Mathematics Standard

Algebra

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 Mathematics Standard

Simultaneous Linear Equations

Linear Function
A linear function makes a straight line when graphed on a number plane. The dependent variable depends on the number
substituted for the independent variable

GRAPHING A LINEAR FUNCTION

I. Construct a table of values with the independent variable as the first row and the dependent variable as the second row
II. Draw a number plain with independent variable on the horizontal axis and the dependent variable as the vertical axis
III. Plot the points
IV. Join the points to make a straight line

GRADIENT INTERCEPT FORMULA

Linear equation : y = mx + c
m : slope or gradient of the line (vertical rise over the horizontal run)
c : y-intercept. Where the line cuts the y-axis or the vertical axis

Linear Models
Linear models describe a practical situation mathematically sing a linear function

Linear Equations - Graphically

I. Draw a number plane
II. Graph both linear equations on the number plane
III. Rea the point of intersection of the two straight lines
IV. Interpret the point of intersection for practical application

Linear Equations - Algebraically

METHOD ONE - SUBSTITUTION

When solving simultaneous equations by substitution, the process is to substitute a variable from one equation into the
other equation

I. Make one pro numeral the subject in one of the equations

II. Substitute the expression for this subject into the other equation
III. Solve this new equation to find the value of one pro numeral
IV. Substitute this value into one of the equations to find the value of the second pro numeral

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METHOD TWO - ELIMINATION
When solving simultaneous equations by elimination, one of the unknown pro numerals is eliminated by the process of
adding or subtracting the two equations. To eliminate a pro numeral requires the coefficients of one pro numeral to be
exactly the same or the same but opposite in sign.

I. Make sure that the two coefficients of one pro numeral are the are the same. This may require multiplying or dividing
one or both equations by a number
II. Eliminate one pro numeral by adding or subtracting the two equations
III. Solve this new equation to find the value of one pro numeral
IV. Substitute this value into one of the equations to find the value of the second pro numeral

Simultaneous Equations Models

Simultaneous equation models use two linear functions to describe a practical situation and the point of intersection is often
the solution to the problem.

Break Even Analysis

Break-even point occurs when costs equal income.

Profit = income - costs

Income : I = mx
Costs : C = mc + c

Non Linear Relationships

Exponential Functions
y = ax, a > 0 y = a-x, a > 0

Exponential Models
Exponential Growth Quantity increases rapidly using y = ax
Exponential Decay Quantity decreases rapidly using y = a-x

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Quadratic Functions
Quadratic function has the form y = ax2 + bx + c
where a, b and c are numbers
• Parabola (y = x2) Minimum turning point
• Parabola (y = -x2) Maximum turning point

Quadratic Models
A quadratic model describes a practical situation using a function in the form y = ax2 + bc + c where a, b and c are numbers

Reciprocal Function
A reciprocal function has the form y = k where k is a number
x

Hyperbola: y = 1
x
Hyperbola: y = - 1
x

Reciprocal Models
A reciprocal model describes a practical situation using a function in the form y = k where k is a number
x
Inverse Variation
I. Write an equation relating the two variables (k is the constant). y is inversely proportional to x so the equation y = k
x
II. Solve the equation for k by substituting values for x and y
III. Write the equation with the solution for k (step 2) and solve the problem by substituting a value for either x or y

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Measurement

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Non Right Angle Trigonometry

Right Angled Trigonometry
SOH CAH TOA

SOH : Sine - Opposite - Hypotenuse

CAH : Cosine - Adjacent - Hypotenuse
TOA : Tangent - Opposite - Adjacent

Sin θ = Opposite Sin θ = o (SOH)

Hypotenuse h

Cos θ = Adjacent Cos θ = a (CAH)

Hypotenuse h

Tan θ = Opposite Tan θ = o (TOA)

Adjacent a

Degrees and Minutes

One degree is equal to 60 minutes (100 = 60’)
One minute is equal to 60 seconds (1’ = 60”)

Angles of Elevation and Depression

The angle of elevation is the angle measured upwards from the horizontal. The angle of depression is the angle measured
downwards form the horizontal.

The angle of elevation is equal to the angle of depression as they form alternate angles between two parallel lines

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Bearings
COMPASS BEARING
A direction given by stating the angle either side of north or south, such as S600E

TRUE BEARING
A direction given by measuring the angle clockwise from north, such as 1200T

Trigonometry with Obtuse Angles

Acute Angle (0 to 90 0) Obtuse Angle (900 to 1800)

Sin θ : positive Sin θ : positive

Cos θ : positive Cos θ : negative
Tan θ : positive Tan θ : negative

Area of Triangles
A = 1 ab sin C
2

Area of a triangle is half the product of two sides multiplied by the sine of the angle between the two sides (included angle).

The Sine Rule

Sine rule relates the sides and angles in a triangle, and is used in a non-right-angled triangle given information about two
sides and two angles

To find a side :
a = b = c
sin A sin B sin C

To find an angle :
a b c
sin A = sin B = sin C

Sine rule is used in a non-right-angled triangle given :

• Two sides and an angle opposite one of the given sides, or
• Two angles and one side

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The Cosine Rule

Cosine Rule is used in a non-right-angled triangle given information about three sides and one angle.

To find the third side given two sides and the included angle in Δ ABC :

c2 = a2 + b2 - 2ab cos C (c is opposite ∠ C)

To find an angle given three sides (rearrangements of above formulas) :

cos C = a2 + b2 - c2
2ab

Radial Survey
Radial survey involves measuring the angles between radial lines drawn from a central point in the direction of the comers
of the land, and measuring the lengths of the radial lines

NAVIGATION BY DIFFERENT CULTURES

Other cultures use different navigation methods relying on the stars, prevailing winds or currents, or landmarks that are
recorded in various ways

Rates and Ratios

Rates and Concentrations
A rate is a comparison of two unlike quantities.

SPEED CALCULATIONS
Speed = Distance km/h
Time m/s

Heart Rate
A person’s Heart rate is the amount of times their heart beats each minute (BPM)

Resting Heart Rate = between 60 and 80 BPM

Maximum Heart Rate (MHR) = estimated by formula : 220 - person’s age (BPM)

Target Heart Rate (THR) = is the heart rate desired for the most benefit of exercise. THF is usually between 65% and 85%
of MHR

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Energy Rate
Energy is the rate of power per unit of time (kilowatt hour - kWh). Running cost of the appliance is calculated by
multiplying the energy consumption by the electricity charge

Fuel Consumption Rate

Fuel Consumption = Amount of fuel (L) x 100
Distance travelled (km)

Ratio
A ratio is used to compare amounts of the same units in a definite order. Equivalent ratios are obtained by multiplying or
dividing by the same number.

Dividing a Quantity in a Given Ratio

I. Find the total number of parts by adding each amount in the ratio
II. Divide the quantity by the total number of parts to find one part
III. Multiply each amount of the ratio by the result in step 2

Scale Drawings
Scale of a drawing = drawing length : actual length
Scale is expressed in two ways:
• Using units such as 1cm or 1 m (1cm = 1m)
• No units using a ration such as 1:100

Plans and Elevations

A plan is a view of an object from the top. An elevation is a view of an object from one side such as a front elevation or side
elevation.

Perimeter
To calculate the perimeter of land, multiply the length on an aerial photograph by the scale

Area
To estimate the area of land, divide it into square grids and count the number of squares. To calculate the area of land, use
the appropriate formula. The trapezoidal rule for area of land with one irregular boundary gives an approximation

Triangle A = 1/2 bh
Rectangle A = lb

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Square A = s2
Parallelogram A = bh
Trapezium A = 1/2(a + b) h
Rhombu A = 1/2 xy

Volume of Water and Trapezoidal Rule

Volume of a body of water of constant depth and a trapezoidal area, or volume of rainfall falling on a trapezoidal area can
be calculated using the trapezoidal rule for area and formula for the area of a right prism V= Ah

Trapezoidal rule for area : A ≈ w (df + dl)

2

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Financial
Mathematics

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Investments and Loans

Future Value Formula
FV = PV (1 + r)n

FV : Future value of the loan or amount (final balance)

PV : Present value of the loan or principal (initial quantity of money)
r : Rate of interest per compounding time period expressed as a decimal (or a fraction)
n : Number of compounding time periods
a : amount

COMPOUND INTEREST
A = P (1 + r)n

Compound Interest is where interest is charged at regular time periods. Simple Interest occurs over the whole loan

SIMPLE INTEREST
I= Prn A=P+I

Investment Graphs
I. Construct a table of values for A and n using the simple interest formula or the future value formula
II. Draw a number plane : n horizontal axis, A the vertical axis.
III. Join the points to make a straight line

Appreciations and Inflation

Use the formula FV = PV (1 + r )n for appreciation and inflation. Inflation rate is the annual percentage change in the CPI.

Sharers and Dividends

Dividend is the payment given as an amount per share or a percentage of the issued price

Dividend yield = Annual dividend x 100%

Market Price

Declining Balance and Depreciation

S=V0 (1−r)n

S : Salvage value or current value

V0 : Purchase price of the item
r : Rate of interest per time period (decimal)
n : Number of time periods
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Reducing Balance Loans

Total to be paid = loan repayment x number of repayments
Total to be paid = principal + interest

Credit Cards
Daily interest rate = annual interest rate
365
FV = PV (1 + r)n
FV : Future value of the loan or amount (final balance)
PV : Present value of the loan or principal (initial quantity of money)
r : Rate of interest per compounding time period expressed as a decimal (or a fraction)
n : Number of compounding time periods

Annuities
Annuity as a Recurrence Relation
Annuity is a form of investment that involves the regular contribution of money. Investments into superannuation or
monthly loan repayment are examples of annuities. The future value of an annuity is the sum of money contributed, plus the
compound interest earned. It is the total value of the investment at the end of a specified term.

Recurrence Relation
Recurrence relation uses the previous result to obtain the next result. This concept can be represented using a formula can
be represented using a formula where V is the value of the investment and a subscript is used to represents the time period
in this case each year.

Investment : V n+1 = Vn (1 + r) + D
Loan : Vn+1 = Vn(1 + r) − D
Vn + 1 : Value of the investment or loan after (n + 1) payments
Vn : Value of the investment or loan after (n) payments
r : Rate of interest per compounding period expressed as a decimal D – Payment made per
compounding period

Future Value of an Annuity

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The future value of an annuity is the sum of the money contributed plus the compound interest earned. It is the total value
of the investment at the end of a specified term.

USING A FUTURE VALUES TABLE

I. Determine the time period and rate of interest
II. Find the intersection of the time period and rate of interest in table
III. Multiply the number in the intersection with the money contributed

Present Value of an Annuity

The present value of an annuity is the amount of money if invested now would equal the future value of the annuity

Use of Annuities
A table is used to summarise the key properties of an annuity. It shows the payment number, the payment received, the
interest earned, the principal reduction and the balance of the annuity after each payment has been received.

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Statistical
Analysis

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Bivariate Data Analysis

Construction a Bivariate Scatterplot
I. Draw a number plane
II. Determine a scale and title for the horizontal or x-axis
III. Determine a scale and title for the vertical or y-axis
IV. Plot each ordered pair of numbers with a dot

Using a Bivariate Scatterplot

FORM OF AN ASSOCIATION
If an association exists between variables then the points in a scatterplot tend to follow a linear pattern or a curved pattern.
This is called the form of association.

Linear Form Non-Linear Form

If the points seem to approximate If the points seem to approximate

a straight line, the association is a a curve, the association is a non-
linear form. linear form.

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DIRECTION OF AN ASSOCIATION
There are two types of direction if the association is in linear form

Positive Negative

Positive association exists between Negative association exists between

the variables. If the gradient of the the variables if the gradient of the
line is positive. That is, the dots on line is negative. That is, the dots on
the scatter plot tend to go up as we the scatterplot tend to go down as
go from left to right. we go from left to right.

STRENGTH OF AN ASSOCIATION

In a strong association the dots In moderate association the In weak association the amount
will tend to follow a single stream. amount of scatter in the plot of scatter increases further and
A pattern is clearly seen. There is increases and the pattern becomes the pattern becomes even less
only a small amount of scatter in less clear. This indicates that the clear. Linear form is less evident.
the plot. association is less strong.

INDEPEDENT AND DEPENDENT VARIABLES

Bivariate Data has two variables that are often identified as the independent and dependent variables. The independent
variable is the input. It is not affected by the other variable and is represented on the horizontal axis of the scatterplot. The
dependent variable is the output and is ‘dependent’ on the independent variable. It is represented on the vertical axis of a
scatter plot.

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Pearson’s Correlation Coefficient

Person’s correlation coefficient ® measures the strength of a linear association (-1 ≤ r ≤ + 1)

Positive correlation (0 to +1) Both quantities increase or decrease at same time

Zero or no correlation (0) No association between quantities
Negative correlation (-1 to 0) One quantity increases, the other quantity decreases

STRENGTH OF AN ASSOCIATION USING PEARSON’S CORRELATION COEFFICIENT

Association Pearson’s Correlation Coefficient

Strong Positive r = +0.75 to +0.99
Moderate Positive r = +0.50 to +0.74
Weak Positive r = +0.25 to +0.49
No Linear Association r = -0.24 to +0.24
Weak Negative r = -0.25 to -0.49
Moderate Negative r = -0.50 to -0.74
Strong Negative r = -0.75 to -0.99

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Lines of Best Fit

A line of best fit is a straight line that approximates a linear association between points/ The equation of the line of best fit is
found using the gradient-intercept formula : y = mx + c

LEAST SQUARES OF BEST FIT

A line of best fit minimises the sum of the squares of the vertical distances (or residuals).

The equation is given by y = mx + c where gradient (or slope) is m = s

_ _
Y-intercept is c = y - mx
r : Pearson’s correlation coefficient
sx and sy : standard deviation of x and y
_ _
x and y : mean of x and y

Interpolation
INTERPOLATION
Interpolation is the use of the linear regression line to predict values within the range of the dataset. If the data has a strong
linear association then we can be confident our predictions are accurate. However, if the data has a weak linear association,
we are less confident with our predictions.

EXTRAPOLATION
Extrapolation is the use of the linear regression line to predict values outside the range of the dataset. Predicted values are
either smaller or larger than the dataset. The accuracy of predictions using extrapolation depends on the strength of the
linear association similar to interpolation.

Statistical Investigation
A statistical investigation involves four steps : collecting data, organising data, summarising and displaying data, and
analysing data. A statistical investigation raises a number of ethical issues such as bias, accuracy, copyright and privacy.
Causation indicates that one event is the result of the occurrence of another event (or variable).

The Normal Distribution

Normally Distributed Data
• The graph of a normal distribution is called a ‘bell curve’
• The frequency curve is bell-shaped and symmetrical about the mean
• A normal distribution is symmetrical about the mean
• The mean, median and mode (the score that occurs the most) are equal
• The majority of the data is located at the centre with less data at the tails
• A normal distribution has an asymptote on both ends of the x-axis

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• Mean and standard deviation of the dataset is used to define the normal distribution
• Keeping the same mean but different standard deviation causes a graph to move up or down in height
• Keeping the same standard deviation but different mean causes a graph to move left or right
• If it has a large standard deviation, the scores are widely spread from the mean
• If it has a small standard deviation, the scores are close to the mean and the graph is tall and narrow
• x-axis is asymptote in a normal distribution

The 60 95 99.7 Rule

In a normal distribution
• 68% of data lie within 1 standard deviation of the mean
• 95% of data lie within 2 standard deviations of the mean
• 99.7% of data lie within 3 standard deviations of the mean
• 50% of data lie above the mean and 50% of data lie below the mean

Z Scores
z-score is the number of standard deviations from the mean

z = x - x̅
s

z: z score
x: score
x:̅ mean of a set of scores
s: standard deviation

Converting Z Scores into Actual Scores

x = x + x̅ × s or make x the subject of the above formula

Using Z-Scores to compare data

Z-scores are used to compare scores from different data sets
• Read the question carefully to determine whether a higher or lower score is better
• The larger the z score (ignoring positive and negative) the further away it is from the centre of the data

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Applications of Normal Distributions

In a normal distribution
• 68% of scores have a z-score mostly between 1 and -1
• 95% of scores have a z-score very probably between 2 and -2
• 99.7% of scores have a z-score almost certainly between 3 and -3

Bell Shaped Curve

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Networks

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Network Concepts
Networks
A network is a term to describe a group or system of interconnected objects. it consists of vertices and edges that indicate a
path or route between two objects. A network diagram is a representation of a network.

Vertex or arc is the line that connects the vertices

Directed Network or graph is when the edges of a network have arrows and travel is only possible in the direction of the
arrows

Undirected Network (no arrows) or graph is when the edges of a network have no arrows and travel is possible in both
directions

Weighted Edge is the edge of a network diagram that has a number assigned to it that implies some numerical value such as
cost, distance, or time

Degree of a vertex is the number of edges that are connected to it. The degree of a vertex is either even or odd

Travelling a Network
Walk is a connected sequence of the edges showing a route between vertices where the edges and vertices may be visited
multiple times

Trail is a walk with no repeated edges

Path is walk with no repeated vertices

Cycle is a walk with no repeated vertices that starts and ends at the same vertex

Circuit is a walk with no repeated edges that starts and ends at the same vertex

Drawing a Network Diagram

A graph is connected if every vertex in the graph is accessible from every other vertex in the graph along a path formed by
the edges of the graph

Two graphs are isomorphic (equivalent) if:

• They have the same numbers of edges and vertices
• Corresponding vertices have the same degree and the edges connect to the same vertices

Eulerian Trail
A trail that uses every edge of a graph exactly once. Eulerian trails exist if the graph is connected and has exactly two
vertices with an odd degree

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Eulerian Circuit
A circuit that uses every edge of a network graph exactly once. Eulerian circuits exist if all vertices of the graph have an even
degree.

Minimal Spanning Trees

A tree is connected graph that contains no cycles, multiple edges or loops

A tree with n vertices has n - 1 edges

A spanning tree is a tree that connects all of the vertices of a graph

A minimum spanning tree is a spanning tree of minimum length. It connects all the vertices together with the minimum
total weighting for the edges

Prim’s algorithm is a set of rules to determine a minimum spanning tree for a graph.
IV. Choose a starting vertex (any will do such as vertex A)
V. Inspect the edges starting from the starting vertex and choose the one with the lowest weight
VI. Inspect all of the edges starting from both of the vertices ou have in the tree so far. Choose the edge with the lowest
weight, ignoring edges that would connect the tree back to itself
VII. Keep repeating step 3 until all of the vertices are connected

Shortest Path
The shortest path between two vertices in a network is the path where the sum of the weights of its edges is minimised.

Critical Path Analysis

Introduction to Critical Path Analysis
Critical path analysis is a technique that identifies the activities require to complete a project, the time necessary to complete
each activity and the relationships between the activities.

Activity Charts
An Activity Chart is a table containing the activities of a project, duration and their immediate predecessors.

Activities that have no immediate predecessors follow from the start vertex. Activities that are not immediate predecessors
for other activities lead to the finish vertex. For every other activity, look for:
• The activities for which it is an immediate predecessor
• The activities it has as immediate predecessors

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Dummy Activities
A dummy activity is required if two activities share some, but not all, of their immediate predecessors (the weight of a
dummy activity is always zero).

Start Times
Earliest Starting Time: the earliest time any activity can be started after all prior activities have been completed.

Latest Starting Time: The latest time any activity can be started after all prior activities have been completed

Float Times and the Critical Path

Float time is the amount of time that a task in a project network can be delayed without causing a delay to subsequent tasks.

Float time: LST - EST

The critical path is the sequence of activities that cannot be delayed without affecting the overall completion of the project.

Minimum Completion Time

The minimum overall completion time of the project is the EST value at the end vertex

Crashing
Crashing involves recalculating the minimum completion time for the project after the conditions of an activity within a
project have changed

Maximum Flow
If pipes of different capacities are connected one after another, the maximum flow )or flow capacity) through the pipes is
equal to the minimum capacity of the individual pipes

Cuts
A cut is an imaginary line across a directed graph that completely separates the source (start of the flow) from the sink
(destination of the flow)

Maximum Flow Minimum Cut Theorem

The flow through a network cannot exceed the value of any cut in the network and that the maximum flow equals the value
of the minimum cut.

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