Essentials of Human Anatomy & Physiology

Seventh Edition
Elaine N. Marieb

Chapter 3
Cells and Tissues
Cells and Tissues
• Carry out all chemical activities needed to
sustain life
• Cells are the building blocks of all living
things
• Cells are bathed in a dilute saltwater
solution called interstitial fluid derived from
the blood
• Tissues are groups of cells that are similar
in structure and function → organs →
organ systems → organism
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Cummings
 Anatomy of the Cell
• Cells are not all the same
• Size, shape, and function very different
• All cells share general structures
• Cells are organized into three main regions
• Nucleus
• Cytoplasm
• Plasma membrane

Figure 3.1a
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 The Nucleus
• Control center of the cell
• Contains genetic material
(DNA)
• Three regions
• Nuclear membrane
• Nucleolus
• Chromatin

Figure 3.1b
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Nuclear Membrane
• Barrier of the nucleus
• Consists of a selectively permeable,
double phospholipid membrane
• Contains nuclear pores that allow for
exchange of material with the rest of the
cell
• Inside is the nucleoplasm containing the
nucleoli and chromatin – fluid similar to
cytoplasm
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Nucleoli

• Nucleus contains one or more nucleoli

(nucleolus - singular)
• Sites of ribosome production and partial
assembly
• Ribosomes then migrate to the
cytoplasm through nuclear pores

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Chromatin

• Composed of unwound DNA and

protein – used for making proteins
• Scattered throughout the nucleus
• Chromatin condenses to form
chromosomes when the cell divides

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 Plasma Membrane
• Barrier for cell contents
• Semi-permeable, Double phospholipid layer
• Hydrophilic heads – water loving
• Hydrophobic tails – water fearing
• Other materials in plasma membrane
• Protein – receptors, cell recognition and
communication, channels for transport
• Cholesterol – keep membrane fluid and stable
• Glycoproteins – receptors, cell-to-cell interactions
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Plasma Membrane

Figure 3.2

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Plasma Membrane Specializations

• Microvilli
• Finger-like
projections that
increase surface
area for absorption

Figure 3.3

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 Plasma Membrane Specializations
• Membrane junctions
• Tight junctions –
impermeable, leakproof
sheets
• Desmosomes – anchorings
that prevent cells from being
separated
• Gap junctions – allow
communication between
cells through connexons that
span the two cell
membranes Figure 3.3
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Cytoplasm
• Material outside the nucleus and inside
the plasma membrane
• Cytosol
• Fluid containing nutrients dissolved in water
that suspends other elements
• Organelles
• Metabolic machinery of the cell
• Inclusions
• Non-functioning units – stored nutrients such
as fat droplets, glycogen granules, pigments,
and mucus
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Cytoplasmic Organelles

Figure 3.4

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Cytoplasmic Organelles
• Mitochondria
• “Powerhouses” of the cell
• Change shape continuously
• Has a double membrane and had its own
DNA
• Carry out reactions where oxygen is used
to break down food – cell respiration
• Provides ATP for cellular energy

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Cytoplasmic Organelles

• Ribosomes
• Made of protein and RNA
• Sites of protein synthesis
• Found at two locations
• Free in the cytoplasm
• Attached to rough endoplasmic reticulum

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Cytoplasmic Organelles
• Endoplasmic reticulum (ER)
• Fluid-filled tubules for carrying substances
• Two types of ER
• Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum
• Studded with ribosomes
• Site where building materials of cellular
membrane are formed
• Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum
• Functions in cholesterol synthesis and
breakdown, fat metabolism, and detoxification
of drugs
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Cytoplasmic Organelles

• Golgi apparatus
• Modifies and packages proteins
• Produces different types of packages
• Secretory vesicles – contain proteins for
export
• Cell membrane components to be added
to the plasma membrane
• Lysosomes – contain hydrolytic enzymes

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Cytoplasmic Organelles

Figure 3.5

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Cytoplasmic Organelles
• Lysosomes
• Contain enzymes that digest non-usable
materials within the cell such as old organelles
as well as bacteria and viruses
• Peroxisomes
• Membranous sacs of oxidase enzymes
• Detoxify harmful substances using O2
• Break down free radicals
(highly reactive chemicals with free electrons)
• Replicate by pinching in half
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Cytoplasmic Organelles

• Cytoskeleton
• Network of protein structures that extend
throughout the cytoplasm
• Provides the cell with an internal framework
• Determines cell shape, supports
organelles, provides path for intracellular
transport, involved in cell movement

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Cytoplasmic Organelles
• Cytoskeleton
• Three different types
• Microfilaments – cell
motility and changed in cell
shape – actin and myosin
• Intermediate filaments –
help form desmosomes
and internal guy wires
• Microtubules – determine
overall shape of a cell and
location of organelles Figure 3.6

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Cytoplasmic Organelles

• Centrioles
• Rod-shaped bodies made of microtubules
that lie at right angles to each other and
near the nucleus
• Direct formation of mitotic spindle during
cell division

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Cellular Projections

• Cilia and Flagella

• Not found in all cells
• Used for movement
• Cilia moves materials across the cell
surface – usually short and many
• Flagellum propels the cell – usually long
and few in number

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Cell Diversity

Figure 3.7; 1, 2

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Cell Diversity

Figure 3.7; 3

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Cell Diversity

Figure 3.7; 4, 5

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Cell Diversity

Figure 3.7; 6, 7

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Solutions and Transport

• Solution – homogeneous mixture of two

or more components
• Solvent – dissolving medium
• Solutes – components in smaller quantities
within a solution
• Intracellular fluid – nucleoplasm and
cytosol
• Interstitial fluid – fluid on the exterior of
the cell
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Cellular Physiology: Membrane Transport
• Membranes are selectively permeable –
• Membrane Transport – movement of
substance into and out of the cell
• Transport is by two basic methods
• Passive transport
• No energy is required
• Active transport
• The cell must provide metabolic
energy
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Selective Permeability

• The plasma membrane allows some

materials to pass while excluding others
• This permeability includes movement
into and out of the cell

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 Passive Transport Processes
• Diffusion
• Particles tend to distribute themselves evenly
within a solution
• Movement is
from high
concentration
to low
concentration,
or down a
concentration
gradient Figure 3.8

• Movement is due to kinetic energy in the

molecules and affected by size and temperature
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Passive Transport Processes

• Types of diffusion
• Simple diffusion – Passive diffusion
• Unassisted process
• Solutes are lipid-soluble materials or
small enough to pass through membrane
pores

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 Passive Transport Processes
• Types of diffusion
• Osmosis – simple diffusion of water
• Highly polar water easily crosses the plasma
membrane
• Occurs all the time
• Facilitated diffusion
• Substances require a protein carrier for passive
transport
• Still moving down concentration gradient and so
no energy is needed
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Diffusion through the Plasma
Membrane

Figure 3.9

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 Passive Transport Processes

• Filtration
• Water and solutes are forced through a
membrane by fluid, or hydrostatic pressure
• A pressure gradient must exist
• Solute-containing fluid is pushed from a high
pressure area to a lower pressure area
• Not very selective on what is filtered out – size

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Active Transport Processes
• Transport substances that are unable to pass
by diffusion
• They may be too large
• They may not be able to dissolve in the fat core
of the membrane
• They may have to move against a concentration
gradient
• Two common forms of active transport
• Solute pumping
• Bulk transport

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Active Transport Processes

• Solute pumping
• Amino acids, some sugars and ions are
transported by solute pumps
• ATP energizes protein carriers, and in most
cases, moves substances against
concentration gradients
• Can transport different molecules different
directions such as the sodium-potassium
pump

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Active Transport Processes

Figure 3.10

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Active Transport Processes

• Bulk transport
• Exocytosis
• Moves materials out of the cell
• Material is carried in a membranous vesicle
• Vesicle migrates to plasma membrane
• Vesicle combines with plasma membrane
• Material is emptied to the outside

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Active Transport Processes

Figure 3.11

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Active Transport Processes

• Bulk transport
• Endocytosis
• Extracellular substances are engulfed by
being enclosed in a membranous
vescicle
• Types of endocytosis
• Phagocytosis – cell eating
• Pinocytosis – cell drinking

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Active Transport Processes

Figure 3.12

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 Cell Life Cycle
• Series of changes a cell goes through from the
time it is formed until it divides
• Cells have two major periods
• Interphase – metabolic phase
• Longest phase where the cell grows
• Cell carries on metabolic processes
• Cell division
• Cell replicates itself
• Function is to produce more cells for growth and
repair processes Slide 3.43
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DNA Replication
• Genetic material
duplicated and
readies a cell for
division into two cells
• Occurs toward the
end of interphase
• DNA uncoils and
each side serves
as a template
Figure 3.13

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Events of Cell Division
• Mitosis
• Division of the nucleus
• Results in the formation of two daughter
nuclei
• Cytokinesis
• Division of the cytoplasm
• Begins when mitosis is near completion
• Results in the formation of two daughter
cells
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 Stages of Mitosis
• Interphase
• No cell division occurs
• The cell carries out normal metabolic activity
and growth
• Prophase
• First part of cell division
• Centromeres migrate to the poles and direct
the assembly of the mitotic spindle
• Chromosomes form
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Stages of Mitosis

• Metaphase
• Spindle from centromeres are attached to
chromosomes that are aligned in the center
of the cell

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Stages of Mitosis
• Anaphase
• Daughter chromosomes are pulled toward the
poles
• The cell begins to elongate
• Telophase
• Daughter nuclei begin forming
• A cleavage furrow (for cell division) begins to
form and finished dividing the cell into two by the
end of cytokinesis
• Everything from prophase is reversed
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 Stages of Mitosis

Figure 3.14; 1

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 Stages of Mitosis

Figure 3.14; 2

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Protein Synthesis

• Gene – DNA segment that carries a

blueprint for building one protein
• Proteins have many functions
• Building materials for cells
• Act as enzymes (biological catalysts)
• RNA is essential for protein synthesis

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Role of RNA

• Transfer RNA (tRNA)

• Transfers appropriate amino acids to the
ribosome for building the protein
• Ribosomal RNA (rRNA)
• Helps form the ribosomes along with
proteins where proteins are built
• Messenger (mRNA)
• Carries the instructions for building a
protein from the nucleus to the ribosome
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 Transcription and Translation
• Transcription
• Transfer of information from DNA’s base
sequence to the complimentary base
sequence of mRNA – switching T for U
• Translation
• Base sequence of mRNA is translated to an
amino acid sequence based on
codon/anticodon complements
• Amino acids are the building blocks of
proteins
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 Protein
Synthesis

Figure 3.15
Slide 3.54
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Body Tissues
• Cells are specialized for particular functions
• Tissues
• Groups of cells with similar structure and
function
• Four primary types
• Epithelium - covering
• Connective tissue - support
• Nervous tissue - control
• Muscle - movement

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Epithelial Tissues
• Found in different areas
• Body coverings
• Body linings
• Glandular tissue
• Functions
• Protection
• Absorption
• Filtration
• Secretion
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Epithelium Characteristics

• Cells fit closely together

• Tissue layer always has one free
surface – unattached, the apical surface
• The lower surface is bound by a
basement membrane – structureless
material secreted by the cells
• Avascular (have no blood supply) –
depend on diffusion
• Regenerate easily if well nourished
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Classification of Epithelium

• Number of cell layers

• Simple – one layer
• Stratified – more than
one layer

Figure 3.16a

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Classification of Epithelium

• Shape of cells
• Squamous – flattened
• Cuboidal – cube-shaped
• Columnar – column-like

Figure 3.16b

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 Simple Epithelium
• Simple squamous
• Single layer of flat cells
• Usually forms
membranes where
filtration or exchange
occurs
• Lines body cavities –
serous membranes
• Lines lungs and
capillaries
Figure 3.17a

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 Simple Epithelium
• Simple cuboidal
• Single layer of cube-
like cells
• Common in glands
and their ducts
• Forms walls
of kidney tubules
• Covers the ovaries

Figure 3.17b

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 Simple Epithelium
• Simple columnar
• Single layer of tall cells that
fit closely together
• Often includes goblet cells,
which produce mucus
• Lines digestive tract
• Mucosae – mucous
membranes line body
cavities open to the body Figure 3.17c

exterior
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Simple Epithelium
• Pseudostratified
columnar
• Single layer, but some
cells are shorter than
others
• Often looks like a
double cell layer
• Sometimes ciliated,
such as in the
respiratory tract
• May function in Figure 3.17d

absorption or secretion
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 Stratified Epithelium – 2+ layers
• Stratified squamous
• Cells at the free edge are
flattened while cells close to
the basement membrane are
cuboidal or columnar
• Found as a protective
covering where friction is
common
• Locations
• Skin
• Mouth Figure 3.17e

• Esophagus
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Stratified Epithelium
• Stratified cuboidal
• Two layers of cuboidal cells
• Stratified columnar
• Surface cells are columnar, cells
underneath vary in size and shape
• Stratified cuboidal and columnar
• Rare in human body
• Found mainly in ducts of large glands

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 Stratified Epithelium
• Transitional epithelium
• Shape of cells depends
upon the amount of
stretching
• Cells of the basal layer
are cuboidal or columnar
while those at the free
surface vary
• Lines organs of the
urinary system Figure 3.17f

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 Glandular Epithelium
• Gland – one or more cells that secretes a
particular product – a secretion, which contains
protein molecules in an aqueous fluid
• Two major gland types
• Endocrine gland
• Ductless
• Secretions are hormones – diffuse into blood
• Exocrine gland
• Empty through ducts to the epithelial surface
• Include sweat and oil glands
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Connective Tissue

• Found everywhere in the body

• Includes the most abundant and widely
distributed tissues
• Functions
• Binds body tissues together
• Supports the body
• Provides protection

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Connective Tissue Characteristics

• Variations in blood supply

• Some tissue types are well vascularized
• Some have poor blood supply or are
avascular such as tendons, ligaments, and
cartilage
• Extracellular matrix
• Non-living material that surrounds living
cells
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Extracellular Matrix
• Two main elements
• Ground substance – mostly water along
with adhesion proteins and polysaccharide
molecules
• Fibers
• Produced by the cells
• Three types
• Collagen fibers
• Elastic fibers
• Reticular fibers
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Connective Tissue Types
• Bone (osseous tissue)
• Composed of:
• Bone cells in lacunae
(cavities)
• Hard matrix of calcium
salts
• Large numbers of
collagen fibers
• Used to protect and
support the body Figure 3.18a

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Connective Tissue Types

• Hyaline cartilage
• Most common
cartilage
•
• Abundant collagen
fibers
• Rubbery matrix
• Entire fetal skeleton
is hyaline cartilage Figure 3.18b

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Connective Tissue Types

• Fibrocartilage
• Highly compressible
• Example: forms
cushion-like discs
between vertebrae

Figure 3.18c

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 Connective Tissue Types

• Elastic cartilage
• Provides elasticity
• Example: supports the external ear
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 Connective Tissue Types
• Dense connective tissue
• Main matrix element is
collagen fibers
• Crowed between the
collagen fibers are rows of
cells called fibroblasts
• Examples
• Tendon – attach muscle
to bone
• Ligaments – attach bone
to bone Figure 3.18d

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 Loose Connective Tissue Types
• Areolar connective
tissue
• Most widely distributed
connective tissue
• Soft, pliable tissue
• Functions as universal
packing tissue and
connective tissue glue
• Contains all fiber types
• Can soak up excess fluid
Figure 3.18e

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Connective Tissue Types
• Adipose tissue
• Matrix is an areolar tissue in which fat
globules predominate
• Many cells contain
large lipid deposits
• Functions
• Insulates the body
• Protects some organs
• Serves as a site of
fuel storage
Figure 3.18f

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Connective Tissue Types
• Reticular
connective tissue
• Delicate network of
interwoven fibers
• Forms stroma
(internal supporting
network) of
lymphoid organs
• Lymph nodes
• Spleen
• Bone marrow Figure 3.18g

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 Connective Tissue Types

• Blood
• Blood cells
surrounded by fluid
matrix
• Fibers are visible
during clotting
• Functions as the
transport vehicle
for materials
Figure 3.18h
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Muscle Tissue

• Function is to produce movement by

contracting or shortening
• Three types
• Skeletal muscle
• Cardiac muscle
• Smooth muscle

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Muscle Tissue Types

• Skeletal muscle
• Can be controlled
voluntarily
• Cells attach to
connective tissue
• Cells are striated
• Cells have more than
one nucleus
Figure 3.19b

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Muscle Tissue Types
• Cardiac muscle
• Found only in the
heart
• Function is to pump
blood (involuntary)
• Cells attached to
other cardiac muscle
cells at intercalated
disks
• Cells are striated
• One nucleus per cell Figure 3.19c

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 Muscle Tissue Types
• Smooth muscle –
visceral muscle
• Involuntary muscle
• Surrounds hollow organs
• Attached to other smooth
muscle cells
• No visible striations
• One nucleus per cell
•Spindle shaped Figure 3.19a

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 Nervous Tissue
• Neurons and nerve
supporting cells (those
that insulate, support, and
protect neurons)
• Function is to receive
and send impulses to
other areas of the
body
• Irritability
•Conductivity Figure 3.20

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 Tissue Repair (wound Healing)
• Regeneration
• Replacement of destroyed tissue by the
same kind of cells
• Fibrosis
• Repair by dense fibrous connective tissue
(scar tissue)
• Determination of method
• Type of tissue damaged
•Severity of the injury
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 Events in Tissue Repair

• Capillaries become very permeable

• Introduce clotting proteins to make clot
• Wall off injured area to prevent blood loss
and infection
• Formation of granulation tissue
• Contains capillaries and phagocytes
• Regeneration of surface epithelium just
below the scab
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Regeneration of Tissues
• Tissues that regenerate easily
• Epithelial tissue
• Fibrous connective tissue and bone
• Tissues that regenerate poorly
• Skeletal muscle
• Tissues that are replaced largely with scar
tissue
• Cardiac muscle
•Nervous tissue within the brain and spinal cord
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 Developmental Aspects of Tissue

• Epithelial tissue arises from all three

primary germ layers
• Muscle and connective tissue arise from
the mesoderm
• Nervous tissue arises from the
ectoderm
• With old age there is a decrease in
mass and viabililty in most tissues
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