The Nature of Loads

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 References
 W. H. Kersting, Distribution System Modeling and
Analysis, 3rd Ed., CRC Press, 2012.

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 Load curves

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24‐hour demand curve

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1. Demand
• Load averaged over a specific period of time
• Load can be kW, kvar, kVA, or A
• Must include the time interval
• Example: the 15-minute kW demand is 100 kW

2. Maximum Demand
• Maximum of all demands that occur during a specific time
• Must include demand interval, period, and units
• Example: the 15-minute maximum kW demand for the week was 150
kW

3. Average Demand
• The average of the demands over a specified period (day, week,
month, etc.)
• Must include demand interval, period, and units
• Example: the 15-minute average kW demand for the month was 110
kW

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4. Diversified Demand
• Sum of demands imposed by a group of loads over a particular period
• Must include demand interval, period, and units
• Example: the 15-minute diversified kW demand in the period ending at
9:30 was 200 kW

5. Maximum Diversified Demand

• Maximum of the sum of the demands imposed by a group of loads over a
particular period
• Must include demand interval, period, and units
• Example: the 15-minute maximum diversified kW demand for the week
was 500 kW
6. Maximum Noncoincident Demand
• For a group of loads, the sum of the individual maximum demands
without any restriction that they occur at the same time
• Must include demand interval, period, and units
• Example: the maximum noncoincident 15-minute kW demand for the
week was 700 kW
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 7. Demand Factor
• Ratio of maximum demand to connected load

8. Utilization Factor
• Ratio of the maximum demand to rated capacity

9. Load Factor
• Ratio of the average demand of any individual customer or group of
customers over a period to the maximum demand over the same period

10. Diversity Factor

• Ratio of the maximum noncoincident demand to the maximum
diversified demand

11. Load Diversity

• Difference between maximum noncoincident demand and the
maximum diversified demand

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 Example
2.2.1 Demand
The 24‐hour 15‐minute kW demand curve for a customer is shown in Figure.

2.2.2 Maximum Demand

In the following figure it is 6.18 kW

8 24‐hour demand curve for Customer #1. Copyright © 2012 CRC Press.
 2.2.3 Average Demand

2.2.4 Load Factor

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 2.3 Distribution Transformer Loading
The following figures give the demand curves for the three additional
customers connected to the same distribution transformer. The load
curves for the four customers show that each customer has his unique
loading characteristic.

10 24‐hour demand curve for Customer #2. Copyright © 2012 CRC Press.
 24‐hour demand curve for Customer #3.

11 24‐hour demand curve for Customer #4. Copyright © 2012 CRC Press.
12 Copyright © 2012 CRC Press.
 2.3.1 Diversified Demand
It is assumed that the same distribution transformer serves the four customers
discussed previously. The sum of the four 15 kW demands for each time
interval is the diversified demand for the group in that time interval, and, in
this case, the distribution transformer.

13 Transformer diversified demand curve. Copyright © 2012 CRC Press.

2.3.2 Maximum Diversified Demand
The transformer demand curve of the previous figure demonstrates how the
combined customer loads begin to smooth out the extreme changes of the
individual loads. For the transformer, the 15‐minute kW demand exceeds 16 kW
twice. The greater of these is the 15‐minute maximum diversified kW demand of the
transformer. It occurs at 17:30 and has a value of 16.16 kW. Note that this maximum
demand does not occur at the same time as any one of the individual demands, nor
is this maximum demand the sum of the individual maximum demands.

2.3.3 Load Duration Curve

A load duration curve can be developed for the transformer serving the four
customers. Sorting in descending order, the kW demand of the transformer
develops the load duration curve shown in Figure 2.7. The load duration curve
plots the 15‐minute kW demand versus the percent of time the transformer
operates at or above the specific kW demand. For example, the load duration curve
shows the transformer operates with a 15‐minute kW demand of 12 kW or greater
22% of the time. This curve can be used to determine whether a transformer needs
to be replaced due to an overloading condition.

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 Transformer load duration curve.

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 2.3.4 Maximum Noncoincident Demand

The 15‐minute maximum noncoincident kW demand for the day is the sum of the
individual customer 15‐minute maximum kW demands. For the transformer in
question, the sum of the individual maximums is

Max. noncoincident demand  6.18  6.82  4.93    24.98 kW

2.3.5 Diversity Factor

diversity factor is the ratio of the maximum noncoincident demand of a group of

customers to the maximum diversified demand of the group. With reference to
the transformer serving four customers, the diversity factor for the four
customers would be

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 An example of the diversity factors for the number of customers ranging
from one to 70

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 2.3.6 Demand Factor

2.3.7 Utilization Factor

Using the 16.16‐kW maximum diversified demand and assuming a power factor
of 0.9, the 15‐minute maximum kVA demand on the transformer is computed by
dividing the 16.16‐kW maximum kW demand by the power factor, and would be
17.96 kVA.

18 Copyright © 2012 CRC Press.

 2.3.8 Load Diversity
Load diversity is defined as the difference between the noncoincident
maximum
demand and the maximum diversified demand. For the transformer in
question, the load diversity is computed to be

Load diversity 24.97 ‐ 16.16 = 8.81 kW

19 Copyright © 2012 CRC Press.

 Shown below are the 15‐minute kW demands for four customers between the
hours of 17:00 and 21:00. A 25‐kVA single‐phase transformer serves the four
customers.

For each of the customers determine:

(a) Maximum 15‐minute kW demand
(b) Average 15‐minute kW demand
(c) Total kWh usage in the time period
(d) Load factor
2. For the 25‐kVA transformer determine:
(a) Maximum 15‐minute diversified
demand
(b) Maximum 15‐minute noncoincident
demand
(c) Utilization factor (assume unity power
factor)
(d) Diversity factor
(e) Load diversity

3. Plot the load duration curve for the

transformer
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Further Analysis of the Household Electricity Survey Early Findings: Demand side management
29 November 2013
[Link]
ngs_revised.pdf

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 Load curves in advanced
energy distribution systems

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 The following challenges are present in advanced
energy distribution systems

• Load leveling (Peak load shaving/shedding/shifting)

• Energy storage systems (from battery to hydroelectric)
• Distributed storage or centralized storage
• Vehicle-to-Grid (V2G) and Grid-to-Vehicle (G2V)
• Renewable energy sources curve forecasting (meteorological
agency)
• Load curve forecasting

 Short term load management—Demand Response &

Renewable Integration
 Long term load management—Energy Efficiency
Moving from ON-OFF to all-time load management.
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Peak load shaving

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 Demand Side Management

25 [Link] Copyright © 2012 CRC Press.

 storage applications

[Link]

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 The following factors should be considered in the energy
storage system

- Sizing (Power and capacity)

- Location (central or distributed)
- Lifetime(charge/discharge cycles)
- Breakeven Cost ($/kw)
- Efficiency
- Performance

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 Load curve
forecast

Very short-term Short-term (half Long-term

Medium-term
(seconds to an hour to (months to
(days to weeks)
minutes) hours) years)

Spinning
Generation
Distribution reserve,
Peak planning growth and
schedules scheduling
plant expansion
maintenance

Load Curve Forecasting

[Link]
[Link]
[Link]

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 An Example of Load Balancing

Balance the mismatches between the load forecast and the actual load

[Link]

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 Example
Short-Term Load Forecasting

M. S. ElMenshawy and A. M. Massoud, "Short-Term Load Forecasting in Active

Distribution Networks Using Forgetting Factor Adaptive Extended Kalman Filter,"
in IEEE Access, vol. 11, pp. 103916-103924, 2023, doi:
10.1109/ACCESS.2023.3315591.
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 Example: Short-Term Load Forecasting

Short term load

forecasting methods

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 Example: Short-Term Load Forecasting

Load forecasting stages

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24‐Hour demand curve; (a) Load curve for customer 1, (b) Load curve for
customer 2, (c) Load curve for customer 3, (d) Transformer diversified
demand curve.
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34 Copyright © 2012 CRC Press.
 Test Networks &
Load curve data

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 Data for load curves
[Link]

[Link]

[Link]

[Link]

[Link]
tmy3-locations-in-the-united-states/resource/b341f6c6-ab5a-4976-bd07-adc68a2239c4

[Link]

[Link]

[Link]

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Modified IEEE 33 Bus Benchmark Test System
[Link]

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 IEEE30 Bus System

[Link]

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IEEE 14 Bus System
[Link]

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 [Link]
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 Term paper

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Term paper
Template can be found in
[Link]

Paper content/structure:
1. Title
2. Abstract
3. Problem definition/Research question
4. Paper objectives
5. Contribution
6. Methodology
• Analysis and Level of math
• Flow chart for the problem solution.
• Case studies
• Realistic table of parameters/data
7. Conclusion
8. Referencing
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