Biological Classification

Aristotle’s Classification:
Aristotle was the earliest to attempt a more scientific basis for
classification. He used simple morphological characters to
classify plants into trees, shrubs, and herbs. He also divided
animals into two groups, those which had red blood and those
which did not. Non-red-blooded animals were further divided
into soft bodied and hard bodied animals (insects).

Linnaeus’s Classification:
In Linnaeus’ time, a Two Kingdom system of classification
with Plantae and Animalia kingdoms was developed that
included all plants and animals respectively.
Drawbacks: (i) This system did not distinguish between the
eukaryotes and prokaryotes. Example: Both cyanobacteria and
green plants were placed in Kingdom Plantae.
(ii) It did not distinguish between unicellular and multicellular
organisms.
(iii) It did not distinguish between photosynthetic and non-
photosynthetic organisms. Example: Green algae and fungi
were placed in Plantae.
(iv) It did not distinguish between autotrophic and heterotrophic
organisms, though they showed a characteristic difference in
their cell wall composition- the fungi had chitin in their walls
while green plants had cellulose.
(v) Earlier, classification systems included bacteria, blue-green
algae, fungi, mosses, ferns, gymnosperms, and the
angiosperms under “Plants”. The character that unified this
whole kingdom was that all organisms included had a cell wall
in their cells. This placed together groups which widely differed
in other characteristics.
(vi) It brought together the prokaryotic bacteria and the blue-
green algae with other groups which were eukaryotic. It also
grouped together unicellular organisms and the multicellular
ones (Chlamydomonas and Spirogyra were placed under algae).
How did Five Kingdom Classification come into
existence?
Besides gross morphology, a need was felt to include other
characteristics like cell structure, nature of wall, mode of
nutrition, habitat, methods of reproduction, evolutionary
relationships, etc.

R.H Whittaker’s Classification:

R.H Whittaker (1969) proposed a Five Kingdom
Classification. The kingdoms defined by him where named
Monera, Protista, Fungi, Plantae and Animalia. The main
criteria for classification used by him include cell structure,
body organisation, mode of nutrition, reproduction, and
phylogenetic relationships.

Three-Domain System:
Has also been proposed by Carl Woese that divided the
Kingdom Monera into two domains, leaving the remaining
eukaryotic kingdoms in the third domain and thereby a six-
kingdom classification.
Drawbacks: (i) Only focuses on bacteria and is not applicable
for higher organisms. (ii) does not provide a detailed
explanations for plants and animals.
How were organisms placed into five kingdoms?
The fungi were placed in a separate kingdom- Kingdom Fungi.
All prokaryotic organisms were grouped together under
Kingdom Monera and the unicellular eukaryotic organisms were
placed in Kingdom Protista. It had brought together
Chlamydomonas, Chlorella (earlier placed in Algae under
Plantae) with Paramecium and Amoeba (which were placed
in animal kingdom).

Kingdom Monera:
Bacteria are the sole members of Kingdom Monera. They are
the most abundant micro-organisms. Bacteria occur almost
everywhere. They are cosmopolitan.
Types of Bacteria (on basis of shape):
Bacteria are grouped under four categories based on their
shape: the spherical Coccus, the rod shaped Bacillus, the
comma-shaped Vibrio, and the spiral shaped Spirillum.
Types of Bacteria (on basis of nutrition):
Though the bacterial structure is very simple, they are very
complex in behaviour. Compared to many other organisms,
bacteria as a group show the most extensive metabolic
diversity. Some of the bacteria are autotrophic i.e., they
synthesise their own food from inorganic substrates. They may
be photosynthetic autotrophic or chemosynthetic
autotrophic. The vast majority of bacteria are heterotrophs
i.e., they depend on other organisms or on dead organic matter
for food.

Archaebacteria:
 These bacteria are special since they live in some of the
most harsh habitats such as extremely salty area
(halophiles), hot springs (thermoacidophiles), and
marshy areas (methanogens).
 They differ from other bacteria in having a different cell
wall structure and this feature is responsible for their
survival in extreme conditions.
 Methanogens are present in the gut of several ruminant
animals such as cows and buffaloes and they are
responsible for the production of methane (biogas) from
the dung of these animals.

Eubacteria (or true bacteria):

They are characterised by the presence of a rigid cell wall, and
if motile, a flagellum.
Cyanobacteria: They have chlorophyll a similar to green
plants and are photosynthetic autotrophs. They are
unicellular, colonial or filamentous, freshwater/marine or
terrestrial algae. The colonies are often surrounded by
gelatinous sheath. They often form blooms in polluted water
bodies. Some of these organisms can fix atmospheric nitrogen
in specialised cells called heterocysts, e.g., Nostoc and
Anabaena.
Chemosynthetic Autotrophic Bacteria: oxidise various
inorganic substances such as nitrates, nitrites and ammonia
and use the released energy for their ATP production. They
play a great role in recycling nutrients like nitrogen,
phosphorous, iron and sulphur.
Heterotrophic Bacteria: are most abundant in nature. The
majority are important decomposers. Many of them have a
significant impact on human affairs. They are helpful in making
curd from milk, production of antibiotics, fixing nitrogen in
legume roots, etc. Some are pathogens causing damage to
human beings, crops, farm animals and pets. Cholera,
typhoid, tetanus, citrus canker are well-known diseases
caused by different bacteria.
Reproduction (Asexual):
(i) Fission (ii) Spore formation (during unfavourable conditions)
Reproduction (Sexual):
They also reproduce by a sort of sexual reproduction by
adopting a primitive type of DNA transfer from one bacterium
to the other (conjugation). 1
Mycoplasma: are organisms that completely lack a cell wall.
They are the smallest living cells known and can survive
without oxygen. They are pathogenic in animals and plants.

Kingdom Protista:
 All unicellular eukaryotes are placed under Protista but
the boundaries of this kingdom are not well-defined.
What may be “a protistan” to one biologist may be a
“plant” to another.
 Members of Protista are primarily aquatic. This kingdom
forms a link with the others dealing with plants,
animals, and fungi.
 Being eukaryotes, the Protistan cell body contains a
well-defined nucleus and other membrane-bound
organelles. Some have flagella or cilia.
 Protists reproduce asexually and sexually by a process
involving cell fusion and zygote formation.

Chrysophytes:
Example: Includes diatoms and golden algae (desmids).
Habitat: Found in freshwater as well as marine environments.
They are microscopic and float passively in the water currents
(planktons).
Nutrition: They are photosynthetic (most).
Cell Wall: In diatoms the cell walls form two thin overlapping
shells, which fit together as in a soap box. The walls are
embedded with silica and thus they are indestructible.
Unique Feature:
 Diatoms have left behind large amounts of cell wall
deposits in their habitat; this accumulation over billions of
years is referred to as “diatomaceous earth”. Being
gritty this soil is used in polishing, filtration of oils and
syrups.
 Diatoms are chief producers of oceans.

Dinoflagellates:
Example: Gonyaulax
Habitat: Mostly marine.
Nutrition: They are photosynthetic.
Cell Wall: The cell wall has stiff cellulose plates on the outer
surface.
Flagella: Most of them have two flagella; one lies
longitudinally and the other transversely in a furrow between
the wall plates.
Unique Features:
 They appear yellow, green, brown, blue or red depending
on the main pigments present in their cells.
 Very often, red dinoflagellates undergo such rapid
multiplication that they make the sea appear red (red
tides). Toxins released by such large numbers may even
kill other marine animals such as fishes.

Euglenoids:
Example: Euglena
Habitat: Majority of them are freshwater organisms found in
stagnant water.
Nutrition: Though they are photosynthetic in the presence of
sunlight, when deprived of sunlight they behave like
heterotrophs by predating on other smaller organisms.
Interestingly, pigments of euglenoids are identical to those
found in higher plants.
Cell Wall: Instead of a cell wall, they have protein-rich layer
called pellicle which makes their body flexible.
Flagella: They have two flagella, a short one and a long one.
Slime Moulds:
Habitat: The body moves along decaying twigs, and leaves
engulfing organic material.
Nutrition: They are saprophytic protists.
Unique Features:
 Under suitable conditions, they form an aggregation called
plasmodium which may grow and spread over several
feet.
 During unfavourable conditions, the plasmodium
differentiates and forms fruiting bodies bearing spores at
their tips.
 The spores posses true walls. They are extremely resistant
and survive for many years, even under adverse
conditions. The spores are dispersed by air currents.
Protozoans:
All protozoans are heterotrophs and live as predators or
parasites. They are believed to be primitive relatives of
animals. There are four major groups of protozoans.
(i) Amoeboid Protozoans: These organisms live in fresh
water, sea water or moist soil. They move and capture
prey by putting out their pseudopodia (false feet) as in
Amoeba. Marine forms have silica shells on their
surface. Some of them such as Entamoeba are
parasites.
(ii) Flagellated Protozoans: The members of this group
are either free-living or parasites. They have flagella.
The parasitic forms cause diseases such as sleeping
sickness. Example: Trypanosoma
(iii) Ciliated Protozoans: These are aquatic; actively
moving organisms because of the presence of
thousands of cilia. They have a cavity (gullet) that
opens to the outside of the cell surface. The
coordinated movement of rows of cilia causes the water
laden with food to be steered into the gullet. Example:
Paramecium
(iv) Sporozoans: This includes diverse organisms that
have an infectious spore like stage in their life cycle.
The most notorious is Plasmodium (malaria parasite)
 which causes malaria, a disease which has a staggering
effect on human population.

Kingdom Fungi:
They constitute a unique kingdom of heterotrophic organisms.
They show great diversity in morphology and habitat.
Examples: Fungi are present on moist breads and rotten fruits.
Common mushrooms and toadstools are also fungi. White spots
seen on mustard leaves are due to a parasitic fungus (Albugo
candida). Unicellular fungi, yeast is used to make bread and
beer. Other fungi cause diseases in plants and animals; wheat-
rust causing Puccinia is an example. Some are source of
antibiotics, e.g., Penicillium.
Habitat: They are cosmopolitan and occur in air, water, soil
and on plants and animals. They prefer to grow in warm and
humid places.
Body Organisation: With the exception of yeast which is
unicellular, fungi are filamentous. Their bodies consist of long,
slender, thread-like structures called hyphae. The network of
hyphae is known as mycelium. Some hyphae are continuous
tubes filled with multinucleated cytoplasm- these are called
coenocytic hyphae. Others have septae or cross walls in their
hyphae. These are called septate hyphae. And hyphae
without cross walls are aseptate. The cell walls of fungi are
composed of chitin and polysaccharides.
Nutrition: Most fungi are heterotrophic and absorb soluble
organic matter from dead substrates and hence are called
saprophytes. Those that depend on living plants and animals
are called parasites. They can also live as symbionts- in
association with algae as lichens and with roots of higher plants
as mycorrhiza.
Reproduction: Can take place by vegetative means-
fragmentation, fission and budding. Asexual reproduction
is by spores called conidia or sporangiospores or zoospores,
and sexual reproduction is by oospores, ascospores, and
basidiospores. The various spores are produced in distinct
structures called fruiting bodies. The sexual cycle involves…
(i) Fusion of protoplasms between two motile or non-motile
gametes called plasmogamy.
 (ii) Fusion of two nuclei called karyogamy.
(iii) Meiosis in zygote resulting in haploid spores.
What is dikaryophase?
When a fungus reproduces sexually, two haploid hyphae of
compatible mating types come together and fuse. In some
fungi, the fusion of two haploid cells immediately results in
diploid cells (2n). However, in other fungi (ascomycetes and
basidiomycetes), an intervening dikaryotic stage (n+n, i.e., two
nuclei per cell) occurs; such a condition is called a dikaryon and
the phase is dikaryophase of fungus. Later, the parental nuclei
fuse and the cells become diploid. The fungi form fruiting
bodies in which reduction division occurs, leading to the
formation of haploid spores.

Phycomycetes (algal fungi):

Habitat: Found in aquatic habitats and on decaying wood in
moist and damp places or as obligate parasites on plants.
Mycelium: Aseptate and coenocytic.
Asexual Reproduction: Takes place by zoospores (motile) or
by aplanospores (non-motile). These spores are
endogenously produced in the sporangium.
Sexual Reproduction: A zygospore is formed by the fusion
of two gametes. These gametes are similar in morphology
(isogamous) or dissimilar (anisogamous or oogamous).
Examples: Mucor, Rhizopus, and Albugo (parasitic fungi on
mustard).

Ascomycetes (sac-fungi):
Habitat: Not given
Nutrition: They are saprophytic, decomposers, parasitic or
coprophilous (growing on dung).
Mycelium: Branched and septate.
Asexual Reproduction: Asexual spores are conidia produced
exogenously on the special mycelium called conidiophores.
Conidia on germination produce mycelium.
Sexual Reproduction: Sexual spores are called ascospores
which are produced endogenously in sac-like asci. The asci
are arranged in different types of fruiting bodies called
ascocarps.
Examples and Uses: Aspergillus, Claviceps, and Neurospora
which is used extensively in biochemical and genetic work.
Members like morels and truffles are edible and are
considered delicacies.

Basidiomycetes (club fungi):

Habitat: They grow in soil, on logs, and tree stumps and in
living bodies as parasites, e.g., rusts and smuts.
Mycelium: Branched and septate
Asexual Reproduction: Asexual spores are generally not
found, but vegetative reproduction by fragmentation is
common.
Sexual Reproduction: The sex organs are absent but
plasmogamy is brought about by fusion of two vegetative or
somatic cells of different strains or genotypes. The resultant
structure is dikaryotic which ultimately gives rise to basidium.
Karyogamy and meiosis takes place in basidium producing four
basidiospores. The basidiospores are exogenously produced on
the basidium. The basidia are arranged in fruiting bodies called
basidiocarps.
Examples: Most known forms are mushrooms, bracket fungi or
puffballs. Other members are Agaricus, Ustilago (smut) and
Puccinia (rust fungus).

Deuteromycetes (Imperfect fungi):

 Commonly known as imperfect fungi because only the
asexual and vegetative phases of these fungi are known.
 When sexual forms of these fungi were discovered, they
were moved to classes they rightly belonged to. Once,
perfect sexual stages of members of deuteromycetes were
discovered they were often moved to ascomycetes and
basidiomycetes.
 They only reproduce by asexual spores known as conidia.
 The mycelium is branched and septate.
 Some members are saprophytes or parasites while a large
number of them are decomposers of litter and help in
mineral recycling.
 Some examples are Alternaria, Colletotrichum, and
Trichoderma.

Viruses:
Why were viruses not included in the five kingdom
classification?
Viruses did not find a place in the classification since they are
not considered truly “living”, if we understand living as those
organisms that have a cell structure. Viruses are non-cellular
organisms that are characterised by having an inert crystalline
structure outside the living cell. Once they infect a cell, they
take over the machinery of the host cell to replicate
themselves, killing the host.
Discovery and Characteristics of Virus:
 Virus means venom or poisonous fluid.
 Dmitri Ivanowsky (1892) recognised certain microbes as
causal organisms of the mosaic disease of tobacco. These
were found to be smaller than bacteria as they passed
through bacteria-proof filters.
 M.W Beijerineck (1898) demonstrated that the extract of
infected plants of tobacco could cause infection in healthy
plants and named the new pathogen “virus” and called
the fluid as “Contagium vivum fluidum (infectious living
fluid).
 W.M Stanley (1935) showed that viruses could be
crystallised and crystals consist largely of proteins. They
are inert outside their specific host cell.
 Viruses are obligate parasites.
Structure of Virus:
 In addition to proteins, viruses also contain genetic
material, that could be either RNA or DNA. No virus
contains both RNA and DNA.
 A virus is a nucleoprotein and the genetic material is
infectious.
 In general, virus that infects plants have single stranded
RNA and viruses that infect animals have either single or
double stranded RNA or double stranded DNA.
 Bacterial viruses or bacteriophages are usually double
stranded DNA viruses.
 The protein coat called capsid made of small sub units
called capsomeres, protects the nucleic acid. The
capsomeres are arranged in helical or polyhedral
geometric forms.
What are the diseases caused by viruses in plants and
animals? What are symptoms of viral diseases in plants?
They cause diseases like mumps, small pox, herpes, and
influenza. AIDS in humans is also caused by a virus. In plants,
the symptoms can be mosaic formation, leaf rolling and curling,
yellowing and vein clearing, dwarfing and stunted growth.

Viroid: In 1971, T.O. Diener discovered a new infectious

agent that was smaller than viruses and caused potato
spindle tuber disease. It was found to be a free RNA; it
lacked the protein coat that is found in virus, and hence the
name viroid. The RNA of the viroid was of low molecular weight.

Prions: In modern medicine, certain neurological diseases

were found to be transmitted by an agent consisting of
abnormally folded protein. The agent was similar in size to
viruses. These agents were called prions. The most notable
diseases caused by prions are bovine spongiform
encephalopathy (BSE) commonly called mad cow disease in
cattle and its analogous variant Cr-Jacob disease (CJD) in
humans.
Lichens: Are symbiotic associations i.e., mutually useful
associations, between algae and fungi. The algal component is
known as phycobiont and fungal component as mycobiont.
Algae prepare food for fungi and fungi provide shelter and
absorb mineral nutrients and water for its partner. Lichens are
very good pollution indicators as they do not grow in polluted
areas.