Fundamental of Mechanical

Engineering and
Mechatronics
Unit – 5
Mechatronics
Mr. Mohit Gupta, ME Dept.
 MECHATRONICS
• Term Mechatronics was first introduced by Tetsuro Mori, senior
Engineer of a Japanese Company in 1969 to denote the combination
of technologies which go together to produce Industrial robots.

• The word Mechatronics refers to a combination of “Mecha” from

mechanism and “tronics” from electronics.

• In other words, technologies and developed products will be

incorporating electronics more and more into mechanisms.
 Definitions of Mechatronics
According to Mechatronics forum, UK
The synergistic integration of Mechanics and Mechanical Engineering,
Electronics, Computer Technology and IT to produce or enhance
products or systems.
According to W. Bolton
A mechatronic system is not just a marriage of Mechanical and Electrical
system and it is more than just a control system: it is a complete
Integration of all of them.
Concluded Definition:
“Mechatronics is synergistic Integration of Mechanical Engineering,
Electronics and Intelligent computer control in design and
manufacturing of products and process.”
Graphical Representation of Mechatronics showing Integrated
and Inter-disciplinary approach of nature
 Evolution OR Development of Mechatronics
Development of Mechatronics has gone through 3 stages:
1. Stage 1 (1970’s)
2. Stage 2 (1980’s)
3. Stage 3 (1990’s)

Stage 1 (1970’s)
• Technologies developed rather independently and individually.
• Main focus was on servo technology.
• Simple implementation aided technologies related to control
methods.
Example: Automatic door openers and Auto focus Cameras.
 Stage 2 (1980’s)
• Synergistic Integration of different technologies takes place.
• Concept of Hardware Software Co-design started.
• Main focus was on Information Technology.
• Microprocessors were embedded into mechanical systems to
improve performance.
Example: Optoelectronics (Integration of Optics and Electronics)
Stage 3 (1990’s)
• Centered on communication technologies to connect products into
large networks.
• Production of the computational Intelligent systems, technologies
and products.
• Miniaturization of components in the form of micro actuators and
micro sensors.
Example: Micro mechatronics
1996: First Journal (IEEE) on Mechatronics was released
After 2000: Application in aerospace, defense engineering, Bio-Mechanics, Automotive
Electronics, Banking (ATM) etc.

SCOPE OF MECHATRONICS
Mechatronics combine the various discipline to create a smart product
which is better than the sum of its parts depending upon the market
demand.
• Dynamic market conditions
• Producing next generation products
• Integration of modern technologies in product
• Variety in product ranges
• Batch production runs
• Change in design perspective
• Product quality and consistency
• Ease of reconfiguration of the process
• Demand for increased flexibility
• Better design of products.
• Better process planning.
• Reliable and quality oriented manufacturing.
• Intelligent process control.
• Intelligent product development
 Application Areas of Mechatronics
• Machine Vision
• Automation and Robotics
• Development of unmanned vehicles
• Design of sub-systems for automotive engineering
• Sensing and control systems
• Operation and maintenance of CNC machines
• Expert systems and Artificial Intelligence
• Industrial electronics and consumer products
• Medical Mechatronics and medical imaging system
• Structural dynamic system
• Transportation and vehicular systems
• Diagnostic and reliability techniques
• Computer integrated manufacturing (CIM) systems
• Micro/ Nano mechatronics
• Mechatronics in energy systems
• Human machine interface
• Mechatronics application in cyber-physical system
ELEMENTS OF MECHATRONICS SYSTEMS
ACTUATORS AND SENSORS

SIGNALS AND CONDITIONING

DIGITAL LOGIC SYSTEMS

SOFTWARE AND DATA

ACQUISTION SYSTEMS

COMPUTERS AND DISPLAY

DEVICES
Elements of a Mechatronics system
• Actuators and Sensors
Actuators produce motion or cause some action.
Sensors detect the state of the system parameters, inputs and outputs.
• Signals and conditioning
Input conditioning devices: Discrete circuits, Amplifiers, A/D convertor, D/D convertor
Output conditioning devices: D/A convertor, D/D convertor, power transistors, power
OP-amplifiers.
• Digital Logic systems
Logic circuits, microcontrollers, PLC, Sequencing and timing control, control algorithms
• Software and data acquisition systems
Software is used to control the acquisition of data through DAC board
Data loggers, computer with plug-in boards.
Advantages and Disadvantages of Mechatronics
Advantages:
• It is cost effective and can produce high quality products.
• Production of parts and products of International standard gives better
reputation and return.
• It serves effectively for high dimensional accuracy requirements.
• It provides high degree of flexibility to modify or redesign the products.
• It provides excellent performance characteristics.
• It results automation in production, assembly and quality control.
• Mechatronics systems provide the increased productivity in manufacturing
organization.
• Reconfiguration feature by pre supplied programs facilitate the low volume
production.
• It provides the facility of remote controlling as well as centralized monitoring and
control.
• It has greater extend of machine utilization
• Higher life is expected by proper maintenance and timely diagnosis of the faults.
Disadvantages :
• Initial cost is high
• Maintenance and repair may workout costly
• Multi-disciplinary engineering background is required to design and
implementation.
• It needs highly trained workers to operate.
• Techno-economic estimation has to be done carefully in the selection of
mechatronic system.
• It has complexity in identification and correction of problems in the systems.
Autotronics
• Autotronics is an innovative approach in Automotive Mechatronics.
• Modern cars are as much electronic as they are mechanical, thus
creating a new AUTOTRONIC area (AUTOmobile + elecTRONIC).
• modern car has several control modules, which monitor and manage
most of the major systems in the vehicle.
Control in Automotive: Engine and drive line control, cruise control,
suspension control, anti-lock braking and airbag control, climate
control, GPS-based navigation system, stability management system,
instrumentation, infotaiment, etc.
Systems such as 'by-wire' braking and steering systems, collision
warning, voice recognition, Internet access, night vision enhancement
and collision avoidance systems all start to be introduced.
Bionics
Bionics or biologically inspired engineering is the application of
biological methods and systems found in nature to the study and
design of engineering systems and modern technology.
Bionics Biology + Electronics
In robotics, bionics and biomimetic are used to apply the way animals
move to the design of robots. BionicKangaroo was based on the
movements and physiology of kangaroos.
In medicine, bionics means the replacement or enhancement
of organs or other body parts by mechanical versions. Bionic implants
differ from mere prostheses by mimicking the original function very
closely, or even surpassing it.
in computer science, cybernetics tries to model the feedback and
control mechanisms that are inherent in intelligent behavior,
while artificial intelligence tries to model the intelligent function
regardless of the particular way it can be achieved.
Avionics
Avionics are the electronic systems used on aircraft, artificial satellites,
and spacecraft. Avionic systems include communications, navigation,
the display and management of multiple systems, and the hundreds of
systems that are fitted to aircraft to perform individual functions.
The cockpit of an aircraft is a typical location for avionic equipment,
including control, monitoring, communication, navigation, weather, and
anti-collision systems. The majority of aircraft power their avionics
using 14- or 28-volt DC electrical systems.
 Sensor or Transducer:
Sensor or Transducer is a device which converts a physical quantity, property or
condition into output.

(Physical Quantity or Property or Condition) (Voltage or Resistance or

(INPUT) Capacitance) (OUTPUT)
SENSOR/TRANSDUCER

Example: A thermocouple is a sensor which converts changes in temperature

into a voltage.
Signal Processor: Signal processor or conditioner receives the output signal from
the sensor or transducer and manipulates or processes it into a suitable input signal
to control system.
• Signal processor performs filtering and amplification functions.
Example: A/D Convertor
.

Sensor & Transducer

The main difference between a sensor and a transducer is that
a sensor senses the difference or change in the environment they are
exposed to and gives an output in the same format whereas
a transducer takes a measurement in one form and converts it to
another.
for example, a measurement which is not electrical and converts it
into an electrical signal. This process is called “transduction”.
Sensor Definition:
A Sensor is defined as a device which measures a physical quality
(light, sound, space) and converts them into an easily readable
format. If calibrated correctly, sensors are highly accurate devices.
Not all transducers are sensors, but most sensors are transducers.

For example, a thermistor is a type of sensor; it will respond to the

change in temperature but does not convert the energy into a
different format to what it was originally sensed in.
Transducer Definition:
Transducer is an electronic device which converts energy from one form
to another. There are six different types of measurements; mechanical,
magnetic, thermal, electric, chemical and radiation, a transducer can
take a measurement in one format and convert it to another. A
thermistor on its own is a sensor but, when it is incorporated into a
bigger circuit or device it will become an element of a transducer; for
example, a thermometer is a transducer.
 Sensor Transducer
Senses a physical Senses the physical
Working principle measurement and makes measurement and
it readable for the user but converts it from one form
keeps it in the same to another - e.g.: Non-
format electrical to electrical
Thermistor, motion sensor, Microphones, pressure
Examples pressure switch transducer, linear
transducer.
Patient monitoring, HVAC monitoring, engine
Uses / applications infrared toilet flushes, controls, steering systems,
liquid dispensing in drinks ramp and bridge lifting
machines. systems.
Static and Dynamic Characteristics of sensor and Transducer:
static characteristics relate to the performance of a transducer when the measured
quantity is essentially constant, the dynamic characteristics relate to dynamic inputs,
which means that they are dependent on its own parameters as well as the nature of the
input signal.
Static Characteristics:
The following are the static characteristics.
Static Error
Accuracy
Precision
Sensitivity
Reproducibility
Hysteresis
Drift
Dead zone
 Static Characteristics

Desirable Undesirable

• Hysteresis
• Static Error • Drift
• Accuracy • Dead zone
• Precision • Dynamic Error
• Sensitivity
• Reproducibility
• Resolution
 Static Error:
The difference between the true value of the measuring quantity to the value shown by
the measuring instrument under not varying process conditions.
Static error = True value of a measured variable – Instrument reading.
+ Ve Static error means Instrument reads high,
– Ve Static error means Instrument reading low
Accuracy: may be defined as the degree of closeness with which the instrument reading
approaching the true value of the quantity to be measured.
The measured quantity may be different from the true value due to the effects of
temperature, humidity, etc.,
Accuracy is expressed in the “ percentage of full-scale reading”. In the case of instruments
having a uniform scale, the accuracy can be expressed as “ Percentage of Full-scale reading.
The best way to develop the ideas of accuracy is to specify it in terms of the percentage of
the true value of a quantity being measured.
Precision: is the degree of exactness for which the instrument is designed.
It composed of two characteristics: conformity and significant figures.
More significant figures, estimated precision is more.
For example two resistors for values of 1792 ohms and 1710 ohms. A person even
repeated measurement it indicates 1.7 K ohms. The reader can not read the true
value from the scale.
He estimates from the scale reading consistently yield a value of 1.5 M ohms. This is
as close to the true scale as he can read the scale by estimation although there are no
deviations from the observed value, the error created by the limitation of the error is
called precision error.
This example indicates that the conformity is necessary but not enough condition,

.
because of the lack of significant figures obtained
Sensitivity:
Sensitivity can also be derived as for the smallest changes in the measured variable for
which the instrument responds.
Sensitivity can be defined as the ratio of a change in output to change in input which causes
it, in steady-state conditions.
The usage of this term is generally limited to linear devices, where the plot of output to
input magnitude is straight.

sensitivity = Change in output / Change in input

Sensitivity can also be derived as for smallest changes in the measured variable instrument
responds.
The term sensitivity is sometimes used to describe the maximum change in an input signal
that will not initiate on the output.
Note: The sensitivity of the instrument should be high.
Reproducibility: Under the different measurement conditions, if the successive measurements of the same variable
produce agreed results are called Reproducibility.
Resolution: It is the smallest quantity being measured which can be detected with certainty by an instrument.

If a non-zero input quantity is slowly increased, the output reading won’t increase until some minimum change in
the input takes place. The minimum change which causes the change in output is termed resolution.

Dead Zone: for the largest range of values of a measured variable, to which the instrument does not respond.
•The dead zone occurs more often due to static friction in indicating an instrument.
•A practical example is: Due to static friction, a Control valve does not open even for a large opening signals from
the controller.
Hysteresis: Hysteresis: Hysteresis is a phenomenon that illustrates the different output effects when loading and
unloading.
Many times, for the increasing values of input an instrument, may indicate one set of output values. For the
decreasing values of the input, the same instrument may indicate its different set of output values. When output
values are plotted against input the following kind of graph is obtained.

From the above figure, it can be seen that for increasing inputs and decreasing inputs the maximum variation is
seen at 50% of the full scale.

Drift is an undesired change in the output of a measured variable over a period that is unrelated to the changes in
output, operating conditions, load.
Drift may be caused by environmental factors mechanical vibrations, changes in temperatures, stray electric fields,
stray magnetic fields, thermal EMFs.

A drift in the calibration of the instrument occurs due to the aging of component parts. Drift occurs in flow
measurement due to wear and tear of primary sensing elements such as orifice plates.
Drift occurs in temperature measurement due to scale formation on thermowell.
Drift occurs in Thermocouple or RTD elements due to the change of metallic properties.
Drift for a measuring device can be systematic or random or both sometimes. Due to wear and tear in the edge of
an orifice plate the flow drift occurs systematic way.
Drift is further classified as :
•Zero Drift
•Span Drift
•Zonal Drift
Zero Drift: The zero drift is defined as the deviation in the measured variable starts right from zero in the output with
time.
The whole instrument calibration may gradually shift by the same amount as shown in the above figure.
The mechanical bathroom weighing scale is a common example. It is quite casual to find that there is a reading perhaps
1kg with no one stood on the scale. If someone of known weight weighs 70 kgs were to get on the scale, the reading
would be 71 kgs. If someone with a known weight of 100 kg the reading would be 101 kgs.
The Zero shift is normally removable by calibration.
Span Drift:: If there is a proportionate change in its indication right along the upward scale the drift is termed span drift
or sensitivity drift.
Zonal Drift: In case if the drift occurs only a certain portion of the span of an instrument. It is called zonal drift.

Dynamic Characteristics:
The Following are the dynamic characteristics
• Dynamic Error
• Speed of Response.
• Fidelity
• Lag.
Dynamic Error: The difference between the true value of the measured quantity to the value shown by the measuring
instrument under varying conditions.
Speed of response: It is defined as the rapidity of the measurement system that responds to the changes in the
measuring variable.
It indicates how active and fast the system is.
Fidelity: It is defined as the degree to which a measuring instrument is capable of faithfully reproducing the changes in
input, without any dynamic error.
Lag: Every system takes at least some time to respond, whatever time it may be to the changes in the measured variable.

For Example Lag occurs in temperature measurement by temperature sensors such as Thermocouple or RTD or dial
thermometer due to scale formation on thermowell due to process liquid.

Retardation lag: the response of the measurement begins immediately after the change in measured quantity has
occurred.

Time delay lag: in this case after the application of input, the response of the measurement system begins with some
dead times.
Kinematic chain
In mechanical engineering, a kinematic chain is an assembly of rigid bodies
connected by joints to provide constrained (or desired) motion that is the
mathematical model for a mechanical system. As in the familiar use of the
word chain, the rigid bodies, or links, are constrained by their connections to
other links.
 cam
A cam is a rotating or sliding piece in a mechanical linkage used especially
in transforming rotary motion into linear motion. It is often a part of a rotating
wheel (e.g., an eccentric wheel) or shaft (e.g., a cylinder with an irregular
shape) that strikes a lever at one or more points on its circular path.
Gear
Gears are toothed wheels that transmit motion from one shaft to another and
determine the speed, torque, and direction of rotation of machine
elements. Gears can be grouped into two major categories: those that
operate in pairs to connect parallel shafts and those that connect nonparallel
shafts.
Belts
A belt is a loop of flexible material used to link two or more
rotating shafts mechanically, most often parallel. Belts may be
used as a source of motion, to transmit power efficiently or to
track relative movement.
Bearing
A bearing is a machine element that constrains relative motion to
only the desired motion, and reduces friction between moving
parts. The design of the bearing may, for example, provide for
free linear movement of the moving part or for free rotation
around a fixed axis; or, it may prevent a motion by controlling
the vectors of normal forces that bear on the moving parts.
What is Hydraulics?

OLD DEFINITION:
Anything which is in affiliation with water is called hydrauli

NEW ERA DEFINITION:

Transmission & control
of
forces & movements
by means of fluids
is called hydraulics
Salient features of Hydraulics
Application of flow law(Velocity of piston in a cylinder)
Types of flow
Pressure intensification in cylinders
Pascal’s Law
Transfer of energy in a hydraulic circuit
Comparison of various energy transmission methods
Elements of a hydraulic system

Tank & Fluid

▪Energy converters
▪Control devices
▪Accessories
▪Connecting devices
▪Electrical & electronic components
Energy converters
Control elements
Power units & installations
Accessories
Simple hydraulic circuit (Semi pictorial view)
Simple hydraulic circuit (Symbolic method of presentation)
Hydraulic controls

Direction control valves

▪Pressure control valves
▪Flow control valves
▪Check valves & modular concept valve
Types of flow control valves/throttles

Simple throttle valve

Types of pressure control valves

Types of pressure control valves(Explanation Method-1)-

Pressure relief valve

Pressure sequence valve-
Pressure reducing valve

Types of pressure control valves(Explanation Method-2)

▪Group of Pr. Relief Valves

▪Group of Multi function valves* Un-loading valve*
Accumulator charging valve* Pressure sequence valve* Counter
balance/ Pre-tensioning valve-Counter balance valve-Load
holding valve-Brake valve-Over centrevalve
▪Group of pressure reducing vlvs
 Pneumatic system

Pneumatic systems use air as the medium which is

abundantly available and can be exhausted into the
atmosphere after completion of the assigned task.
Basic Components of Pneumatic System
Important components of a pneumatic system
a. Air filters: These are used to filter out the contaminants from the air.
b. Compressor: Compressed air is generated by using air compressors. Air
compressors are either diesel or electrically operated. Based on the
requirement of compressed air, suitable capacity compressors may be
used.
c. Air cooler: During compression operation, air temperature increases.
Therefore coolers are used to reduce the temperature of the
compressed air.
d. Dryer: The water vapor or moisture in the air is separated from the air
by using a dryer.
e. Control Valves: Control valves are used to regulate, control and monitor
for control of direction flow, pressure etc.
f. Air Actuator: Air cylinders and motors are used to obtain the required
movements of mechanical elements of pneumatic system.
g. Electric Motor: Transforms electrical energy into mechanical energy. It
is used to drive the compressor.
h. Receiver tank: The compressed air coming from the compressor is
stored in the air receiver.
Receiver tank
The air is compressed slowly in the compressor. But since the
pneumatic system needs continuous supply of air, this
compressed air has to be stored. The compressed air is stored
in an air receiver as shown in Figure. The air receiver
smoothens the pulsating flow from the compressor. It also
helps the air to cool and condense the moisture present. The
air receiver should be large enough to hold all the air delivered
by the compressor. The pressure in the receiver is held higher
than the system operating pressure to compensate pressure
loss in the pipes. Also the large surface area of the receiver
helps in dissipating the heat from the compressed air.
Generally the size of receiver depends on,
• Delivery volume of compressor.
• Air consumption.
• Pipeline network
• Type and nature of on-off regulation
• Permissible pressure difference in the pipelines
Receiver tank
Compressor
It is a mechanical device which converts mechanical
energy into fluid energy. The compressor increases
the air pressure by reducing its volume which also
increases the temperature of the compressed air. The
compressor is selected based on the pressure it needs
to operate and the delivery volume.
The compressor can be classified into two main types
a. Positive displacement compressors and
b. Dynamic displacement compressor

Positive displacement compressors include piston type,

vane type, diaphragm type and screw type.
 Piston compressors
Piston compressors are commonly
used in pneumatic systems. The
simplest form is single cylinder
compressor. As the piston moves
down during the inlet stroke the
inlet valve opens and air is
drawn into the cylinder. As the
piston moves up the inlet valve
closes and the exhaust valve
opens which allows the air to be
expelled. The valves are spring
loaded. The single cylinder
compressor gives significant
amount of pressure pulses at the
outlet port. The pressure
developed is about 3-40 bar.
Air treatment stages

For satisfactory operation of the pneumatic system the

compressed air needs to be cleaned and dried. Atmospheric
air is contaminated with dust, smoke and is humid. These
particles can cause wear of the system components and
presence of moisture may cause corrosion. Hence it is
essential to treat the air to get rid of these impurities. The air
treatment can be divided into three stages as shown in
Figure.
Filters
To prevent any damage to the compressor, the
contaminants present in the air need to be filtered out.
This is done by using inlet filters. These can be dry or
wet filters. Dry filters use disposable cartridges. In the
wet filter, the incoming air is passed through an oil
bath and then through a fine wire mesh filter. Dirt
particles cling to the oil drops during bubbling and are
removed by wire mesh as they pass through it. In the
dry filter the cartridges are replaced during servicing.
The wet filters are cleaned using detergent solution.
Cooler
As the air is compressed, the temperature of the air increases.
Therefore the air needs to be cooled. This is done by using a cooler. It
is a type of heat exchanger. There are two types of coolers commonly
employed viz. air cooled and water cooled.
 Relief valve
Relief valve is the simplest type
of pressure regulating device. It
is used as a backup device if the
main pressure control fails.
It consists of ball type valve held
on to the valve seat by a spring
in tension. The spring tension
can be adjusted by using the
adjusting cap. When the air
pressure exceeds the spring
tension pressure the ball is
displaced from its seat, thus
releasing the air and reducing
the pressure.
Non-relieving pressure regulator
If outlet pressure is too low,
the spring forces the
diaphragm and poppet to
move down thus opening
the valve to admit more
air and raise outlet
pressure. If the outlet
pressure is too high the air
pressure forces the
diaphragm up hence
reduces the air flow and
causing a reduction in air
pressure.
Actuators
Actuators are output devices which convert energy
from pressurized hydraulic oil or compressed air into
the required type of action or motion.
Actuators can be classified into three types.
1. Linear actuators: These devices convert
hydraulic/pneumatic energy into linear motion.
2. Rotary actuators: These devices convert
hydraulic/pneumatic energy into rotary motion.
3. Actuators to operate flow control valves: these are used to
control the flow and pressure of fluids such as gases, steam
or liquid.
Typical pressure of hydraulic cylinders is about 100 bar and
of pneumatic system is around 10 bar.
 Single acting cylinder

These cylinders produce work in one direction of motion

hence they are named as single acting cylinders. The
compressed air pushes the piston located in the
cylindrical barrel causing the desired motion. The return
stroke takes place by the action of a spring.
Double acting cylinder
Gear motor: a rotary actuator
 Limited rotation actuators

It consists of a single rotating vane connected to output shaft

as shown in Figure. It is used for double acting operation
and has a maximum angle of rotation of about 270°. These
are generally used to actuate dampers in robotics and
material handling applications.
VALVES
Valve are defined as devices to control or regulate the commencement,
termination and direction and also the pressure or rate of flow of a
fluid under pressure which is delivered by a compressor or vacuum
pump or is stored in a vessel.

1. Direction control valve

2. Non return valves
3. Flow control valves
4. Pressure control valves
DIRECTION CONTROL VALVES
Pneumatic systems like hydraulic system also require control valves to
direct and regulate the flow of fluid from the compressor to the
various devices like air actuators and air motors.
TYPES OF DIRECTION CONTROL VALVES
1. Based on construction ii) Electrical
i) Poppet or seat valves iii) Pneumatic
- Ball seat valve 4. Based on Size of the port
- Disc seat valve
Size refers to a valve’s port
- Diaphragm Valves
size. The port sizes are
ii) Sliding spool valves designated as M5, G1/8,
- Longitudinal slide valve and G1/4 etc. M refer to
- Suspended spool valves Metric thread, G refer to
- Rotary spool valves British standard pipe (BSP)
2. Based on the Number of thread.
ports 5. Based on mounting styles
i) Two way valves i) Sub base
ii) Three way valves ii) Manifold
iii) Four way valves iii) In-line
3. Based on methods of iv) Valve island
actuation
i) Mechanical
ISO DESIGNATION OF DIRECTION CONTROL
VALVES
Port Markings of Direction Control Valve
Port designation of DCV
Methods of actuation
Methods of actuation
NON RETURN VALVES

Non return valves permit flow of air in one direction

only, the other direction through the valve being at all
times blocked to the air flow. Mostly the valves are
designed so that the check is additionally loaded by
the downstream air pressure, thus supporting the
non-return action.
Check valve

The simplest type of non-return valve is the check

valve, which completely blocks air flow in one
direction while permitting flow in the opposite
direction with minimum pressure loss across the
valve.
 Shuttle valve
It is also known as a
double control valve or
double check valve. A
shuttle valve has two
inlets and one outlet. At
any one time, flow is
shut off in the direction
of whichever inlet is
unloaded and is open
from the loaded inlet to
the outlet. A shuttle
valve may be installed,
for example, when a
power unit (cylinder) or
control unit (valve) is to
be actuated from two
points, which may be
remote from one other.