ENVIRONMENTAL STUDIES

Unit 1

UNIT 1
Introduction to Environmental Studies:
Definition and Scope of environmental studies, multidisciplinary nature of environmental studies, concept of
sustainability & sustainable development.
Ecology and Environment: Concept of an Ecosystem- its structure and functions, Energy Flow in an Ecosystem,
Food Chain, Food Web, Ecological Pyramid & Ecological succession, Study of following ecosystems: Forest
Ecosystem, Grass land Ecosystem & Aquatic Ecosystem & Desert Ecosystem.

PART 1 - STUDY MATERIAL

Introduction of Environmental Studies

Environmental studies deals with every issue that affects an organism. It is essentially a
multidisciplinary approach that brings about an appreciation of our natural world and human
impacts on its integrity. It is an applied science as its seeks practical answers to making human
civilization sustainable on the earth’s finite re-sources. Its components include biology, geology,
chemistry, physics, engineering, sociology, health, anthropology, economics, statistics,
computers and philosophy.

Environmental studies is very important since it deals with the most mundane issues like safe and
clean drinking water, hygienic living conditions, clean and fresh air, fertile land, healthy food
and development that is sustainable. There is a need for trained manpower at every level to deal with
environmental issues.

Environment

The word environment is derived from the French verb ‘environner’ which means to ‘encircle or
surround’. Thus our environment can be defined as the physical, chemical and biological world
that surround us as well as the complex of social and cultural conditions affecting an individual
or community.
Each and every living organism has its specific surrounding to which it continuously interact and
remain fully adapted. All the biological and non-biological things surrounding an environment
are thus included in the environment.
So environment means the surrounding external conditions influencing development or growth
of people, animal or plants; living or working conditions etc. This involves three questions:

1. What is Surrounded
The answer to this question is living objects in general and man in particular.

2. By what Surrounded
The physical attributes are the answer to this question, which become environment. In fact, the
concern of all education is the environment of man. However, man cannot exist or be understood
in isolation from the other forms of life and from plant life. Hence, environment refers to the sum
total of condition, which surround point in space and time. The scope of the term Environment
has been changing and widening by the passage of time. In the primitive age, the environment
consisted of only physical aspects of the planted earth' land, air and water as biological
communities. As the time passed on man extended his environment through his social, economic
and political functions.

3. Where Surrounded
The answer to this question. It is in nature that physical component of the plant earth, viz land,
air, water etc., support and affect life in the biosphere. According to a Goudie environment is the
representative of physical components of the earth where in man is an important factor affecting
the environment.

Definitions of Environment : Some important definitions of environment are as under:

1Environment is the sum total of all the external forces, influences and conditions, which affect
the life, nature, behaviour and the growth, development and maturation of living organisms.
2. The term environment is used to describe, in the aggregate, all the external forces, influences
and conditions, which affect the life, nature, behaviour and the growth, development and maturity
of living organisms.
3 Environment refers to sum total of all conditions which surrounds man at a given point in space
and time.
4 Environment is sum total of water, air and land and inter-relationship among themselves and
also with human beings and other living organisms.

Components of Environment:
The environment consists of four segments as under:
1. Atmosphere: The atmosphere implies the protective blanket of gases, surrounding the earth:
(a) It sustains life on the earth.
(b) It saves it from the hostile environment of outer space.
(c) It absorbs most of the cosmic rays from outer space and a major portion of the electromagnetic
radiation from the sun.
(d) It transmits only here ultraviolet, visible, near infrared radiation (300 to 2500 nm) and radio
waves. (0.14 to 40 m) while filtering out tissue-damaging ultraviolate waves below about 300
nm.
The atmosphere is composed of nitrogen (78%), oxygen( 21%) and other gases (1%). The Earth
atmosphere contains several different layers that can be defined according to temperature. So
according to temperature atmosphere contains four different layers-
Troposphere
Stratosphere
Mesosphere
Thermosphere
2. Hydrosphere: The Hydrosphere comprises all types of water resources oceans, seas, lakes,
rivers, streams, reservoir, polar icecaps, glaciers, and ground water. About 75% of the earth
surface is covered with hydrosphere.
(i) Nature 97% of the earth’s water supply is in the oceans,
(ii) About 2% of the water resources is locked in the polar icecaps and glaciers.
(iii)Only about 1% is available as fresh surface water-rivers, lakes streams, and ground water fit
to be used for human consumption and other uses.

3. Lithosphere: Solid component of earth is called lithosphere. It is multilayered including

following main layer- crust , mantle and core.
Core is the central fluid sphere having diameter about 2500km from the centre and is composed
of minerals like Ni, fe.
The mantle extended above the core and is in molten state. The outer most solid zone of the earth
is called crust which is about 8 to 9 km above the mantle.
The crust is very complex and its surface is covered with soil.
4. Bio\sphere: Biosphere indicates the realm of living organisms and their interactions with
environment, viz atmosphere, hydrosphere and lithosphere.

Interlinkage between different component of environment

Atmosphere

Lithosphere Biosphere

Hydrosphere

Elements of environment /Structure of Environment

Environment is both physical and biological. It includes both living and non-living components.
(i) Physical Environment
The Physical Environment is classified into three broad categories viz.
(i) Solid,
(ii) Liquid
(iii) Gas.
These represent the following spheres:
(i) The lithosphere (solid earth)
(ii) The hydrosphere (water component) and
(iii) The atmosphere
As such, the three basic of physical environment may be termed as under:
(i) Lithospheric Environment
(ii) Hydrospheric Environment
(iii) Atmospheric Environment
(ii) Biological Environment
The biological of the environment consists of:
(i) Plants (flora)
(ii) Animals (fauna).

Multi Disciplinary nature of environmental studies

Because, the environment is complex and actually made up of many different environments,
including natural, constructed and cultural environments, environmental studies is the inter
disciplinary examination of how biology, geology, politics policy studies, law, geology, religion
engineering, chemistry and economics combine to inform the consideration of humanity’s effects
on the natural world.

This subject educates the students to appreciate the complexity of environmental issues and
citizens and experts in many fields. By studying environmental science, students may develop a
breadth of the interdisciplinary and methodological knowledge in the environmental fields that
enables them to facilitate the definition and solution of environmental problems.

It is essentially a multidisciplinary approach and its components include Biology, Geology,

Chemistry, Physics, Engineering, Sociology, Health Sciences, Anthropology, Economics,
Statistics and Philosophy. It is essentially a multidisciplinary approach.

An Understanding of the working of the environment requires the knowledge from wide ranging
fields.

The Table below shows a list of topics dealt commonly in air pollution and the related traditional
fields of knowledge illustrating the interdisciplinary nature of the subject.

Environmental issue/topics Major subject/Topic knowledge required

Nature and reaction of air pollutants Chemistry and Chemical engineering Zoology
Effects of air pollutants on human beings, and botany and various branches of life science.
animals and plants Physics and Chemistry
Effect of air pollutants on materials Effect Meteorology, Thermodynamics, Geography
of climate on air pollution Air pollution Mathematical modeling, etc.
control devices Physics, chemistry and various branches of
Engineering
History of air pollution and air pollution History
episodes
Economic impacts of air pollution Economics, Demography Sociology
Sociological impacts of air pollution Various branches of physical sciences Various
Alternative fuels branches of physical and political sciences
Conservation of resources and pollution Almost all fields under the sun has got
control something to contribute to the understanding
 Ozone hole and global warming and prevention of these phenomenon.

Scope of Environmental studies

Because of environmental studies has been seen to be multidisciplinary in nature so it is

considered to be a subject with great scope. Environment is not limited to issues of sanitation and
health but it is now concerned with pollution control, biodiversity conservation, waste
management and conservation of natural resources. This requires expert eyes and hence are
creating new job opportunities. The opportunities in this field are immense not only for scientists
but also for engineers, biologists. There is a good chance of opportunity to find a job in this field
as environmental journalists.
 Environmental science or study can be applied in the following spheres:

• In studying Ecosystem Structure and Function- The study of ecosystems mainly consists of
the study of the processes that link the leaving organism or in other words biotic component to
the non-living organism or abiotic component. So for the study of environment we should aware
with biotic and abiotic components.
• For conserving Natural Resource -For managing and maintenance of forests which are natural
resources and for the maintenance of wildlife forms task under natural resource conservation
environmental studies can be applied.
• For the control of Environmental Pollution - With the knowledge of environmental issues
everybody can control the pollution. one can handle the waste management and also look for
ways to control pollution on the aspect of pollution control.
• Environmental issues management- There are several independent environmental consultants
who are working with Central and State pollution control Board. They offer advice to solve the
problems of environment the optimum solution for the upcoming problems. They give direction
for controlling pollution due to industrial development. There are several current consultants who
are working with government pollution control boobs, involved in policy making, pollution
control, maintenance of ecological balance.
• The scope of environmental studies in industry -Environmental scientists work towards
maintenance of ecological balance, they also work towards conservation of biodiversity and
regulation of natural resources as well as on preservation of natural resources. Most of the
industries have a separate environmental research and development section. These sections
govern the impact that their industry has on the environment. Our environment is being degraded
by the rapid industrialization. To combat this menace there is a growing trend towards
manufacture of "green" goods and products. So we can say that there is a good scope in the field
of industry from environmental studies.
• In Research and development- Research and development has tremendous scope due to
increment in public awareness regarding the environment. Various universities and governmental
organizations offer a scope for such research. These universities conduct research studies in order
to develop the methods toward monitoring and controlling the source of environmental pollution.
Due to an increasing threat from global warming , many steps are being undertaken for the
reduction of greenhouse gases and the adoption of renewable energy resources. They generate
awareness now regarding the use of solar energy for variety of purposes. This provide scope of
environmental history in the field of research and development.

Importance of Environmental Studies

We live in a world where natural resources are limited. Water, air, soil, minerals, oils, the products
we get from forests, grasslands, oceans and from agriculture and live stock, are all a part of our
life support systems. Without them, life itself would be impossible.
 If we use them more and more, the earth’s resources must inevitably shrink. The earth cannot be
expected to sustain indefinitely due to over utilization of resources, misuse of resources. This
situation will only improve if each of us begins to take action in our daily lives that will help to
preserve our environmental resources. We cannot expect Government alone to manage the
safeguarding of the environment, nor we can expect other people to prevent environmental
damage. We need to do it ourselves. It is a responsibility that each of us must take on as one’s
own.

The environment studies make us aware about the importance of protection and conservation of
our mother earth and about the destruction due to the release of pollution into the environment.
The increase in human and animal population, industries and other issues make the survival
cumbersome. A great number of environment issues have grown in size and make the system
more complex day by day, threatening the survival of mankind on earth.

Environment studies have become significant for the following reasons:

1. It has been well recognised that environment issues like global warming and ozone depletion,
acid rain, marine pollution and biodiversity are not merely national issues but are global issues
and hence require international efforts and cooperation to solve them as they have impact on
living as well as non living organism.

2. Issues like Urbanization, Industrial Growth, Telecommunication and Transportation Systems,

Hi-tech Agriculture and Housing etc leads to development but bring problems with them. The
knowledge about them will help to prevent these problems and their impact.

3. Explosive Increase in Pollution leads to heavy pressure on the natural resources including land.
Agricultural experts have recognized soil health problems like deficiency of micronutrients and
organic matter, soil salinity and damage of soil structure.

4. It is important for us to save the humanity from extinction because of our activities constricting
the environment and depleting the biosphere, in the name of development. It is essential,
specially for developing countries to find alternative paths to an alternative goal. We need a goal
as under:

1. A true goal of development with an environmentally sound and sustainable development.

2. A goal common to all citizens of our planet earth.
3. A goal distant from the developing world in the manner it is from the over-consuming wasteful
societies of the “developed” world.

5. Our survival and sustenance depend on resources availability. Hence Resources withdraw,
processing and use of the products have all to be synchronised with the ecological cycle. In any
plan of development our actions should be planned ecologically for the sustenance of the
environment and development and this is possible with the awareness of environmental issues.
Need for public awareness

It is essential to make the public aware of the formidable consequences of the Environmental
Degradation, if not retorted and reformative measures undertaken, would result in the extinction
of life. We are facing various environmental challenges. It is essential to get the country
acquainted with these challenges so that their acts may be eco-friendly.

Some of these challenges are as under:

1 Increasing Population

A population of over thousands of millions is growing at 2.11 per cent every year. Over 17 million
people are added each year. It puts considerable pressure on its natural resources and reduces the
gains of development. Hence, the greatest challenge before us is to limit the population growth.

2. Poverty

India has often been described a rich land with poor people. The poverty and environmental
degradation have a relation between them. The vast majority of our people are directly dependent
on the nature resources of the country for their basic needs of food, fuel shelter and fodder. About
40% of our people are still below the poverty line. Environment degradation has adversely
affected the poor who depend upon the resources of their immediate surroundings. Thus, the
challenge of poverty and the challenge environment degradation are two facets of the same
challenge. The population growth is essentially a function of poverty. Because, to the very poor,
every child is an earner and helper and global concerns have little relevance for him.

3. Agricultural Growth

The people must be acquainted with the methods to sustain and increase agricultural growth with
damaging the environment. High yielding varities have caused soil salinity and damage to
physical structure of soil.

4. use of Ground water

It is essential of rationalizing the use of groundwater. Factors like community wastes, industrial
effluents and chemical fertilizers and pesticides have polluted our surface water and affected
quality of the groundwater. It is essential to restore the water quality of our rivers and other water
bodies as lakes is an important challenge. It so finding our suitable strategies for consecration of
water, provision of safe drinking water and keeping water bodies clean which are difficult
challenges is essential.

5. Development And Forests

Forests in India have been shrinking for several centuries owing to pressures of agriculture and
other development uses. Vast areas that were once green, stand today as wastelands. These areas
are to be brought back under vegetative cover. The tribal communities inhabiting forests respects
the trees and birds and animal that gives them sustenance.. The strategies for the joint
management of forests should be evolved in a well planned way.

6. Reorientation of Institutions

The people should be roused to orient institutions, attitudes and infrastructures, to suit conditions
and needs today. The change has to be brought in keeping in view India’s traditions for resources
use managements and education etc. Change should be brought in education, in attitudes, in
administrative procedures and in institutions. Because it affects way people view technology
resources and development.

7. Reduction of Genetic Diversity

Proper measures to conserve genetic diversity need to be taken. At present most wild genetic
stocks have been disappearing from nature. Wilding including the Asiatic Lion are facing problem
of loss of genetic diversity. The protected areas network like sanctuaries, national parks,
biosphere reserves are isolating populations. So, they are decreasing changes of one group
breeding with another. Remedial steps are to be taken to check decreasing genetic diversity.

Ecology

No microorganism, plant or animal species including man is an isolated organism. Each of them
is surrounded by a host of physical conditions as well as other living organism. So various
researchers came forward and found new field called ecology.

The word ‘ecology’ was first used by Ernest Haeckel in 1869. Ecology as the scientific study of
the interactions between organisms and their environment. The word is derived from the Greek
oikos, meaning ‘home’. Ecology might therefore be thought of as the study of the ‘home life’ of
living organisms.

Definitions

Definition by Ernst Haeckel- Ecology is the total relation of all animal to both its organic and its
inorganic environment.

Taylor defined ecology as the science of all the relationship of all organism to all their
environments.

Blee et al defined it as the science of the interrelation between living organism and their
environment including both the physical and biotic environments and emphasizing interspecies
as well as intraspecies relations.

Fields/ Approaches/ Branches of Ecology

1 Habitat Ecology-
It deals with the study of different habitat of the biosphere. According to the king of habitat,
ecology is subdivided into marine ecology, fresh water ecology and terrestrial ecology.

2 Autecology-

It is also known as ecology of individuals. Here we study the relation of individual species to its
environment. Thus, at a given time, emphasis is on the requirements and reaction of an individual
species together with the influence of environment upon it.

These are studied for details of their geographic distribution, morphology, life cycle etc. along
with various ecological factors which influence stages of life cycle.

3 Synecology-

It is the study of organism which are together associated as a unit( community). e.g. If we study
of a oak tree with respect to environment it is autecology but if study of forest including oak tree
it is synecology.

It is subdivided into

Aquatic ecology- It include freshwater and marine water

Terrersterial Ecology- It include forest, grassland and desert.

Population ecology- Here the units of study are pure stands of individual os a species called
polulation. As a result of aggregation of these individuals, it become desirable to study the
interdependence between them and the population are studied according to size, growth rates etc.
Which are chiefly governed by the interaction of the members of population .

Community Ecology- Here the units of study are groups of individuals belonging to different
species –plants as well as animal.

Types of ecological interactions

competition

Parasitism

Mutualism

Commensalism

Competition – Two species share a requirement for a limited resource → reduces fitness of one
or both species
Parasitism – one species feeds on another → enhances fitness of parasite but reduces fitness of
host

e.g lice on human head, mosquitoes biting human being

Mutualism – two species provide resources or services to each other → enhances fitness of both
species. E.g interdependence of dog and Human being

Commensalism – one species receives a benefit from another species → enhances fitness of one
species; no effect on fitness of the other species.

one example of commensalism involves a small crab that lives inside an oyster’s [Link]
example is – small tigs on buffaloes.

Ecosystem

The term ecosystem was proposed by A.G. Tansley in the year 1935.

An Ecosystem includes a group of biotic communities of a species interacting with one another
in an area, and their surroundings and all the ways in which they interact with each other and
exchanging energy and matter.

An ecosystem is an integrated unit consisting of interacting plants, animals and microorganisms

whose survival depends upon the maintenance and regulation of their biotic and abiotic structures
and functions. The ecosystem is thus, a unit or a system which is composed of a number of subunits,
that are all directly or indirectly linked with each other.

An ecosystem was defined as a dynamic entity composed of a biological community and its
associated abiotic environment.

There exist nutritional relationship among the living organism. Keeping this in view earth can be
considered as a giant ecosystem where abiotic and biotic components are constantly acting and
reacting upon each other bringing structured and functional changes in it.
sun
 Plants Herbivores carnivores omnivores

soil

Excretion and decay products

General Characteristics Of An Eco-System

According to Smith following are the general characteristics of eco-system.

(1) The ecosystem is a major structural and functional unit of ecology.

(2) The structure of an eco-system is related to its species diversity; as such the more complex
ecosystem has high species diversity.

(3) The relative amount of energy required to maintain an ecosystem depends on its structure.
The more complex the structure, the lesser the energy it requires to maintain itself.

(4) The function of the ecosystem is related to energy flow in material cycling through and
within the system.

(5) Both the environment and the energy fixation in any given ecosystem are limited. They
cannot be exceeded in any way without causing serious undesirable effect.

(6) Alterations in the environments represent selective pressures upon the population to which
it must adjust. Organisms, which fail to adjust to the changed environment ,must vanish.

To conclude the eco-system is an integrated unit or zone of variable size, it comprises vegetation,
fauna, microbes and the environment. Most ecosystems process a well-defined soil, climate, flora
and fauna and their own potential for adaptation, change and tolerance.
The functioning of any ecosystem involves a series of cycles. These cycles are driven by energy
flow, the energy being the solar energy.

Kinds of ecosystem

An ecosystem can be natural or artificial, temporary or permanent and large or tiny. Thus, various
constituents of ecosystem fall into the following categories.

1 Natural Ecosystem: These operate by themselves under natural conditions without any major
interference by man. Based upon the particular kind of habitat these are further divided as
terrestrial and aquatic ecosystem.

i)Terrestrial Such as Desert, Forest, Grassland etc.

ii) Aquatic ecosystem- which can further be classified as

a) Fresh water ecosystem – These may be lotic( running water as spring, streams, rivers) or lentic
( standing water as lake , pond, pool , ditch etc).

b) Marine ecosystem- These include salt water bodies which may be deep bodies as ocean, sea
etc.

2 Artificial Ecosystem: These are also known as man made or man engineered ecosystem.
Humans have modified some ecosystems for their own benefits and these are Artificial Ecosystem
i.e they are maintained artificially by man . They can be terrestrial (crop field, garden etc.) or
aquatic (aquarium, dam, man made pond etc.).

Structure and function of ecosystem

The two major aspects of an ecosystem are structure and function.

By structure we mean i) The composition of biological community including species, number,

life history and distribution in space etc. ii) The quantity and distribution of the non living
materials such as nutrients, water etc. iii) The range of conditions of existence such as
temperature, light etc.

By function we mean i) The rate of biological energy flow ii) Biological regulation including
both regulation of organism by environment and regulation of environment by organism .

Structure of ecosystem

There are two components of an ecosystem; Living components and non living components.

1 Non Living Components: Non living components are also called Abiotic components. They
directly or indirectly affect the living components and include

i) Physical factors and climatic conditions- e.g. soil, temperature, light, moisture, wind , water
availability

Soil- Soil contains a mixture of weathered rock fragments, soil mineral particle, organic matter
and living organism. Soil provide nutrients , water for photosynthesis.

Solar radiations- are used to heat the atmosphere and to evaporate and transpire water into the
atmosphere. It is also necessary for plant growth.

Water availability- Living tissue is composed of a very high percentage of water, upto and even
exceeding 90%. The protoplasm can not survive below this percentage. Through water, minerals
are translocated in plants. It is also necessary for photosynthesis.
 ii) Inorganic substances- such as water, nitrogen, phosphorus, sulphur imvolved in the cycling
of materials in the ecosystem. The amount of inorganic substances at any given time in an
ecosystem is designated as standing state.

2 Living Components: They are also called biotic components. Ecosytems are composed of a
variety of living organism. The plants, animals, microorganisms present in the ecosystem form
the biotic component. These organism have different nutritional behavior in the ecosystem and
are known as producers or consumers based on how they get their food. Producers can produce
organic components e.g. plants can produce starch, carbohydrates, cellulose from a process called
photosynthesis. Consumers are the components that are dependent on producers for their food
e.g. human beings and animals.

i) Producers or Autotrophic component- Auto means self and trophic means nourishing so
these are the organism which prepare their food themselves. They convert solar energy into
chemical energy with the help of simple inorganic substances such as H2o, co2 and organic
substances such as enzymes.

ii) Consumers or Heterotroph- Hetero means other and trophic means nourishing. They are
unable to produce, are constantly looking for source of organic nutrients from elsewhere i.e
depend on others for their food.

The consumers are of the following two main types-

a) Macro consumers-These are called phagotrophs and include organism which ingest other
organism. Depending upon their food habit consumers may be either herbivores, carnivores and
omnivores.

Herbivores - lives on plants and are known as primary consumers. Herbivores like giraffe are
animals that graze directly on plants or algae.

Carnivores – Also known as secondary consumers and they feed on herbivores. Carnivores as
wolf feed on other animals; birds that feed on insects are carnivores, and so are hawks that feed
on birds.

Omnivores are animals that feed both on plants and animals, as human.

E.g. Bears eat fish , insects , deer as well as honey and grass, Squirrel eat insects, birds egg as
well as fruits.

b) Micro consumers-

Detritivores are organisms that rely on detritus, the decomposing particles of organic matter, for
food. Earthworms and some beetles, termites, and maggots are all terrestrial detritivores.
Non photosynthetic bacteria and fungi, including mushrooms, are decomposers that carry out
decomposition, the breakdown of dead organic matter, including animal waste. Decomposers
perform a very valuable service by releasing inorganic substances that are taken up by plants once
more

Relationships within ecosystem

Types o f Ecosystem
Let us consider types, characteristic features, structure and functions of some major ecosystems.

FOREST ECOSYSTEM
Forests are formed by a community of plants which is predominantly structurally defined by its trees,
shrubs, climbers and ground cover or we can say that these are the ecosystems having a
predominance of trees that are interspersed with large number of species of herbs, shrubs, climbers,
lichens, algae and a wide variety of wild animals and birds. Natural vegetation looks vastly different from a
group of planted trees, which are in orderly rows. The most ‘natural’ undisturbed forests are located mainly
in our National Parks and Wild- life Sanctuaries. The landscapes that make up various types of forests look
very different from each other. Their distinctive appearance is a fascinating aspect of nature. Each forest type
forms a habitat for a specific community of animals that are adapted to live in it.

Characteristic Features of Forest Ecosystem

The chief characteristic features of forest ecosystem are:
• It is a terrestrial or land ecosystem
• It is a complex ecosystem with all tall standing trees as the dominant plants and the variety
of plants beneath the trees. There is also the presence of animals and birds.
• Temperature and rainfall determine the forest ecosystem.
• The forest ecosystem is of great concern from the point of view of environment. The rate
of exploitation of forests by man is increasing day by day. This causes a serious concern to
all the nations of the world because of its impact over global climate and on species sources
of animals.

Types of forest in India:

The forest type depends upon the abiotic factors such as climate and soil characteristics of a region. Forests in
India can be broadly divided into Coniferous forests and Broadleaved forests.

They can also be classified according to the nature of their tree species – evergreen, deciduous, xerophytic or
thorn trees, mangroves, etc. They can also be classified according to the most abundant species of trees such as
Sal or Teak forests. In many cases a forest is named after the first three or four most abundant tree species.

• Coniferous forests grow in the Himalayan mountain region, where the temperatures are low. These
forests have tall stately trees with needle- like leaves and downward sloping branches so that the snow
can slip off the branches. They have cones instead of seeds and are called gymnosperms.

• Broadleaved forests have several types, such as evergreen forests, deciduous forests, thorn forests, and
mangrove forests. Broadleaved forests have large leaves of various shapes.

• Evergreen forests grow in the high rain- fall areas of the Western Ghats, North Eastern India and the
Andaman and Nicobar Islands. These forests grow in areas where the monsoon lasts for several
months. Some even get two monsoons, such as in Southern In- dia. Evergreen plants shed a few of
their leaves throughout the year. There is no dry leafless phase as in a deciduous forest. An evergreen
forest thus looks green throughout the year. The trees overlap with each other to form a continuous
 canopy. Thus very little light penetrates down to the forest floor. Only a few shade loving plants can grow
in the ground layer in areas where some light filters down from the closed canopy. The forest is rich in
orchids and ferns. The barks of the trees are covered in moss. The forest abounds in animal life and is
most rich in insect life.

• Deciduous forests are found in regions with a moderate amount of seasonal rainfall that lasts for
only a few months. Most of the forests in which Teak trees grow are of this type. The deciduous trees
-shed their leaves during the winter and hot summer months. In March or April they regain their fresh
leaves just before the monsoon, when they grow vigorously in response to the rains. Thus there are
periods of leaf fall and canopy regrowth. The forest frequently has a thick undergrowth as light can
penetrate easily onto the forest floor.

• Thorn forests are found in the semi- arid regions of India. The trees, which are sparsely distributed,
are surrounded by open grassy areas. Thorny plants are called xerophytic species and are able to
conserve water. Some of these trees have small leaves, while other species have thick, waxy
leaves to reduce water losses during transpiration. Thorn forest trees have long or fibrous roots to
reach water at great depths. Many of these plants have thorns, which reduce water loss and
protect them from herbivores.

Structure of Forest Ecosystems:

Different organisms exist within the forest layers. These organisms interact with each other and
their surroundings. Each organism has a role or niche in sustaining the ecosystem.

Some provide food for other organisms; others provide shelter or control populations
through predation:

Producers:

All living organisms’ intake energy in order to survive. In a forest ecosystem, trees and other
plants get their energy from sunlight. Plants produce their own food, in the form of carbohydrates.
Plants are, therefore, called the primary producers, since they produce the basic foodstuffs for
other organisms within food chains and food webs. Photosynthesis is the chemical reaction that
allows plants to produce their own food.

Consumers:

Animals cannot produce their own food. They must consume food sources for die energy they
need to survive. All animals, including mammals, insects, and birds, are called consumers.
Consumers rely on plants and other animals as a food source.

Primary consumers only eat plants and are referred to as herbivores. Secondary consumers are
referred to as carnivores and feed on herbivores. Tertiary consumers are carnivores that feed on
other carnivores. Omnivores eat both plant and animal matter.
Decomposers:

Leaves, needles, and old branches fall to the forest floor as trees grow. Eventually all plants and
animals die. Decomposers break these items down into their smallest primary elements to be used
again. Decomposers are important in that they sustain the nutrient cycle of ecosystems.

Desert Ecosystem
Introduction
Desert ecosystem is present in regions where the animal, rainfall is less than 25cm and the
temperature is very high, say, Sahara desert in Africa, Thar desert in India, etc. About 17% of the
total land area of the worlds is under desert ecosystem.
Types of Desert Ecosystem: Deserts may be tropical deserts or hot deserts and temperate deserts.
But hot deserts are more important than temperate deserts.

Characteristic Features of Desert Ecosystem:

The main characteristics of desert ecosystem are:
• Desert ecosystem occurs in regions of very high temperature and very low rainfall.
• Desert ecosystem occupies a greater part of the land.
• Due to high temperature and low availability of water, desert ecosystem is poorly
represented by flora and fauna.
• In the desert ecosystem, soils contain very little organic matter.

Structure of Desert Ecosystem

The desert ecosystem has two components. They are:

1. Abiotic Components. 2. Biotic Components.
1. Abiotic Components: The abiotic components comprise organic substances poorly present.
2. Biotic components: The biotic components include:
a. Producers
b. Consumers
c. Decomposers

a. Producers:
The producers cover desert shrubs, some grasses and very few trees(xerophytes) There are three
life forms of plants adapted to desert conditions. They are:
• The annuals which grow only when there is adequate moisture.
• The succulents, such as the cacti which has high capacity to store water
• The desert shrubs which have numerous branches and a special root system which help
them to adapt to desert conditions.
b. Consumers: The consumers comprise desert animals. Camels and goats are the important
desert animals. Apart from camels and goats, insects, reptiles, etc. are also found.
c. Decomposers: The decomposers are fungi and bacteria. The consumers are very few due to
scarcity of flora and fauna

Grassland Ecosystem

Grasslands are dominated by grass species but sometimes also allow the growth of a few trees and
shrubs. Rainfall is average but erratic. Limited grazing helps to improve the net primary production
of the grasslands but overgrazing leads to degradation of these grasslands resulting in desertification.

Three types of grasslands are found to occur in different climatic regions:

(a) Tropica1 grass1ands: They occur near the borders of tropical rain forests in regions of high
average temperature and low to moderate rainfall. In Africa, these are typically known as Savannas,

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which have tall grasses with scattered shrubs and stunted trees. The Savannas have a wide diversity of
animals including zebras, giraffes, gazelle, antelopes etc. During dry season, fires are quite common.

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Termite are very common here. The termites gather the detritus (dead organic matter) containing
a lot of cellulose and build up a mound. On the top of the mound fungi are found to grow which feed

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upon this dead matter including cellulose and in turn release methane, a greenhouse gas.
Tropical savannas have a highly efficient system of photosynthesis. Most of the carbon

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assimilated by them in the form of carbohydrates is in the perennating bulbs, rhizomes, runners etc.
which are present underground. Deliberate burning of these grasslands can release huge quantities

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of carbon dioxide, another green house gas, responsible for global warming.
(b) Temperate grass1ands: They are usually found on flat, gentle sloped hills, winters are very

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cold but summers are hot and dry. Intense grazing and summer fires do not allow shrubs or trees to

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grow.

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In United States and Canada these grasslands are known as prairies, in South America as
Pampas, in Africa as Ve1ds and in central Europe and Asia they are known as Steppes.
Winds keep blowing and evaporation rate is very high. It also favours rapid fires in summer.
The soils are quite fertile and therefore, very often these grasslands are cleared for agriculture.
(c) Po1ar grass1ands (Arctic Tnndra): They are found in arctic polar region where severe
cold and strong, frigid winds along with ice and snow create too harsh a climate for trees to grow. En
summers the sun-shines almost round the clock and hence several small annual plants grow in the
summer. The animals include arctic wolf, weasel, arctic fox, reindeer etc. A thick layer of ice
remains frozen under the soil surface throughout the year and is known as permafrost. En summer,
the tundra shows the appearance of shallow lakes, bogs etc. where mosquitoes, different type of
insects and migratory birds appear.

Structure of Grassland ecosystem

\The grassland ecosystem has two components. They are:

1. Abiotic Components. 2. Biotic Components.
1. Abiotic Components:
The abiotic components are the inorganic and organic substances present in the soil and in the
 atmosphere. In addition to minerals, some organic materials are also present.
2. Biotic Components: The biotic components comprise:
a. Producers
b. Consumers
c. . Decomposers

a. Producers:
The producers include grasses and a few herbs and shrubs.
b. Consumers:
The consumers include:
i. Primary Consumers
ii. Secondary Consumers
iii. Tertiary Consumers
i. Primary Consumers:
Primary Consumers include animals feeding on grasses like cows, buffaloes, sheep, deer, etc.
ii. Secondary Consumers: The secondary consumers include carnivores like snakes. Lizards,
fox, etc, feeding on herbivores.
iii. Tertiary Consumers:
Tertiary consumers include top carnivores like fox, lion, tiger, etc. feeding on secondary
consumers.
c. Decomposers:
The decomposers include wide variety of micro-organisms including fiungi, algae, bacteria, etc.
They decompose the dead organic matter and help to bring minerals back to the soil.
.
Aquatic Ecosystem
Aquatic ecosystem comprises
I fresh water ecosystem like Pond or lake ecosystem, Stream or river ecosystem,
i. 2. Ocean or marine ecosystem and
ii. 3. Estuarine ecosystem. So, let us have a brief study of these aquatic ecosystems.

1 Freshwater ecosystem
Example - Pond Ecosystem
Introduction:
A pond is shallow water body on the surface of the earth. A pond is not only a place here plants
and animals live, but also plants and animals make the ponds what it is.
Characteristic Features of Pond Ecosystem:
The chief features of pond ecosystem are:
i. Pond ecosystem is an aquatic ecosystem
ii. It is a fresh water ecosystem
iii. It is a good example of small, self-sufficient and self-regulating ecosystem
iv. It is a simple aquatic ecosystem
v. The location, size, depth and the substratum of a pond influence the pond ecosystem
Structure and Function of Pond Ecosystem:
The components of the pond ecosystem can be divided into two categories. They are:
1. Abiotic Components.
2. Biotic Components.

Abiotic Components:
The chief abiotic components or substratum are temperature, water, light and several inorganic
and organic substances.
Water provides the medium for the survival of aquatic organisms. Water also provides dissolved
gases and nutrients for plants and animals.
The bottom soil provides substrata for the microbes and decomposers. Sunlight penetrates fairly
deep into the pond water, depending upon the turbidity, and provides energy for photosynthesis.
Organisms of the pond depend on the dissolved oxygen in water for respiration.
PH of the water is a crucial factor for the survival of the aquatic organisms. Some proportions of
nutrients are in solution state. But most of them are present stored in particulate matter as well as
in living organisms
Biotic Components:
The biotic components of a pond comprise the various organisms of the pond. The biotic
components of a pond are ecologically classified into three groups. They are:
a. Producers
b. Consumers
c. Decomposers

a Producers or Autotrophs:
Producers are the green plants categorized into two types. Viz,.i Macrophytes and ii
phytoplanktons

I Macrophytes: Macrophytes are rooted larger plants, submerged, free floating and amphibious
plants.
ii. Phytoplanktons: Phytoplanktons are minute floating or suspended lower plants which belong
to algae and
flagellates.

b. Consumers:
The consumers are of three types. They are:
i. Primary consumers.
ii. Secondary Consumers
iii. Tertiary Consumers

Primary Consumers:
i. Primary consumers are zooplanktons and benthos or bottom forms.
ii. Zooplanktons are animals that drift with water currents and are found along with phytoplanktons.
They feed on phytoplanktons.
iii. Benthos or bottom forms comprise the bottom-dwelling animals which feed on plants directly or
on plant remains at the bottom.

Secondary Consumers: Secondary consumers are the carnivores which feed on the herbivores.
They include insects, fish and frogs.

Tertiary consumers or Top Consumers: Tertiary consumers or top consumers are some large
fish, such as game fish which feed on smaller fish.

C . Decomposers:
Decomposers are the several aquatic bacteria, fungi, etc. that are distributed throughout the pond.
They decompose plants and animals. They play an important role in the return of mineral
elements, i.e., the nutrients, back into the ecosystem, i.e., the pond.

2 Marine or Clean Ecosystem

Introduction:
Oceans are gigantic reservoirs of water, covering nearly 70% of earth’s surface. The major oceans
of the world are the Pacific Ocean, Atlantic Ocean, the Indian Ocean, the Arctic Ocean and the
Antarctic Ocean. Ocean ecosystem is different from freshwater ecosystem mainly because of its
salty water and also because the ocean is deep, continuous and water is in continuous circulation.
Most of the marine water is at a temperature of 23 degree C devoid of light, and 62% is under
high pressure (100 atm)

Characteristic Features of Marine Ecosystem:

The main characteristics of ocean ecosystem are:
i. The trophic structure of the marine ecosystem starts from the smallest autotropes like planktons
and with larger animals like giant fish, and whales. Microscopic phypoplanktons and associated
bacteria create a complex food web that can extend long distances and extreme depths.

ii. In a marine ecosystem, the ecology of shallow and deep water as well as estuarine part is
different from each other and form a separate ecosystem.

Structure and Function of Marine Ecosystem:

The components of marine ecosystem are:
1 Abiotic Components:
High Na-, Ca-, Mg , and K-salt concentrations, variable dissolved oxygen content, light and
temperature make a unique physico-chemical condition in marine water.
The concentration of dissolved nutrients remains low, which constitute an important limiting
factor to determine the size of marine populations.
2 Biotic Components:
The biotic components of marine ecosystem are:
a. Producers:
Producers include Phytoplanktons( diatom, dinoflagillates), large seaweeds ( mainly algae like
chlorophyceal and rhodophyceal, angios, perms like ruppia, zostera, posidonic, enhalus, etc.) and
mangrove vegetations ( like phizophora, avicennia, carapa, aegeros, etc.
b. Consumers:
The consumers comprise:
i. Primary Consumers:
The primary consumers are herbivores and feed directly on producers, such as crustaceau
ii Secondary Consumers:
The secondary consumers comprise fishes, such as herring, sand, mackerel, etc.
iii. Tertiary Consumers:
The tertiary consumers ate the top carnivorous fishes feeding on small fishes, e.g., cod, haddock,
etc.
c. Decomposers: The decomposers are micro-organisms like bacteria and fungi.

3 Estuarine Ecosystem
Introduction:
An estuary is a semi-enclosed coastal body of water connected on the one side with open sea and
with freshwater river on the other side. It is transition zone which is strongly affected by tidal
action, and within this zone, sea water is mixed with fresh water from river. An estuary is highly
productive and offer high food potential for human beings due to the nutrient and energy inputs
from both sea water and river water.

Characteristic Features of Estuarine Ecosystem:

The chief characteristics of estuarine ecosystem are:
i. From a study of the meaning of an estuary, it is clear that an estuarine ecosystem is characterized
as an ecosystem having fluctuating water level.
ii. Because of the fluctuating water level, the organismsm present in an estuarine ecosystem show
wide range of tolerance to temperature and salinity.
iii. Typically, estuarine communities consist of endemic species confined to the estuarine zone
only.

Structure and Function of Estuarine ecosystem:

The components of an estuarine ecosystem are:
Biotic Components:
The biotic components of an estuarine ecosystem are:
a. Producers: The producers are macrophytes (i.e. grasses, sea, webs, sea grasses, benthic algae
and phytoplankton)
b. Consumers: The consumers are oysters, crabs, several kinds of shrimp and many commercial
sport fish.
c. Decomposers: The decomposers are micro-organisms like bacteria and fungi.

Functions of Ecosystem

The study of ecosystem can not be completed without thouroughly understanding how an
ecosystem functions and what keep it in balance. From the operational viewpoint, the living and
non-living component of an ecosystem are so interwoven that their separation from each other is
practically impossible.
The producers fix radiant energy and with the help of minerals taken from the soil, buit up
complex organic matter. The two ecological process of energy flow and mineral cycling, which
involve interaction between the physio chemical environment and the biotic communities, may
be thought of as the heart of ecosystem dynamics. Several types of biogeochemical processes
takes place in an ecosystem. The functions of ecosystem can be studied in the following forms-
Energy flow- Food chian , Food web ,Ecological pyramid and nutrient cycling.

Energy flow in an ecosystem

Ecosystems maintain themselves by cycling energy and nutrients obtained from external sources.
At the first trophic level, primary producers (plants, algae, and some bacteria) use solar energy to
produce organic plant material through photosynthesis. Herbivores—animals that feed solely on
plants—make up the second trophic level. Predators that eat herbivores comprise the third trophic
level; if larger predators are present, they represent still higher trophic levels. Decomposers,
which include bacteria, fungi, molds, worms, and insects, break down wastes and dead organisms
and return nutrients to the soil.

On average about 10 percent of net energy production at one trophic level is passed on to the next
level. Processes that reduce the energy transferred between trophic levels include respiration,
growth and reproduction, defecation, and non predatory death (organisms that die but are not
eaten by consumers). The nutritional quality of material that is consumed also influences how
efficiently energy is transferred, because consumers can convert high-quality food sources into
new living tissue more efficiently. The low rate of energy transfer between trophic levels make
decomposers generally more important that producers in terms of energy flow. Decomposers
process large amounts of organic material and return nutrients to the ecosystem in inorganic
forms, which are then taken up again by primary producers. Energy is not recycled during
decomposition, but rather is released, mostly as heat (this is what makes compost piles and fresh
garden mulch warm). Figure shows the flow of energy (dark arrows) and nutrients (light arrows)
through ecosystems.

Food chains
Charles Elton is a pioneer of the study of animals and plant forms in natural environments, and
of the animal behavior as part of complex pattern of life. He defined the concept of food chain
and originated the concept of ecological pyramids.
Food is continually being passed through an ecosystem. Within an ecosystem, nutrients are
recycled as living things go about their daily business of eating food and excreting waste products.
All living things exist as part of a nutrient recycling chain - an enormous chain defined by what
eats what. This is called the food chain.
The transfer of food energy from the producer through a series of organism (herbivores to
carnivore to decomposers) with repeated eating and being eaten is known as food chain. Food
chains are the pathways along which nutrients pass through an ecosystem.
Producers utilize radiant energy of sun which is transformed to chemical form during
photosynthesis. Thus, green plants occupy first trophic level or nutritional level and are called the
primary producers. The energy stored in the plants in then utilized by the plants eaters which
constitute the secondary trophic level- primary consumers ( herbivores).Herbivores are then eaten
by carnivores which constitute third trophic level and secondary consumers which are then eaten
by tertiary consumers.
There are two types of chain
1 Grazing food chain
2 Detritus food chain

Grazing Food chain- This food chain is also known as prey-Predator Food Chain. This type
of food chain is generally seen in ecosystem such as grassland, pond or lakes where a
substantial part of the net primary production is grazed on by herbivores. Examples:
i) Food chain in a forest community:
Radiant energy of the sun -->Green plants -->Ungulates --> Tigers (Autotrophs)

ii) Food chain in grassland ecosystem:

Radiant energy of the sun -->Grasses --> Grasshopper--> Frog--> Snake --> Hawk
 ii) Detritus food chain- Also known as saprophytic food chain. This type of food chain goes
from dead organic matter into microorganisms and then to organisms feeding on detritus and
their predators. Such ecosystems are thus less dependent on direct solar energy. These depend
chiefly on the influx of organic matter produced in another system.

Difference between Grazing and detritus food chain

The detritus food chain differs from the grazing food chain in several ways:

o The organisms making it up are generally smaller (like algae, bacteria, fungi, insects, &
centipedes)
o The functional roles of the different organisms do not fall as neatly into categories like the grazing
food chain's trophic levels.
o Detrivores live in environments (like the soil) rich in scattered food particles. As a result,
decomposers are less motile than herbivores or carnivores.
o Decomposers process large amounts of organic matter, converting it back into its inorganic
nutrient form.

Significance of Food Chain:

1) Food chains are important for maintaining & regulating population size of different animals &
thus are instrumental in maintaining ecological balance.

2) Food chain show a unique property of accumulation of certain chemicals. There are several
pesticides, heavy metals & other chemicals which are non bio-degradable in nature & are not
decomposed by micro-organisms. They keep on passing from one trophic level to another& each
successive trophic level, their concentration keeps on increasing their phenomenon is known as
biomagnifications.

Food Web: Food chains are interconnected with each other forming some sort of interlocking
pattern, which is referred to as food web. In food web there are a number of options of eating &
being eaten at each trophic level.
 In Food web, there are number of options of eating and being eaten at each trophic level.
Thus, Food web is a set of inter-connected food chains by which energy and materials circulate
within an ecosystem. The food web is divided into two broad categories- the Grazing fod web,
which typically begins with green plants, algae or photosynthesizing plankton and the detrital
web which begins with organic debris. These webs are made up of individual food chains.

Ecological Pyramids: Graphic representation of trophic structure at successive trophic levels

forming the apex is known as ecological pyramids. In ecological pyramids, producers level
constitute the base of pyramid.

Types of Ecological Pyramids:

1) Pyramid of Number- Showing number of individual organism at each level.

2) Pyramid of Biomass- Showing the dry weight.
3) Pyramid of Energy- Showing the rate of energy flows at each successive level.

The pyramid of number and biomass may be upright or inverted but pyramid of energy are always
upright.

Pyramids of Number
They show the relationship between producers, herbivores and carnivores at successive trophic
levels in terms of their number. Here there will be a gradual decrease in the number of individuals
from the lower to the higher trophic levels. This may be studied by taking the example of trophic
levels in grassland.

The grasses occupy the lowest trophic level and they are abundantly present in the grassland
ecosystem. The deers occupy the second level; their number is less than compared to the grasses.

The wolves, which feed upon the deers, are far less in number when compared to the number of
deers. The lions, which occupy the next trophic level, feed upon wolves, and the number of
individuals in the last trophic level is greatly reduced.

In the parasitic food chain, the pyramid of numbers is founds to be inverted. Here, a single plant
or tree might support varieties of herbivore. These herbivores like birds in turn, support varieties
of parasites like lice, bugs that outnumber the herbivores.

Subsequently each parasite might support a number of hyperparasites like bacteria and fungi,
which will outnumber the parasites. Thus from the producer level onwards, towards the
consumers, in the parasitic food chain there is a gradual increase in the number of organisms,
instead of the usual decrease.

Pyramid of Biomass:

They are comparatively more fundamental, as they, instead of the geometric factor, shows the
quantitative relationships of the standing crops. Here there will be gradual decrease in the biomass
from the autotrophs to the higher trophic levels. This may be illustrated by studying the trophic
levels in a pond.

The biomass in autotrophs like algae, green flagellates, green plants etc. is the maximum. The
biomass is considerably less in the next trophic level occupied by secondary consumers like small
fishes. The least amount of biomass is present in the last trophic level.

1. This pyramid shows the total biomass at each trophic level in a food chain.
2. Pyramid in erect.

3. It indicates a decrease in the biomass at each trophic level from the base to apex of pyramid.

Example: Total biomass than herbivores, which is again more than carnivorous.

e.g Forest ecosystem

carnivores
Herbivores
producers

The Pyramid of Energy

The energy pyramids give the best picture of the overall nature of the ecosystem.

Here there will be gradual decrease in the availability of energy from the autotrophs higher trophic
levels. In other words, there is decrease in energy flow from autotrophs on\ at successive trophic
levels.

In the course of energy flow from one organism to the other, is considerable loss of energy in the
form of heat. More energy is available in the autotrophs t in the primary consumers. The least
amount of available energy will be in the tertiary consumer. Therefore, shorter the food chain,
greater is the amount of energy available at the top.

1. The energy pyramid always upright and errect.

2. It shows the rate of energy flows at different trophic levels.

3. It shows that energy is maximum at producer level and minimum at the carnivores' level.

4. At every successive trophic level there is a loss of energy in the form of heat, respiration etc.
Biological Cycling
The cycling of chemical elements within an ecosystem is called ecosystem mineral cycling.
Ecosystem mineral cycling connects biological cycles to geological cycles. Chemical elements
cycle within an eco-system from organism to organism through water, air, soils and rocks.

All elements in the earth are recycled time and again. The major elements such as oxygen, carbon,
nitrogen, phosphorous, and sulphur are essential ingredients that make up organisms.

Biogeochemical cycles refer to the flow of such chemical elements and compounds between
organisms and the physical environment. Chemicals taken in by organisms are passed through
the food chain and come back to the soil, air, and water through mechanisms such as respiration,
excretion, and decomposition.

As an element moves through this cycle, it often forms compounds with other elements as a result
of metabolic processes in living tissues and of natural reactions in the atmosphere, hydrosphere,
or lithosphere.

Such cyclic exchange of material between the living organisms and their non-living environment
is called Biogeochemical Cycle.

There are 3 main chemical cycles they are :

Hydrological Cycle :

The hydrological cycle or water cycle is the most important cycle. It involves interchange of water
between the earth surface and the atmosphere through rainfall and transpiration. The water from
water bodies like ocean, sea, river, lakes etc. gets evaporated by solar energy. These water
vapours, after cooling and condensation, form clouds, and result in rainfall, snowfall, etc. A large
part of the rainfall occurs in ocean and seas. A sizable part of water goes back to the ocean and
seas. A sizable parts of water infiltrate into the soil and become underground water or table water.
A small quantity of water is absorbed by the plants and other animals, and the same is released
during respiration and transpiration of plants. Thus, there is a continuous cycling of water.

Carbon Cycle :
Carbon cycle plays an important role. The small amount of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere is
the only source of carbon that passes through the organism along with the food chains. Carbon
moves from the atmosphere to the green plants, then to animals and finally to the other micro
organisms that return into the atmosphere through decomposition of dead organic matter. The
carbon dioxide has unique property of absorbing infrared radiation, and it helps in keeping the
earth warm. Excess of carbon dioxide lead to rise in the temperature.

Oxygen Cycle :
Oxygen is about 21% of the atmosphere. It is also available in the bound states as oxides and
carbonates in rocks and in water. The plants release oxygen in water during photosynthesis.
 Again, gaseous oxygen is used in the respiration of all the organisms and in the oxidation of the
organic matter. Another phase of the oxygen is the ozone layer of the outer stratosphere which
serves an important function of protecting the life from the ionizing ultraviolet waves.

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ECOLOGICAL SUCCESSION
An ecosystem is not static in nature. It is dynamic and changes its structure as well as function
with time and quite interestingly, these changes are very orderly and can be predicted. It is observed
that one type of a community is totally replaced by another type of community over a period of time
and simultaneously several changes also occur. This process is known as ecological succession.

Ecological succession means ecological development. It refers to the process of gradual change
in conditions of environment and replacement of older species. This is an ever-containing
phenomenon.

Eco1ogical succession is defined as an order1y process of changes in the community structure and
function with time mediated through modifications in the physica1 environment and
u1timate1y cu1minating in a stabi1ized ecosystem known as c1imax. The whole sequence of
communities which are transitory are known as Seral stages or seres whereas the community
establishing first of all in the area is called a pioneer community.

It is evident from the above said that the term succession denotes a sequence of changes in the
species composition of a community, which is generally associated with a sequence of changes
in its structural and functional properties.
The changes associated with succession are usually progressive or directional. This fact enables
one to predict which species are likely to replace other in the course of a succession. Sucession
tends to continue until the species combinations best suited to the regional climate and the
particular site are established.

Ecological successions starting on different types of areas or substrata are named differently as
follows:
Hydrarch or Hydrosere: Starting in watery area like pond, swamp, bog
Mesarch: starting in an area of adequate moisture.
Xerarch or Xerosere: Starting in a dry area with little moisture. They can be of the following
types:
Lithosere- starting on a bare rock
Psammosere-starting on sand
Halosere-starting on saline soil
characteristics
The occurance of ecological succession has following characteristics.
[Link] is a systematic process.
[Link] changes are directional and take place as a function of time.
[Link] succession occurs due to change in physical environment and the population of species.
[Link] changes are predictable. The process of succession is self-going, stable and biologically
feasible.
Types of succession
According to ecological development the succession can be classified into two
[Link] succession–
This is the initial stage of development of an ecosystem. It begins with the creation
of community on such a location where there was no living organisms. such location
may be a new island, newly created body of water, a new volcanic flows etc.
[Link] Succession
This is a re-establishment stage of the development of an ecosystem which existed
earlier but was destroyed due to natural calamities or man-made reasons, Such
reestablishment occurs due to the presence of seeds and organic matters of biological
communities in the soil.
Process of Succession
The process of succession takes place in a systematic order of sequential steps as follows:
Nudation: It is the development of a bare area without any life form. The bare area may be caused
due to landslides, volcanic eruption etc. (topographic factor), or due to drought, glaciers, frost etc.
(Climatic factor), or due to overgrazing, disease outbreak, agricultural/ industrial activities (biotic
factors).
Invasion: It is the successful establishment of one or more species on a bare area through dispersa1
or migration, followed by ecesis or estab1ishment. Dispersal of the seeds, spores etc. is brought about
by wind, water, insects or birds. Then the seeds germinate and grow on the land. As growth and
reproduction start, these pioneer species increase in number and form groups or aggregations.
Competition and coaction: As the number of individuals grows there is competition, both inter-
specific (between different species) and intra-specific (within the same species), for space, water
and nutrition. They influence each other in a number of ways, known as coaction.
Reaction: The living organisms grow, use water and nutrients from the substratum, and in turn, they
have a strong influence on the environment which is modified to a large extent and this is known as
reaction. The modifications are very often such that they become unsuitable for the existing species
and favour some new species, which replace them. Thus, reaction leads to several sera1 commnnities.
Stabi1ization: The succession ultimately culminates in a more or less stable community called
c1imax which is in equilibrium with the environment.
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Sustainable Development
 Sustainability
After the United Nations Conference on Environment and Development in Rio (1992) the term
“SD” (Sustainable Development) became a keyword. Not only economists, but also physicists,
engineers, social and political scientists and theologians are showing their interest. Sustainable
development has been defined in many ways, but the most frequently quoted definition is from
Our Common Future in 1987, also known as the Brundtland Report (WCED, 1987, p. 43):
"Sustainable development is development that meets the needs of the present without
compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs.” The starting point
of theory formation is the ethical idea of sustainability. It is based on obligations toward future
generations and presupposes intergenerational equity. It contains within it two key concepts:
•the concept of needs, in particular the essential needs of the world's poor, to which overriding
priority should be given; and
•the idea of limitations imposed by the state of technology and social organization on the ability
of the environment to meet present and future needs.
History
The idea of sustainability dates back more than 40 years. It was a key theme of the United Nations
Conference on the Human Environment in Stockholm in 1972. The concept was coined explicitly
to suggest that it was possible to achieve economic growth and industrialization without
environmental damage. In the ensuing decades, mainstream sustainable development thinking
was progressively developed through the World Conservation Strategy (1980) and with the
publication by the World Commission on Environment and Development (WCED) of its report
"Our Common Future" (more commonly known as the "Brundtland Report” (1987)). In 1992, the
UN Conference on Environment and Development (UNCED), or the "Earth Summit", in Rio de
Janeiro, agreed on a Declaration setting out 27 principles supporting sustainable development.
The Summit also agreed a plan of action called Agenda 21, and recommended that all countries
produce national sustainable development strategies. A special UN Commission on Sustainable
Development was created.
In 2002, the Johannesburg Summit reviewed the progress made on global sustainable
development since the Rio Summit. The World Summit on Sustainable Development (WSSD,
2002) confirmed that the first decade of the new century, at least, would be one of reflection about
the demands placed by mankind on the biosphere.

Thus Sustainable development is the organizing principle for meeting human development
goals while simultaneously sustaining the ability of natural systems to provide the natural
resources and ecosystem services on which the economy and society depends. The desired result
is a state of society where living conditions and resources are used to continue to meet human
needs without undermining the integrity and stability of the natural system. Sustainable
development can be defined as development that meets the needs of the present without
compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs.

3 pillars of sustainable development

sustainability is made up of three pillars: economy, society, and the environment. These
principles are also informally used as profit, people and planet.

Objectives of sustainable development

The aim of sustainable development is to balance our economic, environmental and social needs,
allowing prosperity for now and future generations. Sustainable development consists of a long-
term, integrated approach to developing and achieving a healthy community by jointly addressing
economic, environmental, and social issues, whilst avoiding the over consumption of key natural
resources.

Sustainable development encourages us to conserve and enhance our resource base, by gradually
changing the ways in which we develop and use technologies. Countries must be allowed to meet
their basic needs of employment, food, energy, water and sanitation.

The 17 sustainable development goals are

GOAL 1: No Poverty

GOAL 2: Zero Hunger

GOAL 3: Good Health and Well-being

GOAL 4: Quality Education

GOAL 5: Gender Equality

GOAL 6: Clean Water and Sanitation

GOAL 7: Affordable and Clean Energy

GOAL 8: Decent Work and Economic Growth

GOAL 9: Industry, Innovation and Infrastructure

GOAL 10: Reduced Inequality

GOAL 11: Sustainable Cities and Communities

GOAL 12: Responsible Consumption and Production

GOAL 13: Climate Action

GOAL 14: Life Below Water

GOAL 15: Life on Land

GOAL 16: Peace and Justice Strong Institutions

GOAL 17: Partnerships to achieve the Goal

Examples of sustainable development

Using recycled materials or renewable resources when building is an example of sustainable

development. Building a new community in a previously undeveloped area without destroying
the ecosystem or harming the environment is an example of sustainable development.

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PART 2 -Short questions

Q what are the objectives of Environmental studies?
The aim of E.V.S.(environmental studies) is to develop a world population that is aware of and
concerned about the environment and its associated problems and which has the knowledge
,Skills, attitudes ,motivations and commitment to work individually and collectively towards
solutions of current problems.

Q what are the examples of ecological succession?

Examples of ecological succession:

a)Forests, which were destroyed due to fire take rebirth on abandoned land.
b)Vegitation, destroyed due to flood, grows once again.
c)Crops which were harvested grows again as some seeds of earlier crops remain buried under
soil.
d)Bushes grow on an abandoned mining site.
e)A dirt field is plowed and left over the summer. Over the summer, weeds start to grow on the
field. After the weeds grow, small shrubs begin to take root. After a few years, trees begin to
grow in the field.
f)An old wheat field has been left alone by the farmer that once planted the field. After a while,
grasses move into the field and begin to take over. Next, flowering plants, such as wildflowers
begin to grow. Later, small shrubs begin to grow in the old wheat field. Finally, a few years later,
native trees begin to grow in the field.
g)A volcano erupted along a mountain side. After the eruption, the ground was basically just rock.
Lichens and mosses began to grow on the rock and began to break down the rock to form soil.
Small grasses begin to take root and start to grow also. Smaller shrubs come next. Small
burrowing animals moved in to disturb the soil even more as larger plants start to grow .After
several years, trees take root and grow where there once was only rock.

Q with the help of diagram explain types of environment.

Q with the help diagram multi discipline nature of environmental studies.

Q Write the Importance of Ecosystem

It provides habitat to wild plants and animals.

It supports different food chains and food webs.

It regulates essential ecological processes and support lives.

Involved in the recycling of nutrients between biotic and abiotic components.

Maintains the proper flow of energy in an ecosystem including- Water Cycle, Carbon Cycle,
Oxygen Cycle, Nitrogen Cycle, Energy Cycle.

Q What is Eutrophication?
A large proportion of nitrogen and phosphorous fertilizers used in crop fields is washed off by
the runoff water and reaches the water bodies causing over nourishment of the lakes. The process
of accumulation of nutrients in the water bodies is known as eutrophication.

Long Questions
Q Brief describe various Institutions related to environment.

Managing natural resources require efficient institutions at all levels i.e. local, national, regional
and global. Institutions, as defined by Young (1999), are systems of rules, decision- making
procedures, and programs that give rise to social practices, assign roles to participants in these
practices, and guide interactions among the occupants of the relevant roles. Institutions often
figure prominently in efforts to solve or manage environmental problems. Several Government
and Non- Government Organizations (NGO’S) are working towards environmental protection in
our country. They play a role both in causing and in addressing problems arising from human-
environment interactions. They have led to a growing interest in environmental protection and
conservation of nature and natural resources.

Among the large number of institutions that deal with environmental protection and
conservation, a few well-known organization include government organizations like the BSI and
ZSI, and NGOs like the BNHS, WWF-1, etc.
The Bombay Natural History Society (BNHS), Mumbai: It was founded on 15 September 1883,
is one of the largest non-governmental organizations in India engaged in conservation and
biodiversity research. It supports many research efforts through grants, and publishes a popular
magazine called the Hornbill and also an internationally well-known the Journal of the Bombay
Natural History Society. The BNHS has over the years helped the government to frame wildlife-
related laws and has taken up battles such as the ‘save the silent valley’ campaign.

World Wide fund for nature- India (WWF-1), New Delhi: The WWF-1 was initiated in 1969
in Mumbai, after which the headquarters were shifted to Delhi with several State, Divisional and
Project offices spread across India. In the early years it focused attention on wildlife education
and awareness. It runs several programs, including the nature clubs of India program for school
children and works as a think –tank and lobby force for environmental and development issues.

Centre or science and environment (CSE), New Delhi: is a public interest research
and advocacy organisation based in New Delhi. CSE researches into, lobbies for and
communicates the urgency of development that is both sustainable and equitable. It has published
a major document on the State of India’s Environment, the first of its kind to be produced as a
citizen’s Report on the environment. It also publishes a popular magazine, Down to Earth which
is a science and environment fortnightly. It is involved in the publication of material in the form
of books posters, video films and also conducts workshops and seminars on biodiversity- related
issues.
C.P.R Environmental Education Centre, Madras: the CPR-EEC was set up in 1988
CPREEC) is a Centre of Excellence of the Ministry of Environment and Forests (MoEF),
Government of India, established jointly by the Ministry and the C.P. Ramaswami Aiyar
Foundation. It conducts a variety of programs to increase awareness and knowledge of public i.e.,
school children, local communities, woman as main key target groups about the various aspects
of environment .Its programs include components on wildlife and biodiversity issues.

The Centre for Environment Education (CEE) in India was established in August 1984 as a
Centre of Excellence supported by the Ministry of Environment and Forests. The organisation
works towards developing programmes and materials to increase awareness about the
environment and sustainable development. The head office is located in Ahmedabad. The Centre
has 41 offices including regional cells and several field offices, across IndiaCEE's primary
objective is to improve public awareness and understanding of the environment with a view to
promoting the conservation and sustainable use of nature and natural resources, leading to a better
environment and a better quality of life. To this endCEE is committed to ensuring that due
recognition is given to the role of education in the promotion of sustainable development.

Bharati Vidyapeeth University, Institute of Environment Education & Research,

Pune was established in 1993. Its major focus is to spread the message of the need for pro-
environmental action in society at large through a dual strategy of formal and non –formal
integrated activities. The distinctive characteristics of BVIEER are its wide mandate of teaching,
research and extension. It implements a large outreach program that has covered over 435 schools
in which it trains teachers and conduct fortnightly environment education programs. Biodiversity
conservation in a major focus of its research initiatives. . It has developed a teachers handbook
linked to school curriculum and a textbook for UGC for the compulsory undergraduate course on
environment.

The Salim Ali Center for Ornithology and Natural History (SACON): - It is an
autonomous organization with headquarters at Coimbattore. It is a national centre for information,
education and research in ornithology and natural history in India. Its mission is "To help conserve
India’s biodiversity and its sustainable use through research, education and peoples’
participation, with birds at the centre stage".

Wild life Institute of India (WII), Dehradhun: Is an autonomous institution of MoEF, GOI,
established in 1982. It is an institution which offers training program, academic courses and
advisory in wildlife research and management. The Institute is actively engaged in research on
biodiversity related issues.

Zoological survey of India (ZSI): is a premier organisation in zoological research and studies.
The activities of the ZSI are coordinated by the Conservation and Survey Division in the MoEF,
GOI. This is the only taxonomic organization in the country involved in the study of all kinds of
animals from Protozoa to Mammalia, occurring in all possible habitats from deepest depth of the
ocean to the peaks of Himalaya, was established on 1st July, 1916 to promote survey, exploration
and research leading to the advancement in our knowledge of the various aspects of the
exceptionally rich animal life.

The madras Crocodile Bank Trust (MCBT): MCBT, the first crocodile conservation breeding
in Asia, was founded in 1976 to conserve Indian crocodilians and establish program for the
conservation and propagation of other species of endangered reptiles Head quarters are at Madras.
It is involved in environmental education programs for the villages and schools that include nature
camps, training workshop for teachers and youth from fishing villages.

Uttarkhand seva nidhi (USKN), Almora : It is a public charitable trust founded in 1967. This
organization was appointed as a nodal agency in 1987 by the Department of Education, Ministry
of Human Resources Development, Government of India to undertake locale-specific
environmental education programmes both in rural schools and villages in the hill districts of
Uttar Pradesh, now Uttaranchal. The organization conducts education, training and on the spot
problem solving programmes with the aim of helping people to understand their surroundings
from a broad ecological point of view and encourage them to organise themselves to deal with
environmental problems that affect their daily lives, and to provide training in technical know-
how and practical skills. Its main target is sustainable resource use at the village level through
training school children.

Kalpavriksh: This NGO, initially Delhi-based, is now working from pune and is active in several
other parts of India. Kalpavriksh worked on a variety of fronts: education and awareness;
investigation and research; direct action and lobbying, and litigation with regard to environment
and development issues. Its activities include talks and audiovisuals in schools and colleges,
nature walks and outstation camp, organizing student participation in ongoing campaigns
including street demonstrations, pushing form consumer awareness regarding organic food, press
statements, handling green alerts, and meeting with city administrators. Kalpavriksh was among
those responsible for developing India’s National Biodiversity Strategy and action plan in 2003.

The Botanical Survey of India (BSI) is an institution set up by the Government of India in 1887
to survey the plant resources of the Indian empire. It carries out surveys of plant resources in
different regions. It monitors botanical resources by analyzing theiroccurrence, distribution,
ecology, economic utility, conservation, environment impact, etc.

Q Explain the types of fresh water aquatic ecosystem and marine water ecosystem

There are two types of aquatic ecosystem- Fresh water and marine water ecosystem

Freshwater Aquatic Ecosystem

They cover only a small portion of earth nearly 0.8 per cent. Freshwater involves lakes, ponds,
rivers and streams, wetlands, swamp, bog and temporary pools. Freshwater habitats are classified
into lotic and lentic habitats. Water bodies such as lakes, ponds, pools, bogs, and other reservoirs
are standing water and known as lentic habitats. Whereas lotic habitats represent flowing water
bodies such as rivers, streams.

• Lotic Ecosystems

They mainly refer to the rapidly flowing waters that move in a unidirectional way including the
rivers and streams. These environments harbor numerous species of insects such as beetles,
mayflies, stoneflies and several species of fishes including trout, eel, minnow, etc. Apart from
these aquatic species, these ecosystems also include various mammals such as beavers, river
dolphins and otters.

• Lentic Ecosystems

They include all standing water habitats. Lakes and ponds are the main examples of Lentic
Ecosystem. The word lentic mainly refers to stationary or relatively still water. These ecosystems
are home to algae, crabs, shrimps, amphibians such as frogs and salamanders, for both rooted and
floating-leaved plants and reptiles including alligators and other water snakes are also found here.

• Wetlands

Wetlands are marshy areas and are sometimes covered in water which has a wide diversity of
plants and animals. Swamps, marshes, bogs, black spruce and water lilies are some examples in
the plant species found in the wetlands. The animal life of this ecosystem consists of dragonflies
and damselflies, birds such as Green Heron and fishes such as Northern Pike.

Marine Aquatic Ecosystem

Marine ecosystem covers the largest surface area of the earth. Two third of earth is covered by
water and they constitute of oceans, seas, intertidal zone, reefs, seabed, estuaries, hydrothermal
vents and rock pools. Each life form is unique and native to its habitat. This is because they have
adaptations according to their habitat. In the case of aquatic animals, they can’t survive outside
of water. Exceptional cases are still there which shows another example of adaptations (e.g.
mudskippers). The marine ecosystem is more concentrated with salts which make it difficult for
freshwater organisms to live in. Also, marine animals cannot survive in freshwater. Their body is
adapted to live in saltwater; if they are placed in less salty water, their body will swell (osmosis).

• Ocean Ecosystems

Our planet earth is gifted with the five major oceans, namely Pacific, Indian, Arctic, and the
Atlantic Ocean. Among all these five oceans, the Pacific and the Atlantic are the largest and
deepest ocean. These oceans serve as a home to more than five lakh aquatic species. Few creatures
of these ecosystems include shellfish, shark, tube worms, crab small and large ocean fishes,
turtles, crustaceans, blue whale, reptiles, marine mammals, seabirds, plankton, corals and other
ocean plants.

• Coastal Systems
They are the open systems of land and water which are joined together to form the coastal
ecosystems. The coastal ecosystems have a different structure, and diversity. A wide variety of
species of aquatic plants and algae are found at the bottom of the coastal ecosystem. The fauna is
diverse and it mainly consists of crabs, fish, insects, lobsters snails, shrimp, etc.

Plants and animals in an aquatic ecosystem show a wide variety of adaptations which may involve
life cycle, physiological, structural and behavioural adaptations. Majority of aquatic animals are
streamlined which helps them to reduce friction and thus save energy. Fins and gills are the
locomotors and respiratory organs respectively. Special features in freshwater organisms help
them to drain excess water from the body. Aquatic plants have different types of roots which help
them to survive in water. Some may have submerged roots; some have emergent roots or maybe
floating plants like water hyacinths.

Q Write the importance of Ecology.

Ecology is a branch of science including human science, population, community, ecosystem,

and biosphere. Ecology is the study of organisms, environment and how the organisms interact
with each other and their environment. It is studied at various levels such as organism,
population, community, biosphere, and ecosystem.

Ecologist’s primary goal is to improve their understanding of life processes, adaptations and
habitats, interactions and biodiversity of organism

The following reasons explain the importance of ecology:

Conservation of Environment

Ecology helps us to understand how our actions affect the environment. It shows the individuals
the extent of damage we cause to the environment.

Lack of understanding of ecology has led to the degradation of land and the environment. It has
also led to the extinction and endangerment of certain species. For eg., dinosaurs, white shark,
mammoths, etc. Thus the study of the environment and organisms helps us to protect them from
any damage and danger.

Resource Allocation

With the knowledge of ecology, we are able to know which resources are necessary for the
survival of different organisms. Lack of ecological knowledge has led to scarcity and deprivation
of these resources, leading to competition.

Energy Conservation

All organisms require energy for their growth and development. Lack of ecological understanding
leads to the over-exploitation of energy resources such as light, nutrition, and radiation, leading
to its depletion.

Proper knowledge of ecological requirements prevents the unnecessary wastage of energy

resources, thereby, conserving energy for future purposes.
Eco-Friendliness

Ecology encourages harmonious living within the species and the adoption of a lifestyle that
protects the ecology of life.

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