Chapter 11.

Vectors and the Geometry of Space 1

§11.1 Three-Dimensional Coordinate Systems

• The direction of z-axis is determined by the right-hand rule.

• The three coordinate axes determine the three coordinate planes as illus-
trated in figure above.
• The xy-plane is the plane that contains the x- and y-axes.
• The yz-plane is the plane that contains the y- and z-axes.
• The xz-plane is the plane that contains the x- and z-axes.

• These three coordinate planes divide space into eight parts, called octants.

• The first octant is determined by the positive axes.

 Chapter 11. Vectors and the Geometry of Space 2

Example 1. What surfaces in R3 are represented by the following equations?

(a) z = 3 (b) y = 5
(sol)

Example 2. (a) Which points (x, y, z) satisfy the equations x2 + y 2 = 1

and z = 3.

(b) What does the equation x2 + y 2 = 1 represent as a surface in R3?

Example 3. Describe and sketch the surface in R3 represented by the equa-

tion y = x.
(sol)
 Chapter 11. Vectors and the Geometry of Space 3

• The distance d between the points P1(x1, y1, z1) and P2(x2, y2, z2) is
p
d = |P1P2| = (x2 − x1)2 + (y2 − y1)2 + (z2 − z1)2

• An equation of a sphere with center C(h, k, l) and radius r is

(x − h)2 + (y − k)2 + (z − l)2 = r2
Example 6. Show that x2 + y 2 + z 2 + 4x − 6y + 2z + 6 = 0 is the equation
of a sphere, and find its center and radius.
(sol)
 Chapter 11. Vectors and the Geometry of Space 4

§11.2 Vectors

• The term vector is used to indicate a quantity (such as displacement or

velocity or force) that has both magnitude and direction.

• Suppose a particle moves along a line segment from point A to point B.

The corresponding displacement vector v has initial point A and ter-
−→
minal point B and we indicate this by writing v = AB.
−−→
• If the vector u = CD has the same length and the same direction as
−→
v = AB even though it is in a different position, then we say that u and v
are equivalent (or equal) and we write u = v.

• The zero vector 0 has length 0. It is only vector with no specific direc-
tion.
 Chapter 11. Vectors and the Geometry of Space 5

 Combining Vectors

• Vector Addition: If u and v are vectors positioned so the initial point

of v is at the terminal point of u , then the sum u+v is the vector from
the initial point of u to the terminal point of v.

• Scalar Multiple: If c is a scalar and v is a vector, then the scalar mul-

tiple cv is the vector whose length is |c| times the length of v and whose
direction is the same as v if c > 0 and is opposite to v if c < 0. If c = 0 or
v = 0, then cv = 0.

• Two nonzero vectors are parallel if they are scalar multiples of one another.

• The vector −v = (−1)v has the same length as v but points in the oppo-
site direction. We call it the negative of v.

• Difference: By the difference of two vectors we mean u − v = u + (−v)

 Chapter 11. Vectors and the Geometry of Space 6

 Components

• If we place the initial point of a vector a at the origin of a rectangular

coordinate system, then the terminal point of a has coordinates of the form
(a1, a2) or (a1, a2, a3). These coordinates are called the components of a
and we write
a =< a1, a2 > or a =< a1, a2, a3 >
−→
• a = OP =< a1, a2, a3 > is the position vector of the point P (a1, a2, a3).

• Given the points A(x1, y1, z1) and B(x2, y2, z2), the vector a with repre-
−→
sentation AB is
a =< x2 − x1, y2 − y1, z2 − z1 >
• The length or magnitude of the vector a =< a1, a2, a3 > is
q
|a| = a21 + a22 + a23
• If a =< a1, a2, a3 > and b =< b1, b2, b3 >, then

1 a + b =< a1 + b1, a2 + b2, a3 + b3 >

2 a − b =< a1 − b1, a2 − b2, a3 − b3 >

3 ca =< ca1, ca2, ca3 >

 Chapter 11. Vectors and the Geometry of Space 7

Properties of Vectors If a, b, and c are vectors in Vn and c and d are

scalars, then
1. a + b = b + a 2. a + (b + c) = (a + b) + c
3. a + 0 = a 4. a + (−a) = 0
5. c(a + b) = ca + cb 6. (c + d)a = ca + da
7.(cd)a = c(da) 8. 1a = a
• The vectors i =< 1, 0, 0 >, j =< 0, 1, 0 >, k =< 0, 0, 1 > are called
the standard basis vectors. If a =< a1, a2, a3 >, then we can write
a = a1i + a2j + a3k
• A unit vector is a vector whose length is 1. If a 6= 0, then the unit vector
that has the same direction as a is
1 a
u= a=
|a| |a|
Example 5. If a = i + 2j − 3k and b = 4i + 7k, express the vector 2a + 3b
in terms of i, j, and k.

Example 6. Find the unit vector in the direction of the vector 2i − j − 2k.
 Chapter 11. Vectors and the Geometry of Space 8

§11.3 The Dot Product

• The dot product (or scalar product or inner product) of

a =< a1, a2, · · · , an > and b =< b1, b2, · · · , bn > is the number a · b
given by a · b = a1b1 + a2b2 + · · · + anbn.

Properties of the Dot Product If a, b, and c are vectors in V3 and

c is a scalar, then
1. a · a = |a|2 2. a · b = b · a
3. a · (b + c) = a · b + a · c 4. (ca) · b = c(a · b) = a · (cb)
5. 0 · a = 0

Theorem If θ(0 ≤ θ ≤ π) is the angle between the vectors a and b, then

a · b = |a||b| cos θ
(Proof)
 Chapter 11. Vectors and the Geometry of Space 9

Example 2. If the vectors a and b have lengths 4 and 6, and the angle
between them is π/3, find a · b.
(sol)

Example 3. Find the angle between the vectors a =< 2, 2, −1 > and
b =< 5, −3, 2 >.
(sol)

• Two nonzero vectors a and b are called perpendicular or orthogo-

nal if the angle between them is π/2. The zero vector is considered to be
perpendicular to all vectors. Therefore we have the following method for
determining whether two vectors are orthogonal.

Two vectors a and b are orthogonal if and only if a · b = 0

Example 4. Show that 2i + 2j − k is perpendicular to 5i − 4j + 2k.

(sol)
 Chapter 11. Vectors and the Geometry of Space 10

 Direction Angles and Direction Cosines

• The direction angles of a nonzero vector a are the angles α, β, and γ

(in the interval [0, π]) that a makes with the positive x-, y-, and z-axes.

• The cosines of these direction angles, cos α, cos β, and cos γ, are called
the direction cosines of the vector a.

Note:
a·i a1 a2 a3
1) cos α = = , cos β = , cos γ =
|a||i| |a| |a| |a|
2) cos2 α + cos2 β + cos2 γ = 1

3) a = |a| < cos α, cos β, cos γ >

1
4) a =< cos α, cos β, cos γ >
|a|

Example 5. Find the direction angles of the vector a =< 1, 2, 3 >.

(sol)
 Chapter 11. Vectors and the Geometry of Space 11

 Projections

• The scalar projection of b onto a (the component of b along a) is

a·b
compab =
|a|
• The vector projection of b onto a is
 
a·b a a·b
projab = = a
|a| |a| |a|2
Example 6. Find the scalar projection and vector projection of b =<
1, 1, 2 > onto a =< −2, 3, 1 >.
(sol)

Example 8. A force is given by a vector F = 3i + 4j + 5k and moves

a particle from the point P (2, 1, 0) to the point Q(4, 6, 2). Find the work
done.
(sol)
 Chapter 11. Vectors and the Geometry of Space 12

§11.4 The Cross Product

Definition If a =< a1, a2, a3 > and b =< b1, b2, b3 >, then the cross
product of a and b is the vector
a × b =< a2b3 − a3b2, a3b1 − a1b3, a1b2 − a2b1 >

Example 1. If a =< 1, 3, 4 > and b =< 2, 7, −5 >, then a × b =?

(sol)

Example 2. Show that a × a = 0, ∀ a ∈ V3

(sol)
i j k
a × a = a1 a2 a3 = 0
a1 a2 a3
Theorem The vector a × b is orthogonal to both a and b.
a a a a a a
(Proof)(a × b) • a = 2 3 a1 − 1 3 a2 + 1 2 a3 = 0
b2 b3 b1 b3 b1 b2
 Chapter 11. Vectors and the Geometry of Space 13

Theorem If θ is the angle between a and b (so 0 ≤ θ ≤ π), then

|a × b| = |a||b| sin θ
(Proof)
|a × b|2 = (a2b3 − a3b2)2 + (a1b3 − a3b1)2 + (a1b2 − a2b1)2
= (a21 + a22 + a23)(b21 + b22 + b23) − (a1b1 + a2b2 + a3b3)2
= |a|2|b|2 − (a • b)2 = |a|2|b|2 − |a|2|b|2 cos2 θ
= |a|2|b|2(1 − cos2 θ) = |a|2|b|2 sin2 θ

Corollary Two nonzero vectors a and b are parallel if and only if

a×b=0

Example 3. Find a vector perpendicular to the plane that passes through

the points P (1, 4, 6), Q(−2, 5, −1) and R(1, −1, 1).
−→ −→ −→ −→
(sol) P Q =< −3, 1, −7 >, P R =< 0, −5, −5 > ⇒ P Q × P R =<
−40, −15, 15 >
∴ α < 8, 3, −3 >, α is nonzero real number
 Chapter 11. Vectors and the Geometry of Space 14

Note:
1 i × j = k, j × k = i, k × i = j,
j × i = −k, k × j = −i, i × k = −j

2 i × (i × j) = i × k = −j,
(i × i) × j = 0 × j = 0

Theorem If a, b, and c are vectors and C is a scalar, then

1. a × b = −b × a
2. (Ca) × b = C(a × b) = a × (Cb)
3. a × (b + c) = a × b + a × c
4. (a + b) × c = a × c + b × c
5. a • (b × c) = (a × b) • c (scalar triple product)
6. a × (b × c) = (a • c)b − (a • b)c

The volume of the parallelepiped determined by the vectors a, b, and c is

the magnitude of their scalar triple product:
V = | a • (b × c) |
 Chapter 11. Vectors and the Geometry of Space 15

Note:
1 V = Ah = | b × c || a || cos θ | = | a • (b × c) |

2 If V = | a • (b × c) | = 0, then a, b, c are coplanar.

Example 5. Show that a =< 1, 4, −7 >, b =< 2, −1, 4 > and c =<
0, −9, 18 > are coplanar.

(sol)
 Chapter 11. Vectors and the Geometry of Space 16

§11.5 Equations of Lines and Planes

 Lines

• Let v be a vector parallel to a line L and let r0 and r be the position

vectors P0 and P . Then

1 r = r0 + tv (t is a scalar): a vector equation of L.


 x = x0 + ta
2 y = y0 + tb , t ∈ R : parametric equations of L.
z = z0 + tc


x − x0 y − y0 z − z0
3 = = : symmetric equations of L.
a b c
B The numbers a, b and c are direction numbers of L.
y − y0 z − z0
B a = 0 ⇒ x = x0 , =
b c
 Chapter 11. Vectors and the Geometry of Space 17

4 The line segment from r0 to r1 is given by the vector equation

r(t) = (1 − t)r0 + tr1, 0≤t≤1
Example 2. (a) Find parametric equations and symmetric equations of the
line that pass through the points A(2, 4, −3) and B(3, −1, 1).
(b) At what point does this line intersect the xy−plane?
−−→ −→
(sol) (a) v = OB − OA =< 1, −5, 4 > ∴ x = 2 + t, y = 4 − 5t, z =
−3 + 4t
or
x−2 y−4 z+3
= =
1 −5 4
(b) Put z = 0, then
x−2 y−4 3 11 1 11 1
= = ⇒ x= , y= ∴ ( , , 0)
1 −5 4 4 4 4 4

Example 3. Show that the lines L1 and L2 are skew lines.

x = 1 + t, y = −2 + 3t, z = 4 − t
x = 2s, y = 3 + s, z = −3 + 4s
(sol) Two direction vectors < 1, 3, −1 > and < 2, 1, 4 > are not parallel.
If L1 and L2 ha a point of intersection.
∃ t and s such that
1 + t = 2s, − 2 + 3t = 3 + s, 4 − t = −3 + 4s
But if we solve the first two equations, we get t = 11 8
5 , s = 5 , and these
values don’t satisfy the third equation. Thus, L1 and L2 are skew lines.
 Chapter 11. Vectors and the Geometry of Space 18

 Planes

1 n · (r − r0) = 0 or n · r = n · r0 : a vector equation of the plane

2 a(x − x0) + b(y − y0) + c(z − z0) = 0 : the scalar equation of the
plane through P0(x0, y0, z0) with normal vector n =< a, b, c >.

3 ax + by + cz + d = 0, where d = −(ax0 + by0 + cz0): a linear equation

in x, y, z

Example 5. Find the equation of plane that passes through P (1, 3, 2), Q(3, −1, 6)
and R(5, 2, 0).
(sol)
 Chapter 11. Vectors and the Geometry of Space 19

Example 6. Find the point at which the line x = 2+3t, y = −4t, z = 5+t
intersects the plane 4x + 5y − 2z = 18.
(sol) 4(2 + 3t) + 5(−4t) − 2(5 + t) = 18 ⇒ t = −2 ∴ (−4, 8, 3).

Note:

1 Two planes are parallel ⇔ Their normal vectors are parallel.

2 The angle between two planes = The angle between corresponding nor-
mal vectors.

Example 7. (a) Find the angle between x + y + z = 1 and x − 2y + 3z = 1.

(b) Find symmetric equations for the line of intersection L of these two
planes.
(sol) (a) n1 =< 1, 1, 1 >, n2 =< 1, −2, 3 >.
n1 · n2 2 2
cos θ = =√ ∴ θ = cos−1 √ ≈ 72◦
|n1||n2| 42 42

(b) 3y − 2z = 0 ⇒ z = 0, y = 0 ⇒ x = 1
Thus, intersection point : (1, 0, 0), direction vector n = n1 × n2 =<
5, −2, −3 >.
x−1 y z
∴ = =
 Chapter 11. Vectors and the Geometry of Space 20

§11.6 Cylinders and Quadric Surfaces

 Cylinders

• Traces are the curves of intersection of the surface with planes paral-
lel to the coordinate planes.

• A cylinder is a surface that consist of all lines (called rulings) that are
parallel to a given line and pass through a given plane curve.

Example 1. Sketch the graph of the surface z = x2.

(sol) Parabolic cylinder:
 Chapter 11. Vectors and the Geometry of Space 21

Note: If one of x, y, or z is missing from the equation of a surface, then

the surface is a cylinder.

Example 2. Sketch the surfaces.

(a) x2 + y 2 = 1 (b) y 2 + z 2 = 1
(sol)
 Chapter 11. Vectors and the Geometry of Space 22

 Quadric Surfaces

• A quadric surface is the graph of a second-degree equation in x, y, and z.

• The general equation is

Ax2 + By 2 + Cz 2 + Dxy + Eyz + F xz + Gx + Hy + Iz + J = 0
• The standard forms are (by translation and rotation)
Ax2 + By 2 + Cz 2 + J = 0 or Ax2 + By 2 + Iz = 0
Example 3. Use traces to sketch the quadric surface

2y2 z2
x + + = 1.
9 4
(sol)