reaching an index of 1.12
USD while the control group was determined to have an index of just 1.10
USD, so it is recommended to use 16 kg/animal/day of silage of
banana rejection, as it has proven efficiency in production
considerably improving economic yields.
Botero (2011), According to his research work 'Consumption'
supplementary saline silage of ripe totumo fruit (Crescentia
you hear) in dual-purpose cattle.” Evaluated the results obtained
of supplementation with saline totumo silage on body weight and the
milk production of a group of dual-purpose calving cows.
The silage was prepared using ripe totumo fruit and salt.
common (NaCl) stored in a sealed container for 30 days. Not
significant differences (P > 0.05) in body weight were evidenced between the
two batches of cows nor for the experimental calves. One is found a
significant difference (P < 0.05) net income calculated from the sale of the
milk showed that the supplemented group produced 8.57% more than the group
not supplemented. The supplementation with saline silage was well accepted
for the cattle, the trial allowed the production of more milk and logically a
increase in net economic income.
In this same line of thought, the authors point out the possibility of
offer different lines of supplementation in dairy cows in production
in order to discover the nutritional requirements to elevate the
milk production using harvest residues of fruits and the same in
its entirety and with the advantage of availability in the area where it
they find the production units.
Milera (2012), in her research work titled Production of
milk in bio-sustainable and/or bio-diverse grazing systems, whose
the objective was to quantify results of different production systems in
which use woody perennial plants as a way to develop
reforestation and contribute to recovering soil fertility, the habitat of the
fauna and animal production.
To determine the nutritional value, the foliage was harvested in areas
Established without irrigation or fertilization, 10 species were evaluated: Albizia,
Poppy, Aralia, Bauhinia, Erythrina, Erythrina, Gliricidia, Leucaena, Mulberry
Mar Pacific, the crude protein (CP) contents of the foliage fluctuated.
between 11.6% (Bauhinia) and 24.9% (Erythrina), with the exception of the first
All were above 20 %.
The digestibility of organic matter (DOM), for its part, was in
the range 50.5–77.1% with the best result in the Mulberry and the worst for the
Erythrina. It is valid to take this important indicator into account at the moment
to select the species for a specific production process, due to
its meaning from a nutritional point of view, since high levels of
DMOs generally represent a better use of the constituents of
forage in question.
In the case of the digestibility of crude protein (DCP), Gliricidia was
the one with the lowest value (54.4%) and Albizia the one with the highest value (77.9%); however,

in the digestible crude protein (DCP), it was generally observed that

important variations (65.2–188.9 g/kg of DM). The worst result was the
registered in Bauhinia, since in the rest of the species they exceeded 134
g/kg of DM.
Although there were noticeable differences in the nutritional value of the
studied species, these can constitute an important source
alternative for ruminant feeding due to its high protein content
and should never be used as the sole food, but rather as a supplement in
diets whose base foods have a higher energy content for
avoid an imbalance.
Esquivel–Mimenza (2013), in their work titled: Availability
forage biomass under different dispersed tree species in pastures
of livestock farms. With the aim of measuring the effect of the type of cup
about the availability of forage biomass of brizantha grass (Brachiaria
brizantha) and its nutritional quality, growing under the canopy of isolated trees
compared to that established in full sun, the research was conducted
in a dry tropical ecosystem in Cañas, Guanacaste, Costa Rica, measurements were taken
the availability of biomass (SHB) and photosynthetically active radiation
(PAR) during three different periods (transition, dry, and rainy) through
a paired scheme studied the following species: Acrocomia
aculeate, Cordia alliodora, Guazuma ulmifolia, Tabebuia rosea, Enterolobium
cyclocarpum and Samanea saman dispersed in 60 pastures of Brachiaria
Brizantha on 16 cattle farms.
Of the six studied species, E. cyclocarpum had the highest
crown cover while A. aculeate had the least, the biomass
available harvested under the trees was significantly lower than the
compare it with that available in full sun for all species except A.
spiny, but the crude protein (CP) of the forage biomass was higher
under the canopy of all the trees compared to that of full sun, it is concluded
that the solar reduction caused by the tree canopy decreases the
forage biomass production and increases the available quality under its
cup whose variation depends on the type and size of the cup as well as the
epoch.

Theoretical bases

Sustainable Development

Defining sustainable development involves debating countless

concepts that combine different disciplines, where complexity and the
depths seem to have no limit. Masera et al (2008) and Astier et al (2008)
they indicated that the discussion on sustainable development was very broad and
complex, likewise Gallopin (2003) revealed that it was among the
most ambiguous and controversial concepts in literature mainly
because it had become a cliché and tends to be used and defined as
inconsistent manner, where the diversity of interests, problems,
perspectives and scales at play are simply too broad for
to reach a consensus.
 However, trying to understand the concept from its simplest form
Simple and basic, it can be said that: sustainability is the ability to achieve
continuity over time (Arseno 1999 cited by Nasca 2009). One of the
most widely known specifications indicate it as the development that satisfies the
needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations
generations to satisfy their own needs (WCDE 1987,
Castaldo 2003).
To understand the derivation of this terminology Arnes (2011)
summarize how this conceptualization began indicating that it was throughout
the second half of the 20th century, when concerns about the environment
environment and development theories began to correlate, giving
place to the concept of ecodesvelopment; Defined as something socially
desirable, economically viable and environmentally prudent, this concept
it promulgated criteria of social rationality different from logic
mercantilist, based on complementary ethical postulates of
solidarity.
According to the author, ecodevelopment emerged as a remedy to face
two problems faced, that of unlimited growth as a solution to
all the evils that occurred in the countries then called
underdeveloped characteristic of development economics, and the stance that
supported the zero growth rate, whose extremely ecological vision
in many cases, it meant the loss of human well-being.
The same author, continuing in his dissertation, asserted that it was.

then, the concept of eco-development, (based in turn on the

conservation or in some doctrines such as that of the physiocrats of the century
XVIII), which laid the theoretical foundations that triggered in a way
contemporary rise of the concept of sustainable development.
The concept of sustainable development was coined at the Conference on
United Nations on the Human Environment held in Stockholm at
1972, where some general guidelines were outlined about their
implementation, but it was not until 1987 that the concept was defined and
operationally incorporated into the Report of the World Commission on
Environment and Development (WCDE 1987).
For the first time, the idea of was openly questioned.
unlimited growth and non-exhaustion of natural resources. The report
it alarmed both about the existing levels of poverty and the abusive treatment
shown by the most developed countries with the resources of
planet and referred to a control of excessive consumption through new
institutional structures.
In order to formalize these proposals, a meeting was held in 1992 in
Rio de Janeiro the second Earth Summit where three were approved
big agreements; A global action plan that promotes the
sustainable development called 'Program 21', the Rio Declaration that
consisted of a set of principles on which the
civil rights and obligations of the States and an authorized Declaration,
without legally binding force, of principles for a global consensus
regarding the planning, conservation, and sustainable development of the
forests. From the Millennium Summit held in the year 2000 arose the
Millennium Declaration ratified by 189 countries and sponsored by the United Nations.

United.
Eight priority objectives were established, which serve as a guide for
unite efforts and end existing poverty and its causes
They provoke. Both objective 1: 'Eradicate extreme poverty and hunger'
like goal 7: "Ensure environmental sustainability", are
challenges that must be faced from this document since,
although the objectives should have been met in 2015, the
progress has been scarce and in some aspects there has even been
setbacks.
In the same way, at the Johannesburg Summit, held in
In 2002, all the proposed ideas from ten years earlier at the Summit were reviewed.
from Rio since the results obtained were being discouraging and they
proposed to undertake real actions and set aside philosophical debates.
The Climate Change Summit held in 2009 in
Copenhagen is a sample of how little progress has been made on the
moment in environmental matters. Qualified as a "great failure" by the
the majority of public opinion and a certain political sector such as the Swedish Minister

from the Environment, Andreas Calgren, no agreement was reached in

In terms of emissions, no protocol was proposed to replace the one for
Kyoto, which expired in 2012.

Production systems with dual-purpose cattle

The first introductions of cattle of origin in America

European events took place in the Antilles and the coasts of the Caribbean Sea, from where

were distributed to different regions (Urdaneta and Materan 2008) and whose
edaphoclimatic particularities along with uncontrolled crossings,
promoted the development of herds with different characteristics for
to be able to adapt to tropical conditions.
The characteristics developed by these types of herd do not
they responded to a specific productive orientation as happens in the
countries with temperate climate and even though, programs have been developed

genetics to improve their productive response, basically have

prevailed conditions for their reproduction as highly systems
popularized.
On one hand, one can mention the adaptability of these
herds to the tropical conditions and on the other hand, it is worth mentioning the advantages

what benefits does the agricultural producer gain from being able to obtain benefits from

both prices of the products (milk and meat).

In this way, milk production systems have been established and
beef with a wide range of combinations between both
products, those with a high percentage of Cebuano breeds that are used
for the production of meat and those who use crossbred livestock with breeds
European for the production of milk and meat.
These have given rise to dual-purpose systems or 'not
specialized" since specialized production systems towards the
intensive milk production, presented reproductive problems and
economic losses (Vaccaro 1989) In Brazil, it is estimated that 35% of the
milk is produced by these systems, while in Colombia the figure
reaches 51% and in Venezuela the contribution is currently estimated at
is superior to 90% due to the almost total disappearance of livestock
specialized dairies (Soto - Belloso 2004).
Based on systemic theory, various authors have sought to
to approach a more complete definition, as it was initially reduced to
this conception of raising mixed-breed animals confusing the flock
dual purpose with the dual purpose system much more complex.
These cattle production systems are characteristic of the areas
tropical and are characterized by presenting variable levels of technology,
to use grazing as the fundamental basis of feeding and milking
manual on the presence and breastfeeding of the offspring.
Generally, the balance between the races is oriented according to
the production goals depending on whether it is milk or meat,
sector that generates more income for the agricultural business (Soto-Belloso,

2004). As can be seen, these productive systems exhibit a

variety of technological possibilities in each of the subprocesses of the
production: grassland management, animal feed supplementation,
health, genetics and reproduction, however, it is man with his
management capacity and in interaction with the demands of the environment, the
market conditions and their preferences, who determines the
intentionality or main objective of production.
This situation gives rise to attempts to classify systems of
dual-purpose production. The most common (Capriles 1986) classifies to
these systems due to the proportion of income from the sale of milk and
from meat referred to as Meat-Milk, Intermediates, and Milk-Meat.
It can also refer to the classification criterion that depends on the
age at which males are sold: calf cow, cow-mute and cow-
young bull, where agro-climatic conditions determine the decision of
sell them (Salamanca 2004).
In summary, these production systems are businesses that raise
mestizo livestock based on grazing as the main source of
animal feeding, within a wide variety of technological managements,
generating diverse products (milk, meat or cheese made from it)
production unit) whose sales proportion depends on prices
relatives of milk and meat.

Sustainable development perspectives of cattle ranching

double purpose

Apparently, dual-purpose livestock has no alternatives for

sustainable development, since on one hand, by trying to increase production
of milk with crosses of zebu cattle - criollo with cattle of European blood,
the necessary rusticity for adaptation to the environment is punished
adverse to the tropics, as well as decreased fertility and weights at
weaning of the calves, on the other hand if you want to increase their productivity
through certain technological alternatives such as the intensification of use
from the land through fertilization and incorporation of whole cane, the costs
generated are not covered by production.
But then how is what was reported by Seré (1989) explained that more
50% of the milk consumed in Colombia is produced by systems
dual purpose, in Brazil they contribute 35% and in Venezuela more than 90%,
these results make us reflect on the importance of
dual purpose in tropical America and its fundamental role in the
development of livestock. Fortunately, there are intrinsic values in
the dual-purpose system that would significantly reduce their
disadvantages and use them as real opportunities, to turn it into
an appropriate model over time, without compromising its productivity
nor that of environmental quality conservation (Murgueitio 1992).
The same author proposed rethinking the role of the double animal.
purpose and turn it into a key piece of the farm, through its function
multiple that integrates not only the production of milk and offspring, but also the close

association with other land use activities. Among these activities

includes agroforestry agriculture, the recycling of fibrous materials to
through its digestive tract to provide revitalizing compounds of the
soils and use animal power in various traction operations.
The key to increasing productivity according to Holmann and Lascano
(1998) is focused on developing production strategies that allow for a combination
the improved forages with the existing ones on the farms to optimize this
form, its use and overcoming nutritional deficiencies; in addition to a
strategy that takes into account animal genotype options, land use
and the farmer's ability to implement new technologies.
To achieve this, it is necessary to integrate alternatives for use of
forages, development of system models, diagnostics and characterization, and
applied research at the farm level with participatory methods. Preston
(1989) recommended taking into account the role of protein as an activator.
from the dual-purpose system recommending to seek protein sources,
trying to find them in our environment since protein is key for
improve productivity.
In this regard, Holmann and Lascano (1998) conducted
investigations in which legume (Cratylia) was supplemented
silver) during the dry season, resulting in a 25% increase in the
milk production, when the availability of forage in the pasture was
limiting, in another experiment they were able to determine that with hybrid cows
Cebu did not have answers, but there was one with Holstein crossbred cows.
linear response to supplementation.
These results suggest that the genetic potential of cows for
producing milk could be a determining factor for adoption of
semi-shrub legumes in dual-purpose animal production systems
purpose in Latin America. Madalena (1989) said that one must think about the
utilization of genetic resources from the tropics as one of the ways
valid for efficient production.
Tropical cattle breeds, although partly a result of the
artificial selection, are also a product of natural selection in the habitat
ecological and socioeconomic context in which they have developed, having to take into account

take into account the important natural resource that it is, which is why it should

design methodologies to use it properly and ensure its

conservation and improvement.
While it is true that dual-purpose is a livestock farming that does
important contributions to meat and milk production in tropical America,
its majority is in the hands of small and medium producers
with little economic capacity, which is why Murgueitio (1992) makes a
series of important recommendations to overcome the economic limitation
focusing this type of production towards sustainable development,
encouraging the optimization of the use of biomass and diversity of
tropic, where nitrogen-fixing trees stand out, the trees
forage shrubs, sugar cane, banana and plantain; low grazing
trees, semi-stabling animals to free up areas for purposes
agricultural or forestry.
Recycling is another alternative that facilitates the enhancement of manure and
urine which can generate biofertilizers; diversification of the
productive activity; strategic supplementation especially during the season
dry with non-protein nitrogen through multi-nutritional blocks,
surpassing protein and with glucogenic precursors; and finally
recommend the creation of cooperative livestock associations that
allow for better organization of small producers.
Preston (1989) drew attention to the importance of the dual purpose
not only from a technical and economic point of view but also
from the social perspective and the role of dual purpose as a component
in integrated production systems, Murgueitio and Ibrahim (2008)
they assured that livestock farming can significantly increase its
economic and social contributions and silvopastoral systems (SSP)
they are fundamental to the process of change.
These can have, in addition to livestock activity, other uses.
complementary such as the production of wood and fruits; the contribution
a milder microclimate, the habitat offering for wildlife, the
water regulation in watersheds and greater beauty of the landscape.
Despite its inefficiency and its multiple negative environmental effects, the
Livestock activity is far from decreasing in Latin America.
First of all, because it is deeply rooted in the
Luso-Hispanic customs that persist in the region. Secondly,
because all meat products have a high and increasing demand.
Thirdly, because livestock farming has often been practiced by
reaction to failure, caused by biophysical limitations, of activities
agricultural (Murgueitio 2010).
Finally, extensive livestock farming has been playing a role in...
time plays a fundamental role in the consolidation of land control
(Murgueitio and Ibrahim 2008). However, tropical livestock farming can be
empowered and does not need to be an activity of destructive effects. The
cattle has the potential to function as a "mobile catalytic converter"
of solar energy” and of transforming the cellulose from plant biomass into
simple carbohydrates that are part of the composition of the networks
complex trophic systems of the soil and contribute to restoring fertility of the
degraded lands (Patriquin and Moncayo 1999).
 It is necessary to promote initiatives that help with prevention and
mitigation of the undesirable environmental effects of the activity, it
requires developing sustainable livestock farming, promoting generation and
adoption of eco-friendly productive livestock technologies.

Sustainable feeding strategies for double livestock

purpose.

In the Latin American Tropics, the feeding of cattle

is based on the grazing of monocultures of grasses; the production of
the pasture throughout the year is irregular in quantity and quality due to the
climatic factors, soil factors, management, and the characteristics of each species.
Nutritional limitations are presented as a consequence of the low
digestibility and nutrient deficiencies of the grasses
tropical, which prevents raising animal productivity.
Delgado and Ramírez (2008) indicated that in livestock systems
efforts have been made to improve the low nutritional value of pastures and forages,
through the genetic improvement of forage species and use of
external inputs of the farm, such as fertilizers in the improved pastures and
supplementation in the diet of animals with sources of energy and nitrogen
protein and non-protein, many of these technologies are not economical in
livestock systems.
Additionally, in Latin America the fragmentation of
landscape, when observing a large percentage of biological diversity and forests
complex tropics where their patterns of use have been transformed
from the land into improved pastures to develop intensive systems of
dairy and meat farming; areas are designated for exploitation of
crops.
Deforestation is increasing at an accelerated pace, with serious

environmental consequences, increasing the desertification of the lands

agricultural that involves a gradual process of loss of productivity of the
soil and reduction of vegetation cover due to human activities
human and adverse climatic conditions that increase warming
global.
Among the main causes of the problem are the bad
management of grasslands, with the use of high animal load under conditions
about overgrazing, inadequate rest periods for the pasture that
compromises the persistence of the grassland, overexploitation of crops
agricultural practices and null and deficient irrigation practices; together with

climatic variations, such as prolonged droughts, floods, and wildfires

with significant implications in the economy, society, and environment.
The importance of forages in the feeding of cattle is
easy to stand out simply because we are referring to an animal
herbivorous with a quite specialized digestive system for it
utilization of plant tissues. We have the opportunity to
take advantage of all the attributes of the digestive system of a ruminant animal
for the use of the most abundant source of energy on Earth, such as
it is the cellulose and hemicellulose present in the forages.
It is our responsibility to define how important forages are in the
feeding program giving or not the attention that they deserve in
terms of agronomic and zootechnical management and appropriately defining the
animal genetics. The fact that there is an increasing demand every day for
energy and protein grains for the human population and for the systems
Feeding of non-ruminant species should motivate and compel us to
consider the forage resource as the main food ingredient in the
bovine diet.
Furthermore, if we analyze the total costs of the program
nutrition production of forages supplements nutritional,
infrastructure, machinery, equipment, labor, etc.), we found that
these easily surpass the cost of the rest of the technical programs. By
On the other hand, it has been reported that in many dairy cattle herds
around 75% of the variation is due to environmental effects, being the
nutritional factor with the highest participation.
Soto–Belloso (2004) reported that the diet based on grass,
used under the modality of controlled grazing, has been the alternative of
lower cost in tropical dual-purpose systems. From this
manner the management of pastures becomes a technological pillar
fundamental for profitable livestock production.
Tropical grasslands have a lower structure around the
75% (leaf-stem ratio) than temperate climate grasses, also a
lower density and low values of crude protein (3–20%) depending on
the species and age. Likewise, the digestibility of organic matter is
between 50 and 60% which leads to low energy consumption.
The species that prevail in the tropical dry forest are the
Panicum maximum, Digitaria, Cynodon, Brachiaria, and Andropogon. In the
In the tropical humid forest, Echinocloa is primarily cultivated.
polystachya, Brachiaria mutica and Penisetum purpureum. Other species of
Grasses and legumes have also been incorporated into the forage supply.
According to the seasonality of the grasses, it is very important.
design the feeding programs, conserving the surpluses
through techniques such as silage or haymaking to provide them
during the critical time. Strategic supplementation should go very
linked to the animal's requirements, the management of the pasture, and with the
animal load used in the system.
According to the objectives of the research under study,
characterized by productive behavior in dual-purpose cows
supplemented with mango silage during the experiment, in order to
increase milk production in the production unit as well
Benefit-Cost relationship.
The high costs that have been occurring over time
time in commercial concentrated feed for the farms
livestock farmers, the possibility is raised that small and medium
producers, make greater and more efficient use of the resources they have
within their production units, improving the management and use of the
the same, like other species such as fruits.
The mango is a fruit from a tree that can be found everywhere.
regions of the country, scattered in pastures of the different units of
production having one harvest per year, managing properly and
storage in the form of silage, in a very short period complements
the feeding of cattle taking advantage to develop a potential
at the level of milk production, since silages can be found
certain parts of the essential nutritional requirements for the
growth, development and production of the cattle of the unit
production.
Considering the instability in prices of the
concentrated foods and their high costs in relation to the benefit
obtained from the sale of milk, the need to carry out a
study, which aims to find lines that allow maximizing production of
milk in economic performance, being considered an alternative with use
of mango for the production of silage and thus provide a
ration for the dairy cattle of the production unit 'Los Samanes' as
supplementing with grazing under natural conditions.

Forage preservation methods

There are different methods of preserving grass and forage, among

these are found: henification, which consists of a process of
forage conservation based on the reduction of the natural content of
humidity, ensuring a safe reserve of forage for livestock;
allowing the maintenance of high forage supplies, this allows for
manage the pastures more efficiently, which represents a success factor
in the livestock business (Guzmán 1996).
 Another method of forage preservation is ammonification, which
consists of the treatment of grasses and fodder during the flowering period and
Post-flowering, with 3-6% urea solutions, is a low-cost technology.
inputs that improve fiber digestibility, consumption, and response
animal (Ledesma and Ojeda 1994).
Silage is another of the technologies for grass conservation and
most used forage in the last two decades, this method consists of
a partial fermentation process, or acidification achieved through the
metabolic activity (fermentative) of the bacteria that arrive at the silo in the
forage. This process is achieved by storing cut and chopped green forage.
in small particles, which is then compacted in order to extract
the air and in this way achieve a high presence of carbohydrates
(Guzmán 1996).
On the other hand, Gómez (2007) states that to achieve the processes
fermentative preservatives should be used, low-cost and available in the
production units, for this reason it is recommended with greater
frequency of the use of molasses, due to its low cost and its high content of
usable carbohydrates; the high content of carbohydrates present
in the molasses, it improves the quality of the silage process, as they
allow the multiplication of aerobic bacteria until consuming all the
oxygen present in the silaged material.

The silage

Silage is obtained either from forage, crop residues or

agricultural and industrial by-products pre-mixed with acids, whether others
added or produced in a natural fermentation process, the forage
fresh is harvested, or the waste and by-products are collected; this
raw material can be crushed or subjected to prior conditioning; to
sometimes certain additives are added.
 Then this material is stored in an airtight environment without air,
which favors the development of facultative anaerobic bacteria, present
in the forage or pleasing as inoculants will quickly convert the
acid-soluble carbohydrates, the quality of the silage product depends on the
nutritional value of the raw material used and of the products present in it
fermentation processes such as the types of acids and the quantities of
ammonia. At the end of the process, the pH of a good silage is so low that
it prevents all kinds of life and this is how food can be preserved
as long as the airtight environment is not disturbed.

Types of silos

According to Gómez (2007), the types of silos are classified as follows

way: bunk silo, trench silo, press silo, and heap silo. The use of the type
from silo in the production units, will depend on various factors, including
number of animals to supplement, amount of forage to ensile, and the duration
of how long the supplementation will last.
The type of silo used in the production unit 'Caimital' for the
corn forage conservation, with the aim of being used in the
strategic supplementation program for dual-purpose cows
grazing during the dry period was the pile silo for being very
economic and easy to make.

Heap silos

They are those that have no walls, they are also called silo of
piles, which must be built on a firm floor site where the
chopped forage is piled, compacted, and uniformly covered with
a plastic to prevent the entry of air, finally so that the wind does not
lift the plastic cover heavy objects are placed (sand, wood,
stones, soil, among others), ensuring excellent quality silage
(Gómez 2007).

Forages to be ensiled

In the tropical regions among the most used species for

ensiling, legumes such as: Alfalfa (Medicago sativa) are found
Soybeans (Glycine max L Merr), harvested when the plants are still
green with the seeds full. (Villalobos and Camacho 2003, cited by
Tobías et al. 2007.
Regarding grasses, Gómez (2007) considers that among the
the most commonly used for silage include forage species such as:
Elephant (Pennisetum purpureum Schumach.), Guatemala (Tripsacum laxum)
Nash.), Sorghum (Sorghum vulgare Pers.) and Corn (Zea mays L.), the latter
considered the ideal forage for silage, if varieties are taken advantage of
and high-performance hybrids available in the market, whose production
grain prices are high.
The production of forage (leaf, stem, and grains) can reach in
fertile soils, guaranteeing the water demand of the crop of 35 to 40 Tm/ha;
A good corn silage does not fundamentally differ from the original harvest.
The success in obtaining good corn silage lies in harvesting it at
in due time, between 70-80 days of its cycle, when the grain is found
in milky condition; as shown in Table 2; where it indicates the
average age that forages should have at the time of being cut for
ensiling (Nutrition Rich & advisors 2008).
Table 1.
Condition and/or average age for cutting grass for silage

% % %
PASTURE CONDITION
DIGESTIBILITY

Grain
CORN 65-70 6-8 65-75
Milky
70-80 days
Panoja in
Sorgo cocoon of 65-70 6-8 60-70
consistency
pastosa
Preflowering
ELEPHANT cut to the 65-75 8-11 65
50 days
Pre-flowering
cut to the 65-80 7-10 60
KING GRASS
45 days
Pre-flowering
GUATEMALA at the cut to 60-70 8-12 65
50 days
Source: Nutrition Rich & Advisors (2008).

Guzmán (1996) considers that corn silage is a product of the

controlled natural fermentation of the corn plant, harvested in a way
integral (stems, leaves, and ears). In fermentation, the enzymes of the
plants transform sugars into acetic, butyric, and lactic acids.
Subsequently, microorganisms continue the transformation until
all the air has been used.
The action of anaerobic bacteria produces lactic acid,
quickly reducing the pH of the forage mass until it is
sufficiently low, it is estimated that the time span for this to occur
the process must be between 20 and 30 days after the material is ensiled
forager.
 Strategic supplementation

Strategic supplementation is a technique that uses a

component or set of components in a group of animals for
meet a very specific goal in your nutrition, being used in the
moments when required and in limited quantities that allow for fulfillment
the proposed objective.
Through the efficient use of available resources, both of
the base diet as well as the supplement, contributes substantially to
improvement of the productive characteristics of the sheep herds (Parra et al.)
1985, Escobar 1989, Garmendia 1994, cited by Herrera et al. 1995.
The quality of the forages, the productive status, and the body condition
The cow's indicators are a sign of the need to supplement the animals.
Unfortunately, it is much easier to buy commercial concentrate than
produce good grass. Ruminants have the great ability to
transform grass into meat and milk, for this reason, producers must
be aware that when improving the quality of the pastures, it is required
less concentrated feed to produce meat and milk. If a ruminant
it meets its protein, energy, and mineral requirements through the
pastures, the animal will be able to produce at the expense of the forage, therefore
the levels of supplementation will be required in smaller quantities
(Garmendia 2005).
The restrictions to which ruminants are subjected under
grazing conditions for most of the year are generally
obvious and it is possible to clearly identify the principles that must
considering the implementation of supplementation programs. Among
the main limitations are: nitrogen deficiency
fermentable to promote efficient ruminal fermentation, low rate of
exit of the rumen creating distension of the organ limiting consumption of
food, general deficiency of proteins and energy, due to low consumption
and mineral deficiency that affects the microorganisms of the rumen and the organism itself

animal (Garmendia 2005).

Many of these factors are interrelated. Thus, for example, a
low levels of fermentable nitrogen decrease forage digestibility by
same time that results in a low ratio of amino acids and energy in
the absorbed products. Consequently, the supply of nitrogen, to
correct the indicated negative effects, increases efficiency of the
ruminal fermentation, which leads to an increase in forage consumption
available, reducing the energy deficit. Many researchers have
presented the effect of protein and energy supplementation in cows in
the last third of its gestation, improving the productive indexes and
reproductive of the same (Garmendia 2005).
Garmendia (2005) considers that sometimes the forages are not
able to supply the nutrients to achieve productive indices and
reproductively satisfactorily. The first available supplement must be
used in animals with high nutritional demands and, therefore,
more sensitive to a nutritional deficiency. However, a management
investment business in supplements should consider the high value of a
cattle herd and, to be successful, it will have to be applied to all animals.
Because the inputs for supplementation are mostly expensive.
then it would be justified for animals with higher nutritional requirements.
Ventura (1991b) reported milk productions of 7.5 to 9.12 kg.
milk/day in Mosaico Perijanero cows (between the third and fifth month of
lactation), without deterioration of their body condition, grazing in pastures of
Guinea (Panicum maximum Jacq) during the rainy season. However, it
previously mentioned is not enough to assert that our
well-managed grasslands can perfectly provide the
requirements of an animal with production levels of 8 to 11 kg of
milk/day. The normal milk production curve should be higher during
the first third of lactation, because in that period the animal has the
physiological potential to produce 50% of the total breastfeeding, as it
see in Figure 2 (Ruiz 1982).

Fig. 1.
Normal curve of lactation Ruiz (1982).

Kg/day

1/3 = 50% 2/3 = 50%

90 days 120 days

Birth
210 days

Ruiz (1982) conducted a study on breastfeeding from 210 to 240 days in

cows with an average production of 8 to 10 kg of milk, where it
observed that production during the first third of lactation had
fluctuations between 12 and 15 kg/day, due to the fact that during this period the animal

it has the physiological potential to reach the peak or maximum level of

production; for this reason in this case it would be necessary to ensure the animal
the nutrients required to achieve approximate levels of production of
15 to 18 kg of milk respectively.
In this regard, the following question arises: Do forages
from the area the potential to provide energy and protein requirements
for these levels of production? In the first case, it is possible as long as
the animal arrives at birth in good body condition (3.5 to 4 points)
or a forage legume is available. For the second case,
requires strategic supplementation during that critical period of
transition in terms of milk production and occurrence of events
reproductive.
It is permissible for a cow that has recently calved to be in good condition.

bodies lose 10 to 15% of their weight during the first third of

lactation without detriment to its reproductive behavior (Ventura 1991a).
This weight loss involves the mobilization of nutrients from your reserve
corporal for milk synthesis.
Using data reported by the National Research Council (NRC)
(1978), cited by Ventura (2008), where it is estimated that it can be produced
3.5 kg of milk, for the purpose of protein mobilization and about 6 kg for
concept of mobilization of available energy, resulting in loss of a
kilogram of live weight per animal.
The use of energy-protein supplementation is justified when the
the genetic potential of animals is greater than the nutritional potential of the
forages. The response to supplementation is very varied in terms of the
milk production as a consequence of several factors, like the
quantity and quality of the supplement, genetic and physiological ability of the animal
and to the amount of the forage supply; the average response to the
supplementation after the peak of lactation is very low, with reports of a
increase of 0.34 kg of milk per kg of concentrated feed consumed.
It is possible that in these cases the genetic potential of the animal for
milk production has been very close to the nutritional potential of the forage
(Ventura 2008).

Supplementation Alternatives.

Strategic Supplementation is a technological tool

appropriate to improve the conditions faced by ruminants in the
tropic. The efficiency in ruminal fermentation of a forage-based diet
fibrous is achieved by providing adequate supplementary nutrients: nitrogen
fermentable, amino acids, minerals, and bypass protein.
The most commonly used supplementation alternatives in the different
types of production are multinutritional blocks; compounds
normally by urea, salt, minerals, molasses, lime, grasses, and legumes,
silage is a fermentation process of fruits, harvest residues among
Others, hay consists of storing green forage to use them in the
drought season and in forage considered a pre-dried silage since
It consists of the dehydration of elements to be used.

Feeding in cattle

Like all ruminants, cattle are forage animals because

nature, this means that pastures or forages are the foods
with those who meet all their needs, maintenance, growth,
pregnancy and body development. Technological advances in the matter of
nutrition has generated new ways of feeding for cattle both of
beef type similar to that for milk producers, in order to meet the growing demand
of meat and milk. The new forms of nutrition are based on the use
massive concentrated food products that are integrated into the diet in different ways.

stages of the production cycle and with different purposes.

Animal supplementation.

Supplementation practices are a means to optimize the

use of forage, from this qualitative as well as quantitative perspective.
To correctly choose the supplement to use, we must take into account
the nutritional composition and availability of forage and the requirements of the
animals that we wish to supplement according to the established production goal.

The most common aim of using supplements is to add something.

what is lacking in the forage, whether in quantity or quality, with the aim that it
animal production obtained through grazing is maintained or increased through
a greater load and/or improvement in weight gain.

Characteristics of crossbred dairy cows

The constituents of the width and depth of the chest, a measurement that goes
From the cross to the tip of the chest, the ribs should be long, well
arched, wider and deeper at the back. The hip should be
level: this assessment is made from the tip of the hip to the tip of the
a well-leveled hip is related to good drainage with apparatus
reproductive. The back must be wide, strong, and level; an uneven back
it has reproductive problems. The hoof seen from the front must be good.
united to prevent infections and lessons inside of it.
The bone of the legs must be strong and flat. A good posture of
good or his previous portion. The mammary system is the main
observation that should be made when selecting a dairy cow, as the
observation of the udder from the front, side, and rear, the position of the
nipples in shape, size and balance, constitute the main points for
to notarize a dairy cow.
One should look for a strong udder, of moderate size, well attached.
to the body, balanced and harmonious, the rear udder should be wide, seen
from behind, which is a good indicator of good production potential
udder, the front portion must be firmly attached to the
body, this prevents what will expose to from falling out as the births occur.
blows and consequently to mastitis problems.
The support of the udder must be strong, clearly noticeable in form.
division of the quarters. In this way, the nipples are well placed and
the udder is kept elevated to avoid hits and damage to it. The
the size of the nipples is related to the purpose they serve for their
milking. A medium size should be sought.
 Feeding of crossbred dairy cows

The feeding system will depend on the type of production, whether it is

intensive, semi-intensive, or extensive or grazing. However, to obtain
a maximum milk production it is necessary to maintain a balance of
nutrients, maximize the digestion of food and allows a flow
nutrient constant to the mammary gland.
Dry forages, Hay (leguminous or non-leguminous), and others
fiber-rich foods such as (husk), grass, green forage, and silage
promotes milk production. Likewise, the feeding of cows
lactating women should be rich in carbohydrates, proteins, vitamins A and D,
minerals and water. The purpose of supplying all the requirements is
meet the needs for growth, maintenance, reproduction, and lactation
from a dairy cow.

Table 2.
Nutritional Requirements of Dairy Crossbred Cows

Animals weighing between 250 to 600kg of body mass

Weight
250 kg 300 kg 350 kg 400 kg 450 kg 500 kg 600 kg
corporal
Protein
570 g 640 g 715 g 800 g 885 g 935 g 810 g
total
Protein
365 g 395 g 430 g 465 g 495 g 505 g 405 g
digestibles
Nutrients
digestibles 4 kg 4.5 kg 4.9 kg 5.2 kg 5.3 kg 3.3 kg 4.3 kg
totals
Football 21 g 24 g 25 g 26 g 27 g 27 g 24 g
Phosphorus 16 g 18 g 19 g 20 g 21 g - -
Source: Hidalgo and Plaza
 Use of local raw materials as alternatives for
supplementation

Mango silo
Description
Mango, common name of a tree and the fruit it produces. It belongs
to the family of Anacardiaceae (Anacardiaceae), species (Mangifera
It is widely cultivated in Africa and in tropical America for its fruit.
succulent, meaty, oval-shaped, 5 to 15 centimeters in length,
up to 1 Kg. in weight, 5 to 15 cm in length and greenish, yellowish or
reddish depending on the variety. Its skin is thin and tough. The pulp is colored
yellow, very sweet, and aromatic. It contains a large flattened stone,
surrounded by a woody covering.
Origin
Its cultivation began about six thousand years ago and was one of the
main foods of tropical tribes
The mango is a fruit originating from India, whose people carry
consumed it for over 4000 years. Nowadays its cultivation has
extended to areas as diverse as the Mediterranean, South America, China or
United States.
Nutritional information
The ripe mango is rich in vitamin A and if it is not ripe, in vitamin C.
It is rich in minerals such as calcium, iron, potassium, copper, and magnesium.
TABLE 6. Energy and nutritional value of 100 grams of Mango:

Kilojoules 239 Vitamin B2 50 μg

Calories 56 Vitamin B3 700 μg
Proteins 0.6 g Vitamin C 40 mg
Fats 0.3 g Calcium (Ca) 10 μg
H. of Carbon 12.5 g Iron (Fe) 0.5 μg
Mineral fiber 0.5 g Sodium (Na) 7 μg
Water 82 gr Potassium (K) 90 μg
Carotene 3 mg Phosphorus (P) 13 μg
Vitamin B1 45 μg Minerals Cu, Mg

Harvest.

Maturity Index: it depends on the variety, but in general, it is observed

by the color, shape of the nose, shoulders, and size.
Collection Methods: the wizard must be harvested during the hours of
day with the lowest ambient temperature. It is done manually, with workers
perfectly trained to differentiate the point of physiological maturity of
fruit.

The mango in cattle nutrition.

Peel and whole fruit of the mango (protein and energy source): It
high carbohydrate content, especially in the
husk and within the total carbohydrates, the high percentages of
non-structural carbohydrates and lower amounts of lignin, the latter
mainly composed of: sugars, pectins, starches, beta-glucans
and volatile fatty acids, which degrade more quickly in the
rumen and greater contribution of energy for ruminal fermentation and contribution of

metabolizable energy for milk or meat production.

The low content of fraction C of carbohydrates is highlighted.
structural, one that is not degraded in the rumen nor digested in the
digestive tract of the ruminant. Therefore, of the total carbohydrates that
they make up the shell and the seed, most are highly available for
microorganisms and the animal, and only a small portion is not digestible.
Fraction B2 in the seed reaches values of 43% carbohydrates.

TABLE 7: Carbohydrates of mango waste

Fraction Cascara Fruit
Total carbohydrates (%) 91.5 86.4
CNE (%CHO) 80.4 55.9
CS (%CHO) 19.6 44.1
Lignin (%DM) 2.4 4.4
Fraction C (%CHO) 0.2 1.0
Fraction B2 (%CHO) 19.4 43.1

The silage of fruit agroindustry waste is being

turning into an alternative to traditional crops, taking advantage of
as a low cost of acquiring the material to ensile. The use of
residues such as silage, in addition to being a form of exploitation of a
material that would be wasted, helps to minimize the impact caused
due to the accumulation of waste in the environment.
The residue from the mango processing, however, has a high
moisture content, a characteristic that negatively affects the
fermentation process, allowing the appearance of fermentations
undesirables secondary, leading to a decrease in silage of
quality and drainage losses.
There are, however, characteristics that decisively influence the
nature of fermentation and silage storage, which can
be highlighted and the moisture content of soluble carbohydrates and the
damping capacity of the stored material.
Among the alternatives that can be used to obtain a better
the quality of silage can mention the use of additives that absorb the
humidity.
 Salt silage:
It is a technique to preserve sources for several months.
energy (sugars and fats) of different fruits that have high content of
water and sugars, which ferment quickly and are not utilized.
for human consumption.
Process:
In a plastic container or lined on the inside with plastic, one is going to
picking the fruit and placing thin layers of salt.
For every 50 kilos of fruit, ½ kilo of common salt is used.
When filling the container, it is covered with plastic to ensure it is sealed properly.

sealed and left in the shade for 20 days. After this time it can be
offer to the animal. The saline silage can be preserved for several months,
as long as it is well sealed and kept in the shade. It must be restricted
high consumption (greater than three kilograms per day) in pregnant females
advanced.
Advantages of silage
The waste from the harvest that is produced can be utilized.
the mango cultivation present on the farm, it has an area of 34 ha
planted with variety tomy, vanday, and kent, where there is one harvest a year,
where a waste is given in the collection and some part that matures very
fast and falls to the floor, this is consumed by the livestock, and other waste that is

at the time of classification, this is what is silaged to offer it to the

Gaining in times of scarcity or dry periods, this is a simple practice.
in which the resources of the farm can be utilized, thus avoiding that it
They lose in the field, providing great nutritional benefits to livestock.
Silage is a great contribution to the nutritional requirements of the
ruminants, especially for high-yield dairy cows at
start of their lactation. Silage is preferable to drying the pulp since
requires less energy, has a lower cost, and improves the palatability of
final product.
 Urea

Urea is a non-protein, crystalline nitrogenous compound without

color, identified with the formula N2H4CO represents a valuable and economical
food resource for the herd where the only food source is the
forages, normally deficient in protein. This element provides the
nitrogen required for ruminal fermentation and protein formation
and it can be supplied in various ways: in the concentrate, in the
silage, in multi-nutritional blocks and in various types of mixes.
It is currently represented in the market in granular and pearl form.
being the latter the most recommended for animal use due to its looseness and
ease of mixing with other ingredients.