1. Define Artificial Intelligence. What is an agent?
Artificial Intelligence (AI): AI is the branch of computer science that focuses on
creating machines capable of performing tasks that normally require human
intelligence, such as reasoning, problem-solving, learning, and decision-making.
Agent: An agent is an entity that perceives its environment through sensors and
acts upon that environment using actuators to achieve goals.
Example: A robot vacuum cleaner senses dirt and obstacles, then takes actions like
moving and cleaning.
2. List any two properties of a rational agent.
Perception-based: It makes decisions based on the information it gathers from the
environment.
Goal-oriented: It always selects actions that maximize performance measures to
achieve its goals.
3. Give one real-life example of an intelligent agent.
Example: Google Maps navigation system. It perceives current traffic conditions and
suggests the fastest route to reach the destination.
4. What is State Space Search?
State space search is a problem-solving technique where all possible states
(situations) are explored, starting from the initial state, to reach a goal state
by applying a sequence of actions.
Think of solving a puzzle where each move leads to a new “state” until the solved
puzzle (goal state) is reached.
5. What is a learning agent?
A learning agent is an AI system that improves its performance over time by
learning from past experiences.
Example: A spam filter that gets better at detecting spam emails as it learns from
user feedback.
6. Define Breadth-First Search (BFS) and Depth-First Search (DFS).
BFS: Explores all nodes level by level, starting from the root. It uses a queue
(FIFO).
DFS: Explores as far as possible along one branch before backtracking. It uses a
stack (LIFO) or recursion.
7. What is the main idea behind Hill-Climbing search?
Hill-climbing is a local search algorithm that continuously moves toward the
neighbor state with the highest value (like climbing uphill) until it reaches a
peak or local maximum.
Example: Choosing the next step in a mountain climb based on the steepest upward
slope.
8. What is PEAS?
PEAS stands for Performance measure, Environment, Actuators, and Sensors. It is
used to define the characteristics of an intelligent agent.
Example: For a self-driving car:
Performance: Safety, speed, comfort
Environment: Roads, traffic, pedestrians
Actuators: Steering, brakes, accelerator
Sensors: Cameras, GPS, radar
9. Differentiate between fully observable and partially observable environment with
an example for each.
Fully observable: The agent has complete knowledge of the environment at every
point.
Example: Chess game (all pieces and moves are visible).
Partially observable: The agent has incomplete or limited knowledge of the
environment.
Example: Driving a car in fog (you cannot see everything).
10. What is a heuristic function? Give an example.
A heuristic function estimates the cost or distance from the current state to the
goal state in search problems. It guides the search process.
Example: In A algorithm for pathfinding, the straight-line distance between the
current city and the goal city is used as a heuristic.*
unit 2
1. Define alpha–beta pruning.
Alpha–beta pruning is a search technique used in the minimax algorithm to eliminate
branches that cannot influence the final decision, thus reducing the number of
nodes evaluated in game trees.
2. List the three components of a Constraint Satisfaction Problem (CSP).
CSP consists of:
Variables
Domains (possible values of variables)
Constraints (rules restricting variable combinations)
3. Name two inference rules used in propositional logic.
Modus Ponens
Modus Tollens
4. What is a Horn clause?
A Horn clause is a disjunction of literals with at most one positive literal.
Example: (¬P ∨ ¬Q ∨ R).
5. Name Logic equivalence rules used in propositional logic.
Some rules are:
De Morgan’s laws
Double negation law
Commutative law
Associative law
Distributive law
6. What is CNF Form?
Conjunctive Normal Form (CNF): A conjunction (AND) of clauses, where each clause is
a disjunction (OR) of literals. Example: (A ∨ B) ∧ (¬C ∨ D).
7. Recall any two inference rules used in propositional logic.
Resolution rule
Universal Instantiation
8. What is propositional logic?
Propositional logic is a formal system where statements (propositions) are either
true or false, combined with logical connectives (AND, OR, NOT, →, ↔).
9. What is meant by a definite clause?
A definite clause is a Horn clause with exactly one positive literal and any number
of negative literals. Example: (¬P ∨ ¬Q ∨ R) can be written as (P ∧ Q → R).
10. Write the truth values of the logical connective (P → Q).
P Q P → Q
T T T
T F F
F T T
F F T
unit 3
1. Define First-Order Logic (FOL).
First-Order Logic (FOL) is a knowledge representation language that extends
propositional logic by including objects, relations, functions, and quantifiers.
2. List any two logical connectives used in FOL.
Conjunction ( ∧ )
Disjunction ( ∨ )
3. What are quantifiers? Name the two types used in FOL.
Quantifiers specify the scope of variables in a statement.
Two types: Universal Quantifier ( ∀ ) and Existential Quantifier ( ∃ ).
4. Define unification in First-Order Logic.
Unification is the process of making two logical expressions identical by finding a
suitable substitution of variables.
5. What is forward chaining?
Forward chaining is an inference technique that starts with known facts and applies
inference rules to derive new facts until the goal is reached.
6. What is backward chaining?
Backward chaining is an inference technique that starts with the goal (query) and
works backward to determine if known facts support it.
7. Define resolution in First-Order Logic.
Resolution is an inference rule in FOL that combines two clauses with complementary
literals to produce a new clause, used for proving contradictions.
8. What is ontology in knowledge representation?
Ontology is a structured framework that defines concepts, categories, and
relationships in a specific domain for knowledge representation.
9. Explain the steps in knowledge engineering in FOL.
Steps include:
Identify the task/domain.
Define ontology (concepts & relations).
Encode knowledge in FOL.
Implement inference rules.
Test and refine the knowledge base.
10. What are constants and variables in FOL? Give an example.
Constants: Represent specific objects (e.g., John, Paris).
Variables: Represent general objects (e.g., x, y).
Example: ∀x (Human(x) → Mortal(x)), where x is a variable, and John can be a
constant.