10/9/25, 1:45 PM Sri Lanka - Wikipedia

During the protohistoric period (1000–500 BCE) Sri Lanka was culturally united with southern India,[42] and shared the • Sinhala 543 BCE
Kingdom
same megalithic burials, pottery, iron technology, farming techniques and megalithic graffiti.[43][44] This cultural complex
established[6]
spread from southern India along with Dravidian clans such as the Velir, prior to the migration of Prakrit speakers.[45][46][43]
• Anuradhapura 377 BCE – 1017 CE
period
One of the first written references to the island is found in the Indian epic Ramayana, which provides details of a kingdom
• Polonnaruwa 1017–1232
named Lanka that was created by the divine sculptor Vishvakarma for Kubera, the God of Wealth.[47] It is said that Kubera period
was overthrown by his rakshasa stepbrother, Ravana.[48] • Transitional 1232–1592
period
• Kandyan period 1592–1815
Ancient history • British Ceylon 1815–1948
period
According to the Mahāvaṃsa, a Pāḷi chronicle written in the 5th century CE, the
• Independence 4 February 1948
original inhabitants of Sri Lanka are said to be the Yakshas and Nagas. Sinhalese
• Republic 22 May 1972
history traditionally starts in 543 BCE with the arrival of Prince Vijaya, a semi-
• Current 7 September 1978
legendary prince who sailed with 700 followers to Sri Lanka, after being expelled from constitution
Vanga kingdom (present-day Bengal).[49] He established the Kingdom of
Area
Tambapanni, near modern-day Mannar. Vijaya (Singha) is the first of the • Total 67,240[7] km2
approximately 189 monarchs of Sri Lanka described in chronicles such as the (25,960 sq mi) (120th)
Dīpavaṃsa, Mahāvaṃsa, Cūḷavaṃsa, and Rājāvaliya.[50] • Water (%) 4.4
Ptolemy's world map of Ceylon, first Population
Once Prakrit speakers had attained dominance on the island, the Mahāvaṃsa further
century CE, in a 1535 publication • 2024 estimate 21,763,170[8] (60th)
recounts the later migration of royal brides and service castes from the Tamil Pandya
• 2024 census 21,763,170[9]
kingdom to the Anuradhapura kingdom in the early historic period.[51]
• Density 337.7/km2 (874.6/sq mi)
The Anuradhapura period (377 BCE – 1017 CE) began with the establishment of the Anuradhapura kingdom in 380 BCE (36th)
during the reign of Pandukabhaya. Thereafter, Anuradhapura served as the capital city of the country for nearly 1,400 GDP (PPP) 2024 estimate
years.[52] Ancient Sri Lankans excelled at building certain types of structures such as tanks, dagobas and palaces.[53] Society • Total $342.6 billion [10]
underwent a major transformation during the reign of Devanampiya Tissa, with the arrival of Buddhism from India. In 250 (62nd)
BCE,[54] Mahinda, a bhikkhu and the son of the Mauryan Emperor Ashoka arrived in Mihintale carrying the message of • Per capita $15,632 [11] (111th)
Buddhism.[55] His mission won over the monarch, who embraced the faith and propagated it throughout the Sinhalese GDP (nominal) 2024 estimate
population.[56] • Total $98.9 billion[12] (71st)
• Per capita $4,516 (120th)
Succeeding kingdoms of Sri Lanka would maintain many Buddhist schools and monasteries and support the propagation of
Buddhism into other countries in Southeast Asia. Sri Lankan Bhikkhus studied in India's famous ancient Buddhist University Gini (2023) 39.8[13]
medium inequality
of Nalanda, which was destroyed by Bakhtiyar Khalji. It is probable that many of the scriptures from Nalanda are preserved in
Sri Lanka's many monasteries and that the written form of the Tripiṭaka, including Sinhalese Buddhist literature, were part of HDI (2023) 0.776[14]
the University of Nalanda.[57] In 245 BCE, bhikkhunī Sanghamitta arrived with the Jaya Sri Maha Bodhi tree, which is high (89th)
considered to be a sapling from the historical Bodhi Tree under which Gautama Buddha became enlightened.[58] It is Currency Sri Lankan rupee (Rs)
considered the oldest human-planted tree (with a continuous historical record) in the world. (Bodhivaṃsa)[59][60] (LKR)

Time zone UTC+5:30 (SLST)

Sri Lanka experienced the first of many foreign invasions during the reign of Suratissa, who was defeated by two horse traders
named Sena and Guttika from South India.[56] The next invasion came immediately in 205 BCE by a Chola named Elara, who Calling code +94
overthrew Asela and ruled the country for 44 years. Dutugamunu, the eldest son of the southern regional sub-king, Kavan ISO 3166 code LK
Tissa, defeated Elara in the Battle of Vijithapura. During its two and a half millennia of existence, the Sinhala kingdom was
invaded at least eight times by neighbouring South Indian dynasties such as the Chola, Pandya, and Pallava. There also were Internet TLD .lk · .ලංකා · .இலங்கை

incursions by the kingdoms of Kalinga (modern Odisha) and from the Malay Peninsula as well. Website
[Link] ([Link]
The Fourth Theravāda Council was held at the Anuradhapura Maha Viharaya in Sri
Lanka under the patronage of Valagamba in 25 BCE. The council was held in response
to a year in which the harvests in Sri Lanka were particularly poor and many Buddhist
monks subsequently died of starvation. Because the Pali Canon was at that time oral
literature maintained in several recensions by dhammabhāṇakas (dharma reciters), the
surviving monks recognised the danger of not writing it down so that even if some of the
monks whose duty it was to study and remember parts of the Canon for later
generations died, the teachings would not be lost.[61] After the council, palm-leaf
manuscripts containing the completed Canon were taken to other countries such as
Burma, Thailand, Cambodia and Laos.
The Sigiriya ("Lion Rock"), a rock fortress The Avukana Buddha statue, a 12-metre-tall
and city, built by King Kashyapa (477– Sri Lanka was the first Asian country known to have a female ruler: Anula of (39 ft) standing Buddha statue from the reign
495 CE) as a new more defensible Anuradhapura (r. 47–42 BCE).[62] Sri Lankan monarchs undertook some remarkable of Dhatusena of Anuradhapura, 5th century
capital. It was also used as a Buddhist
construction projects such as Sigiriya, the so-called "Fortress in the Sky", built during
monastery after the capital was moved
the reign of Kashyapa I, who ruled between 477 and 495. The Sigiriya rock fortress is
back to Anuradhapura.
surrounded by an extensive network of ramparts and moats. Inside this protective enclosure were gardens, ponds, pavilions, palaces
and other structures.[63][64]

In 993 CE, the invasion of Chola emperor Rajaraja I forced the then Sinhalese ruler Mahinda V to flee to the southern part of Sri Lanka. Taking advantage of this situation,
Rajendra I, son of Rajaraja I, launched a large invasion in 1017. Mahinda V was captured and taken to India, and the Cholas sacked the city of Anuradhapura causing the fall
of Anuradhapura kingdom. Subsequently, they moved the capital to Polonnaruwa.[65]

Post-classical period
Following a 17-year-long campaign, Vijayabahu I successfully drove the Chola out of Sri Lanka in 1070, reuniting the country for the first time in over a century.[66][67]
Upon his request, ordained monks were sent from Burma to Sri Lanka to re-establish Buddhism, which had almost disappeared from the country during the Chola
reign.[68] During the medieval period, Sri Lanka was divided into three sub-territories, namely, Ruhunu, Pihiti and Maya.[69]

Sri Lanka's irrigation system was extensively expanded during the reign of Parākramabāhu the Great (1153–1186).[70] This period is considered as a time when Sri Lanka
was at the height of its power.[71][72] He built 1,470 reservoirs – the highest number by any ruler in Sri Lanka's history – repaired 165 dams, 3,910 canals, 163 major
reservoirs, and 2,376 mini-reservoirs.[73] His most famous construction is the Parakrama Samudra,[74] the largest irrigation project of medieval Sri Lanka.

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Parākramabāhu's reign is memorable for two major campaigns – in the south of India as part of a Pandyan war of succession, and a
punitive strike against the kings of Ramanna (Burma) for various perceived insults to Sri Lanka.[75]

After his demise, Sri Lanka gradually decayed in power. In 1215, Kalinga Magha, an invader with uncertain origins, identified as the
founder of the Jaffna kingdom, invaded and captured the Kingdom of Polonnaruwa. He sailed from Kalinga[73] 690 nautical miles
on 100 large ships with a 24,000 strong army. Unlike previous invaders, he looted, ransacked and destroyed everything in the
ancient Anuradhapura and Polonnaruwa Kingdoms beyond recovery.[76] His priorities in ruling were to extract as much as possible
from the land and overturn as many of the traditions of Rajarata as possible. His reign saw the massive migration of native
Sinhalese people to the south and west of Sri Lanka, and into the mountainous interior, in a bid to escape his power.[77][78]

Sri Lanka never really recovered from the effects of Kalinga Magha's invasion. King Vijayabâhu III, who led the resistance, brought
The seated image of Gal Vihara in
the kingdom to Dambadeniya. The north, in the meanwhile, eventually evolved into the Jaffna kingdom.[77][78] The Jaffna kingdom
Polonnaruwa, 12th century, which depicts
never came under the rule of any kingdom of the south except on one occasion; in 1450, following the conquest led by king the dhyana mudra, shows signs of
Parâkramabâhu VI's adopted son, Prince Sapumal.[79] He ruled the North from 1450 to 1467 CE.[80] Mahayana influence.

The next three centuries starting from 1215 were marked by kaleidoscopically shifting collections of capitals in south and central Sri
Lanka, including Dambadeniya, Yapahuwa, Gampola, Raigama, Kotte,[81] Sitawaka, and finally, Kandy. In 1247, the Malay kingdom of Tambralinga which was a vassal of
Sri Vijaya led by their king Chandrabhanu[82] briefly invaded Sri Lanka from Insular Southeast Asia. They were then expelled by the South Indian Pandyan dynasty.[83]
However, this temporary invasion reinforced the steady flow of the presence of various Austronesian merchant ethnic groups, from Sumatrans (Indonesia) to Lucoes
(Philippines) into Sri Lanka which occurred since 200 BCE.[84] Chinese admiral Zheng He and his naval expeditionary force landed at Galle, Sri Lanka in 1409 and got into
battle with the local king Vira Alakesvara of Gampola. Zheng He captured King Vira Alakesvara and later released him.[85][86][87][88] Zheng He erected the Galle Trilingual
Inscription, a stone tablet at Galle written in three languages (Chinese, Tamil, and Persian), to commemorate his visit.[89][90] The stele was discovered by S. H. Thomlin at
Galle in 1911 and is now preserved in the Colombo National Museum.

Early modern period

The early modern period of Sri Lanka begins with the arrival of Portuguese soldier and explorer Lourenço de Almeida, the son of
Francisco de Almeida, in 1505.[91] In 1517, the Portuguese built a fort at the port city of Colombo and gradually extended their
control over the coastal areas. In 1592, after decades of intermittent warfare with the Portuguese, Vimaladharmasuriya I moved his
kingdom to the inland city of Kandy, a location he thought more secure from attack.[92] In 1619, succumbing to attacks by the
Portuguese, the independent existence of the Jaffna kingdom came to an end.[93]

During the reign of the Rajasinha II, Dutch explorers arrived on the island. In 1638, the king signed a treaty with the Dutch East
India Company to get rid of the Portuguese who ruled most of the coastal areas.[94] The following Dutch–Portuguese War resulted
in a Dutch victory, with Colombo falling into Dutch hands by 1656. The Dutch remained in the areas they had captured, thereby
A 17th-century engraving of Dutch
explorer Joris van Spilbergen meeting violating the treaty they had signed in 1638. The Burgher people, a distinct ethnic group, emerged as a result of intermingling
with King Vimaladharmasuriya in 1602 between the Dutch and native Sri Lankans in this period.[95]

The Kingdom of Kandy was the last independent monarchy of Sri Lanka.[96] In 1595, Vimaladharmasurya brought the sacred Tooth
Relic—the traditional symbol of royal and religious authority amongst the Sinhalese—to Kandy and built the Temple of the
Tooth.[96] In spite of on-going intermittent warfare with Europeans, the kingdom survived. Later, a crisis of succession emerged in
Kandy upon king Vira Narendra Sinha 's death in 1739. He was married to a Telugu-speaking Nayakkar princess from South India
(Madurai) and was childless by her.[96]

Eventually, with the support of bhikkhu Weliwita Sarankara and ignoring the right of "Unambuwe Bandara", the crown passed to
the brother of one of Narendrasinha's princesses, overlooking Narendrasinha's own son by a Sinhalese concubine.[97] The new king
was crowned Sri Vijaya Rajasinha later that year. Kings of the Nayakkar dynasty launched several attacks on Dutch controlled areas,
which proved to be unsuccessful.[98]
A 1595 map of Sri Lanka created by
Dutch cartographer Petrus Plancius During the Napoleonic Wars, fearing that French control of the Netherlands might deliver Sri Lanka
to the French, the British Empire occupied the coastal areas of the island (which they called the colony
of British Ceylon) with little difficulty in 1796.[99] Two years later, in 1798, Sri Rajadhi Rajasinha,
third of the four Nayakkar kings of Sri Lanka, died of a fever. Following his death, a nephew of Rajadhi Rajasinha, eighteen-year-old
Kannasamy, was crowned.[100] The young king, now named Sri Vikrama Rajasinha, faced a British invasion in 1803 but successfully
retaliated. The First Kandyan War ended in a stalemate.[100]

By then the entire coastal area was under the British East India Company as a result of the Treaty of Amiens. On 14 February 1815, Kandy was
occupied by the British in the Second Kandyan War, ending Sri Lanka's independence.[100] Sri Vikrama Rajasinha, the last native monarch of
Sri Lanka, was exiled to India.[101] The Kandyan Convention formally ceded the entire country to the British Empire. Attempts by Sri Lankan
noblemen to undermine British power in 1818 during the Uva Rebellion were thwarted by Governor Robert Brownrigg.[102]

The beginning of the modern period of Sri Lanka is marked by the Colebrooke–Cameron reforms of 1833.[103] They introduced a utilitarian
and liberal political culture to the country based on the rule of law and amalgamated the Kandyan and maritime provinces as a single unit of
government.[103] An executive council and a legislative council were established, later becoming the foundation of a representative legislature. Sri Vikrama Rajasinha of
By this time, experiments with coffee plantations were largely successful.[104] Kandy, the last ruling native
Sri Lankan monarch
Soon, coffee became the primary commodity export of Sri Lanka. Falling coffee prices as a result of the depression of 1847 stalled economic
development and prompted the governor to introduce a series of taxes on firearms, dogs, shops, boats, etc., and to reintroduce a form of
rajakariya, requiring six days free labour on roads or payment of a cash equivalent.[104] These harsh measures antagonised the locals, and another rebellion broke out in
1848.[105] A devastating leaf disease, Hemileia vastatrix, struck the coffee plantations in 1869, destroying the entire industry within fifteen years.[106] The British quickly
found a replacement: abandoning coffee, they began cultivating tea instead. Tea production in Sri Lanka thrived in the following decades. Large-scale rubber plantations
began in the early 20th century.

By the end of the 19th century, a new educated social class transcending race and caste arose through British attempts to staff the Ceylon Civil Service and the legal,
educational, engineering, and medical professions with natives.[107] New leaders represented the various ethnic groups of the population in the Ceylon Legislative Council
on a communal basis. Buddhist and Hindu revivalists reacted against Christian missionary activities.[108][109] The first two decades in the 20th century are noted by the
unique harmony among Sinhalese and Tamil political leadership, which has since been lost.[110]

The 1906 malaria outbreak in Ceylon actually started in the early 1900s, but the first case was documented in 1906.

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In 1919, major Sinhalese and Tamil political organisations united to form the Ceylon National Congress, under the
leadership of Ponnambalam Arunachalam,[111] pressing colonial masters for more constitutional reforms. But without
massive popular support, and with the governor's encouragement for "communal representation" by creating a
"Colombo seat" that dangled between Sinhalese and Tamils, the Congress lost momentum towards the mid-1920s.[112]

The Donoughmore reforms of 1931 repudiated the communal representation and introduced universal adult franchise
(the franchise stood at 4% before the reforms). This step was strongly criticised by the Tamil political leadership, who
realised that they would be reduced to a minority in the newly created State Council of Ceylon, which succeeded the
legislative council.[113][114] In 1937, Tamil leader G. G. Ponnambalam demanded a 50–50 representation (50% for the
Sinhalese and 50% for other ethnic groups) in the State Council. However, this demand was not met by the Soulbury
reforms of 1944–45.
British appointed Kandyan chief headmen in 1905.

Contemporary history
The Soulbury constitution ushered in dominion status, with independence proclaimed on 4 February 1948.[115] D. S. Senanayake
became the first Prime Minister of Ceylon.[116] Prominent Tamil leaders including Ponnambalam and Arunachalam Mahadeva
joined his cabinet.[113][117] The British Royal Navy remained stationed at Trincomalee until 1956. A countrywide popular
demonstration against withdrawal of the rice rations resulted in the resignation of prime minister Dudley Senanayake.[118]

S. W. R. D. Bandaranaike was elected prime minister in 1956. His three-year rule had a profound influence through his self-
proclaimed role of "defender of the besieged Sinhalese culture".[119] He introduced the controversial Sinhala Only Act, recognising
Sinhala as the only official language of the government. Although partially reversed in 1958, the bill posed a grave concern for the
Tamil community, which perceived in it a threat to their language and culture.[120][121][122]
The formal ceremony marking the start of
The Federal Party (FP) launched a movement of non-violent resistance (satyagraha) against the bill, which prompted Bandaranaike self-rule, with the opening of the first
to reach an agreement (Bandaranaike–Chelvanayakam Pact) with S. J. V. Chelvanayakam, leader of the FP, to resolve the looming parliament at Independence Square
ethnic conflict.[123] The pact proved ineffective in the face of ongoing protests by opposition and the Buddhist clergy. The bill,
together with various government colonisation schemes, contributed much towards the political rancour between Sinhalese and
Tamil political leaders.[124] Bandaranaike was assassinated by an extremist Buddhist monk in 1959.[125]

Sirimavo Bandaranaike, the widow of Bandaranaike, took office as prime minister in 1960, and withstood an
Leaders in 1960
attempted coup d'état in 1962. During her second term as prime minister, the government instituted socialist
economic policies, strengthening ties with the Soviet Union and China, while promoting a policy of non-
alignment. In 1971, Ceylon experienced a Marxist insurrection, which was quickly suppressed. In 1972, the
country became a republic named Sri Lanka, repudiating its dominion status. Prolonged minority grievances
and the use of communal emotionalism as an election campaign weapon by both Sinhalese and Tamil leaders
abetted a fledgling Tamil militancy in the north during the 1970s.[126] The policy of standardisation by the
Elizabeth II Sirimavo Sirimavo government to rectify disparities created in university enrolment, which was in essence an affirmative J. R. Jayewardene was
Queen of Ceylon Bandaranaike action to assist geographically disadvantaged students to obtain tertiary education,[127] resulted in reducing the the most influential
Prime Minister proportion of Tamil students at university level and acted as the immediate catalyst for the rise of political figure of Sri
1960 saw the election of Sirimavo militancy.[128][129] The assassination of Jaffna Mayor Alfred Duraiyappah in 1975 by the Liberation Tigers of Lanka in the 1970s and
1980s.
Bandaranaike as Ceylon's Prime Tamil Eelam (LTTE) marked a crisis point.[130][131]
Minister and the first time in world
The government of J. R. Jayawardene swept to power in 1977, defeating the United Front government.[132]
history that the heads of both state
and government in a country were Jayawardene introduced a new constitution, together with a free-market economy and a powerful executive presidency modelled after
female.
that of France. It made Sri Lanka the first South Asian country to liberalise its economy.[133] Beginning in 1983, ethnic tensions were
manifested in an on-and-off insurgency against the government by the LTTE. An LTTE attack on 13 soldiers resulted in the start of a civil
war, and in response anti-Tamil race riots took place, allegedly backed by Sinhalese hard-line ministers, which resulted in more than 150,000 Tamil civilians fleeing the
island, seeking asylum in other countries.[134][135]

Lapses in foreign policy resulted in India strengthening the Tigers by providing arms and training.[136][137][138] In 1987, the Indo-Sri Lanka Accord was signed and the
Indian Peace Keeping Force (IPKF) was deployed in northern Sri Lanka to stabilise the region by neutralising the LTTE.[139] The same year, the JVP launched its second
insurrection in Southern Sri Lanka,[140] necessitating redeployment of the IPKF in 1990.[141] In October 1990, the LTTE expelled Sri Lankan Moors (Muslims by religion)
from northern Sri Lanka.[142] In 2002, the Sri Lankan government and LTTE signed a Norwegian-mediated ceasefire agreement.[122]

The 2004 Asian tsunami killed over 30,000 and displaced over 500,000 people in Sri Lanka.[143][144] From 1985 to 2006, the Sri Lankan government and Tamil insurgents
held four rounds of peace talks without success. Both LTTE and the government resumed fighting in 2006, and the government officially backed out of the ceasefire in
2008.[122] In 2009, under the Presidency of Mahinda Rajapaksa, the Sri Lanka Armed Forces defeated the LTTE, bringing an end to the 26 year long civil war on 19 May
2009,[145][146][147][148] and re-established control of the entire country by the Sri Lankan Government.[149] Overall, between 60,000 and 100,000 people were killed during
the course of the 26 year long conflict.[150][151]

2019 Sri Lanka Easter bombings carried out by the terrorist group National Thowheeth Jama'ath on 21 April 2019 resulted in the brutal death of 261 innocent people.[152]
On 26 April 2019 an anti terrorist operation was carried out against the National Thowheeth Jama'ath by the Sri Lanka Army with the operation being successful and
National Thowheeth Jama'ath's insurgency ending.[153][154][155]

Economic troubles in Sri Lanka began in 2019, when a severe economic crisis occurred caused by rapidly increasing foreign debt, massive government budget deficits due
to tax cuts, falling foreign remittances, a food crisis caused by mandatory organic farming along with a ban on chemical fertilisers, and a multitude of other factors.[156] The
Sri Lankan Government officially declared the ongoing crisis to be the worst economic crisis in the country in 73 years.[157] In August 2021, a food emergency was
declared.[158] In June 2022, Prime Minister Ranil Wickremesinghe declared the collapse of the Sri Lankan economy in parliament.[159] The crisis resulted in Sri Lanka
defaulting on its $51 billion sovereign debt for the first time in its history, along with double-digit inflation, a crippling energy crisis that led to approximately 15 hour power
cuts, severe fuel shortages leading to the suspension of fuel to all non-essential vehicles, and more such economic disorder.[160][161] Due to the crisis, massive street protests
erupted all over the country, with protesters demanding the resignation of the President Gotabaya Rajapaksa. The protests culminated with the storming and siege of the
President's House on July 9, 2022, and resulted in President Gotabaya Rajapaksa fleeing to Singapore[162] and later emailing his resignation to parliament, formally
announcing his resignation and making him the first Sri Lankan president to resign in the middle of his term.[163] On the same day the President's House was stormed,
protesters besieged and stormed the private residence of the prime minister and burnt it down.[164]

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After Parliament elected the new president as Ranil Wickremesinghe on 20 July 2022, Wickremesinghe took oath as the ninth President of Sri Lanka.[165] He implemented
various economic reforms in efforts to stabilise Sri Lanka's economy, which has shown slight improvement since.[166][167] On 23 September 2024, Anura Kumara
Dissanayake was sworn in as Sri Lanka's new president after winning the presidential election as a left-wing candidate.[168] On 14 November 2024, President Anura
Kumara Dissanayake's National People's Power (NPP), a left-leaning alliance, received a two-thirds majority in parliament in Sri Lankan parliamentary election.[169]

Geography
Sri Lanka, an island in South Asia shaped as a teardrop or a pear/mango,[170] lies on the Indian Plate, a major tectonic plate that was
formerly part of the Indo-Australian Plate.[171] It is in the Indian Ocean southwest of the Bay of Bengal, between latitudes 5° and 10° N, and
longitudes 79° and 82° E.[172] Sri Lanka is separated from the mainland portion of the Indian subcontinent by the Gulf of Mannar and Palk
Strait. According to Hindu mythology, a land bridge existed between the Indian mainland and Sri Lanka. It now amounts to only a chain of
limestone shoals remaining above sea level.[173] Legends claim that it was passable on foot up to 1480 CE, until cyclones deepened the
channel.[174][175] Portions are still as shallow as 1 metre (3 ft), hindering navigation.[176] The island consists mostly of flat to rolling coastal
plains, with mountains rising only in the south-central part. The highest point is Pidurutalagala, reaching 2,524 metres (8,281 ft) above sea
level.

Sri Lanka has 103 rivers. The longest of these is the Mahaweli River, extending 335 kilometres (208 mi).[177] These waterways give rise to 51
natural waterfalls of 10 metres (33 ft) or more. The highest is Bambarakanda Falls, with a height of 263 metres (863 ft).[178] Sri Lanka's
coastline is 1,585 km (985 mi) long.[179] Sri Lanka claims an exclusive economic zone extending 200 nautical miles, which is approximately
6.7 times Sri Lanka's land area. The coastline and adjacent waters support highly productive marine ecosystems such as fringing coral reefs
and shallow beds of coastal and estuarine seagrasses.[180]

Sri Lanka has 45 estuaries and 40 lagoons.[179] Sri Lanka's mangrove ecosystem spans over 7,000 hectares and played a vital role in
buffering the force of the waves in the 2004 Indian Ocean tsunami.[181] The island is rich in minerals such as ilmenite, feldspar, graphite,
Topographic map of Sri Lanka
silica, kaolin, mica and thorium.[182][183] Existence of petroleum and gas in the Gulf of Mannar has also been confirmed, and the extraction
of recoverable quantities is underway.[184]

Climate
The climate is tropical and warm because of moderating effects of ocean winds. Mean
temperatures range from 17 °C (62.6 °F) in the Central Highlands, where frost may occur for
several days in the winter, to a maximum of 33 °C (91.4 °F) in low-altitude areas. Average
yearly temperatures range from 28 °C (82.4 °F) to nearly 31 °C (87.8 °F). Day and night
temperatures may vary by 14 °C (25 °F) to 18 °C (32 °F).[185]
A view of Sripada from Maskeliya
The rainfall pattern is influenced by monsoon winds from the Indian Ocean and Bay of
Bengal. The "wet zone" and some of the windward slopes of the central highlands receive up
to 2,500 millimetres (98.4 in) of rain each year, but the leeward slopes in the east and northeast receive little rain. Most of the east,
Sri Lanka map of Köppen climate southeast, and northern parts of Sri Lanka constitute the "dry zone", which receives between 1,200 and 1,900 mm (47 and 75 in) of
classification rain annually.[186]

The arid northwest and southeast coasts receive the least rain at 800 to 1,200 mm (31 to 47 in) per year. Periodic squalls occur and
sometimes tropical cyclones bring overcast skies and rains to the southwest, northeast, and eastern parts of the island. Humidity is typically higher in the southwest and
mountainous areas and depends on the seasonal patterns of rainfall.[187] An increase in average rainfall coupled with heavier rainfall events has resulted in recurrent
flooding and related damages to infrastructure, utility supply and the urban economy.[188]

Flora and fauna

The Western Ghats of India and Sri Lanka were included among the first 18 global biodiversity hotspots due to high levels of species
endemism. The number of biodiversity hotspots has now increased to 34.[190] Sri Lanka has the highest biodiversity per unit area
among Asian countries for flowering plants and all vertebrate groups except birds.[191] A remarkably high proportion of the species
among its flora and fauna, 27% of the 3,210 flowering plants and 22% of the mammals, are endemic.[192] Sri Lanka supports a rich
avifauna of that stands at 453 species and this include 240 species of birds that are known to breed in the country. 33 species are
accepted by some ornithologists as endemic while some ornithologists consider only 27 are endemic and the remaining six are
considered as proposed endemics.[193] Sri Lanka's protected areas are administrated by two government bodies; The Department of
Forest Conservation and the Department of Wildlife Conservation. Department of Wildlife Conservation administrates 61 wildlife
sanctuaries, 22 national parks, four nature reserves, three strict nature reserves, and one jungle corridor while Department of Forest The Sri Lankan elephant is one of three
Conservation oversees 65 conservation forests and one national heritage wilderness area. 26.5% of the country's land area is legally recognised subspecies of the Asian
protected. This is a higher percentage of protected areas when compared to the rest of Asia.[194] elephant. The 2011 elephant census
estimated a population of 5,879.[189]
Sri Lanka contains four terrestrial ecoregions: Sri Lanka lowland rain forests, Sri Lanka montane rain forests, Sri Lanka dry-zone
dry evergreen forests, and Deccan thorn scrub forests.[195] Flowering acacias flourish on the arid Jaffna Peninsula. Among the trees
of the dry-land forests are valuable species such as satinwood, ebony, ironwood, mahogany and teak. The wet zone is a tropical evergreen forest with tall trees, broad
foliage, and a dense undergrowth of vines and creepers. Subtropical evergreen forests resembling those of temperate climates flourish in the higher altitudes.[196]

Yala National Park in the southeast protects herds of elephant, deer, and peacocks. The Wilpattu National Park in the northwest, the
largest national park, preserves the habitats of many water birds such as storks, pelicans, ibis, and spoonbills. The island has four
biosphere reserves: Bundala, Hurulu Forest Reserve, the Kanneliya-Dediyagala-Nakiyadeniya, and Sinharaja.[197] Sinharaja is home
to 26 endemic birds and 20 rainforest species, including the elusive red-faced malkoha, the green-billed coucal and the Sri Lanka
blue magpie. The untapped genetic potential of Sinharaja flora is enormous. Of the 211 woody trees and lianas within the reserve,
139 (66%) are endemic. The total vegetation density, including trees, shrubs, herbs, and seedlings, has been estimated at 240,000
individuals per hectare. The Minneriya National Park borders the Minneriya Tank, which is an important source of water for
elephants inhabiting the surrounding forests. Dubbed "The Gathering", the congregation of elephants can be seen on the tank-bed
in the late dry season (August to October) as the surrounding water sources steadily disappear. The park also encompasses a range
The Sri Lankan leopard (Panthera pardus
of micro-habitats which include classic dry zone tropical monsoonal evergreen forest, thick stands of giant bamboo, hilly pastures
kotiya) is an endangered subspecies of
leopard native to Sri Lanka. (patanas), and grasslands (talawas).[198]

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10/9/25, 1:45 PM Sri Lanka - Wikipedia
During the Mahaweli Program of the 1970s and 1980s in northern Sri Lanka, the government set aside four areas of land totalling
1,900 km2 (730 sq mi) as national parks. Statistics of Sri Lanka's forest cover show rapid deforestation from 1956 to 2010. In 1956,
44.2 percent of the country's land area had forest cover. Forest cover depleted rapidly in recent decades; 29.6 percent in 1999, 28.7
percent in 2010.[199]

Government and politics

Sri Lanka is a democratic republic and a unitary state which is governed by a semi-presidential system.[200] Sri Lanka is the oldest
Maha rath mala (Rhododendron
democracy in Asia.[201] Most provisions of the constitution can be amended by a two-thirds majority in parliament. The amendment arboreum ssp. zeylanicum) is a rare sub-
of certain fundamental features, including clauses on national symbols, religion, term limits, the reference to Sri Lanka as a unitary species of Rhododendron arboreum
state, and the entrenchment mechanism itself, requires both a two-thirds majority in Parliament and approval in a nationwide found in Central Highlands of Sri Lanka.
referendum.[202][203] The Constitution of Sri Lanka officially declares it to be a socialist state.[204]

In common with many democracies, the Sri Lankan government has three branches:

Executive: The President of Sri Lanka is the head of state; the commander in chief of the armed forces; chief executive, and is
popularly elected for a five-year term.[205] The president heads the cabinet and appoints ministers from elected members of
parliament.[206] The president is immune from legal proceedings while in the office with respect to any acts done or omitted to
be done by him or her in either an official or private capacity.[207] Following the passage of the 19th amendment to the
constitution in 2015, the president has two terms, which previously stood at no term limit.
Legislative: The Parliament of Sri Lanka is a unicameral 225-member legislature with 196 members elected from 22 multi-seat
constituencies and 29 elected by proportional representation.[208] Members are elected by universal suffrage for a five-year
The old Sri Lankan Parliament building,
term. The president may summon, suspend, or end a legislative session and dissolve Parliament anytime after four and a half
near the Galle Face Green in Colombo. It
years. The parliament reserves the power to make all laws.[209] The president's deputy and head of government, the prime
now serves as the Presidential
minister, leads the ruling party in parliament and shares many executive responsibilities, mainly in domestic affairs.
Secretariat's headquarters.
Judicial: Sri Lanka's judiciary consists of a Supreme Court—the highest and final superior court of record,[209] a Court of
Appeal, High Courts, and a number of subordinate courts. The highly complex legal system reflects diverse cultural
influences.[210] Criminal law is based almost entirely on British law. Basic civil law derives from Roman-Dutch law. Laws
pertaining to marriage, divorce, and inheritance are communal.[211] Because of ancient customary practices and religion, the
Sinhala customary law (Kandyan law), the Thesavalamai, and Sharia law are followed in special cases.[212] The president
appoints judges to the Supreme Court, the Court of Appeal, and the High Courts. A judicial service commission, composed of
the chief justice and two Supreme Court judges, appoints, transfers, and dismisses lower court judges.

Politics
The current political culture in Sri Lanka is a contest between two rival coalitions led by the centre-left and progressive United The Supreme Court of Sri Lanka,
People's Freedom Alliance (UPFA), an offspring of Sri Lanka Freedom Party (SLFP), and the comparatively right-wing and pro- Colombo
capitalist United National Party (UNP). After 2018, two major political parties split from these two parties: The Samagi Jana
Balawegaya split from the UNP, and the Sri Lanka Podujana Peramuna split from the UPFA. The third wing party Janatha
Vimukthi Peramuna has gained popularity since 2022.[215] National symbols of Sri Lanka
Flag Lion Flag
Sri Lanka is essentially a multi-party democracy with many smaller Buddhist, socialist, and Tamil nationalist political parties.
As of July 2011, the number of registered political parties in the country is 67.[216] Of these, the Lanka Sama Samaja Party Emblem Gold Lion Passant
(LSSP), established in 1935, is the oldest.[217] Anthem "Sri Lanka Matha"
Butterfly Sri Lankan birdwing
The UNP, established by D. S. Senanayake in 1946, was until recently the largest single political party.[218]
It is the only
Animal Grizzled giant squirrel
political group which had representation in all parliaments since independence.[218] SLFP was founded by S. W. R. D.
Bandaranaike in July 1951.[219] SLFP registered its first victory in 1956, defeating the ruling UNP in the 1956 Parliamentary Bird Sri Lanka junglefowl
election.[219] Following the parliamentary election in July 1960, Sirimavo Bandaranaike became the prime minister and the Flower Blue water lily
world's first elected female head of government.[220] Tree Ceylon ironwood (nā)

G. G. Ponnambalam, the Tamil nationalist counterpart of S. W. R. D. Bandaranaike,[221]

founded the All Ceylon Tamil Sport Volleyball
Congress (ACTC) in 1944. Objecting to Ponnambalam's cooperation with D. S. Senanayake, a dissident group led by S.J.V. Source: [213][214]
Chelvanayakam broke away in 1949 and formed the Illankai Tamil Arasu Kachchi (ITAK), also known as the Federal Party,
becoming the main Tamil political party in Sri Lanka for the next two decades.[222] The Federal Party advocated a more aggressive stance toward the Sinhalese.[223] With
the constitutional reforms of 1972, the ACTC and ITAK created the Tamil United Front (later Tamil United Liberation Front). Following a period of turbulence as Tamil
militants rose to power in the late 1970s, these Tamil political parties were succeeded in October 2001 by the Tamil National Alliance.[223][224] Janatha Vimukthi
Peramuna, a Marxist–Leninist political party founded by Rohana Wijeweera in 1965, serves as a third force in the current political context.[225] It endorses leftist policies
which are more radical than the traditionalist leftist politics of the LSSP and the Communist Party.[223] Founded in 1981, the Sri Lanka Muslim Congress is the largest
Muslim political party in Sri Lanka.[226]

President Mahinda Rajapaksa lost the 2015 presidential elections, ending his ten-year presidency. However, his successor as Sri Lankan President, Maithripala Sirisena,
decided not to seek re-election in 2019.[227] The Rajapaksa family regained power in November 2019 presidential elections when Mahinda's younger brother and former
wartime defence chief Gotabaya Rajapaksa won the election, and he was later sworn in as the new president of Sri Lanka.[228][229] Their firm grip of power was
consolidated in the parliamentary elections in August 2020. The family's political party, Sri Lanka People's Front (known by its Sinhala initials SLPP), obtained a landslide
victory and a clear majority in the parliament. Five members of the Rajapaksa family won seats in the new parliament. Former president Mahinda Rajapaksa became the
new prime minister.[230]

In 2022, a political crisis started due to the power struggle between President Gotabaya Rajapaksa and the Parliament of Sri Lanka. The crisis was fuelled by anti-
government protests and demonstrations by the public and also due to the worsening economy of Sri Lanka since 2019. The anti-government sentiment across various
parts of Sri Lanka has triggered unprecedented political instability, creating shockwaves in the political arena.[231]

On July 20, 2022, Ranil Wickremesinghe was elected as the ninth President via a parliamentarian election.[232] President Ranil Wickremesinghe was defeated by left-
leaning Anura Kumara Dissanayake in 2024 presidential elections.[233]

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