L1: GENETICS III.

LAW OF INDEPENDENT ASSORTMENT — Genes

for different traits segregate independently, leading to
GENETICS — The study of heredity and variation of various genetic combinations. (Focuses on multiple
inherited characteristics. genes)
○​ GENE: Code for a specific characteristic
➭​ Ex: Eye color, hair color DOMINANT AND RECESSIVE TRAITS IN HUMAN

○​ ALLELE: Variation/type/kind form of gene; more DOMINANT RECESSIVE

specific. Free earlobe Attached earlobe
➭​ Ex: Blue eyes, blonde hair color
Cleft chin No cleft chin

Window’s peak No window’s peak

HOMOZYGOUS — Identical alleles
Ability to roll the tongue Inability to roll the tongue
HETEROZYGOUS — Different alleles
Straight thumb Hitchhiker's thumb
HOMOLOGOUS CHROMOSOME — 23 (maternal), 23
Arm folding right on top Arm folding left on top
(paternal)
○​ You can only pass 1 allele to your offspring. With dimples Without dimples

GENOTYPE — Describes an organism’s complete set of DOMINANT AND RECESSIVE HUMAN DISEASE
genes; ‘genetic makeup’.
DOMINANT RECESSIVE
PHENOTYPE — Observable characteristics. Huntington Disease Alkaptonuria

Marfan Syndrome Color Blindness

Bb Congenital Night Blindness

Neurofibromatosis
Cystic Fibrosis

Muscular Dystophy
DOMINANT ALLELE — Traits expressed by the offspring. Porphyria Hemophilia
RECESSIVE ALLELE — Traits unexpressed by the offspring.
Ehler-Danlos Syndrome Sickle-Tickle Anemia

Hypercholesterolemia Tay-Sachs Disease

L2: MENDEL’S LAW OF Achondroplasia Phenylketonuria

INHERITANCE
GREGOR MENDEL — Father of Genetics; discovered
L3: NON-MENDELIAN PATTERNS
inheritance patterns—showing that genes (factors of
inheritance) are passed from parents to OF INHERITANCE
offspring—through studying garden peas (Pisum
1. CODOMINANCE — Occurs when both alleles are fully
sativum).
expressed in a heterozygous individual, resulting in a
I. LAW OF INHERITANCE — Dominant traits are phenotype that shows both traits equally without
stronger than recessive traits. blending.
II. LAW OF SEGREGATION — Each organism inherits
two alleles per trait, but they separate during gamete
formation, with each gamete receiving only one allele.
(Focuses on a single gene)
○​ MONOHYBRID CROSS: 'One-trait inheritance';
cross between 1 trait (Rr + Rr).

2. INCOMPLETE DOMINANCE — The heterozygous

phenotype is a blend of the two homozygous traits, as
neither allele fully dominates the other.
➭​ Ex: Snapdragons (Antirrhinum majus) and
Speckled flower

○​ DIHYBRID CROSS: 'Two-trait inheritance'; cross

between 2 traits. (RrYy + RrYy)

3. LETHAL GENES — Mutations that cause death or

severe defects, often in homozygous combinations.

4. MULTIPLE ALLELES — A gene has more than two

alleles, creating multiple phenotype possibilities.
➭​ Ex: ABO blood types, Rabbit Fur Color (Wild
Type, Chinchilla, Himalayan, Albino)
 1.​ HUNTINGTON DISEASE — Affects brain; results
GENOTYPE PHENOTYPE
in abnormal movements: difficulties with speech,
AA, AO Blood type A swallowing, and walking.
BB, BO Blood type B Behavioral, cognitive, and motor symptoms
AB Blood type AB 2.​ MARFAN SYNDROME
OO Blood type O

5. POLYGENIC INHERITANCE — Trait controlled by

multiple genes, resulting in a wide range of phenotypes
➭​ Ex: Human height (influenced by genes on
chromosomes 2, 9, and 22) 3.​ OSTEOGENESIS IMPERFECTA

6. SEX-LINKED INHERITANCE — Inheritance of genes c. X-LINKED RECESSIVE INHERITANCE

located on the sex chromosome (X and Y).
1.​ COLORBLINDNESS
Ex:
2.​ HEMOPHILIA — A bleeding disorder in which the
➭​ COLOR BLINDNESS: A sex-linked trait on the X
blood does not clot properly.
chromosome. Males (XY) need one affected
allele to have it, while females (XX) need two.
PROH-BAND: The first person to have the trait in a family.

7. SEX-INFLUENCED INHERITANCE — Autosomal

traits where dominance is affected by sex, meaning the
same allele may be dominant in one sex but recessive in
L5: GENETICALLY MODIFIED
the other.
Ex: ORGANISMS
➭​ PATTERN BALDNESS: More common in males
ARTIFICIAL SELECTION — Breeders choose which
due to genetic and hormonal influences.
organism to mate to produce offspring with desired
➭​ BREAST DEVELOPMENT: Genes are present in
traits.
both sexes, but hormones enhance expression in
1.​ SELECTIVE BREEDING - A process in which
females.
humans intentionally choose and propagate
➭​ VOICE PITCH: Controlled by genetics and
specific traits in plants or animals over several
hormones, leading to deeper voices in males.
generations. Traditional breeding. To get desired
traits.
○​ Ex: Champion horses mate with female
L4: PEDIGREE ANALYSIS horses to produce more champion
PEDIGREE ANALYSIS — Used to study patterns of horses.
inheritance within families; highlights the presence or
absence of a trait. 2.​ HYBRIDIZATION — Crossing an organism with
different variations of the same trait in which the
resulting offspring is created to have the parents'
best traits.
○​ Ex: Tiger + Lion = Liger (female liger can
produce offspring with a lion, while male
can't),
Grape + Apple = Graple

3.​ INBREEDING — Breeding of genetically similar

organisms to maintain desired traits (lahi).

GENETICALLY MODIFIED ORGANISMS (GMOs) —

Organisms with artificially altered DNA. Known as
transgenic organisms, they contain foreign DNA
SYMBOLS AND TERMS USED IN PEDIGREE ANALYSIS: introduced through biotechnology. Discovered in 1970.
➢​ GENETIC ENGINEERING — The manual
modification of an organism’s genetic material.

RECOMBINANT DNA — Artificially combined DNA

from different sources, created through biotechnology to
introduce new traits into an organism.

Goals:
1.​ Protein production
2.​ Gene modification of organisms
3.​ Gene therapy
4.​ Gene cloning

a. AUTOSOMAL RECESSIVE INHERITANCE: GENE SPLICING — Cutting a specific portion of DNA

1.​ SICKLE TICKLE and replacing it with a desired trait.
2.​ CYSTIC FIBROSIS

b. AUTOSOMAL DOMINANT INHERITANCE

 PRECAMBRIAN EON

HADEAN ➢​ The solidification of Earth’s crust

(4.6 bya) ➢​ No evidence of life

ARCHAEAN ➢​ Oxygen abundance

(4 bya) ➢​ Anaerobic prokaryotes
➢​ First life forms evolved

PROTEROZOIC ➢​ “Earlier life”

(2.5 bya) ➢​ Multi-celled animals appeared
➢​ Photosynthetic bacteria
○​ ESCHERICHIA COLI ([Link]): The bacteria
➢​ Soft-bodied invertebrates
widely used in gene engineering; allows insulin ➢​ Gathering land masses to form
production. continents.
○​ LIGASE: Acts as a glue
○​ RESTRICTION ENZYME: Enzyme that cuts the DNA at
a specific code ERAS OF PHANEROZOIC EON

PALEOZOIC ERA ➢​ “Ancient life”

Process: (541 mya) ➢​ Evolution of fish, amphibians, and early
1.​ Get insulin gene out of human DNA
2.​ A plasmid is removed from a bacteria and cut with a reptiles
restriction enzyme. ➢​ Permian mass extinction — Largest
3.​ The human gene is placed into the bacteria plasmid.
4.​ The extracted gene from chromosome 11 will be extinction event
placed in the bacterium plasmid using a ligase.
MESOZOIC ERA ➢​ “Age of Reptiles”
(245 mya) ➢​ Dominated by dinosaurs
TRANSGENIC PLANTS — Plants are given genes so ➢​ Evolution of the first birds and
they meet human needs. mammals
➢​ Cretaceous-Paleogene (K-Pg)
○​ TRANSGENIC CORN — Given a gene to produce extinction event (asteroid impact at
natural pesticides. 25% of corn is like this. Chicxulub Crater, Mexico)

○​ VENOMOUS CABBAGE — Given a gene from CENOZOIC ERA ➢​ “Age of Mammals”

scorpion tails, enabling them to express its trait. (65 mya—now) ➢​ Evolution of primates and modern
ecosystems
○​ BANANA VACCINES — Scientists modify banana ➢​ Ice ages and the rise of Homo sapiens
plants with virus DNA, enabling them to produce
harmless viral proteins. Eating these bananas
triggers an immune response, aiding antibody PERIODS
production like traditional vaccines. They target
CAMBRIAN ➢​ “Age of Trilobite”
diseases like hepatitis and cholera. ➢​ Cambrian explosion: rapid
○​ HERBICIDES — Chemical used to control diversification of life forms

undesirable vegetation.
ORDOVICIAN ➢​ “Age of Cephalopods”
○​ HERBICIDE TOLERANCE — Used to manage ➢​ Rise of invertebrates
➢​ Appearance of first-armor-plated
weeds in fields of crop plants; farmers can spray
vertebrate fish (Astraspis desiderata)
the whole field, but only weeds will die. ➢​ 1st mass extinction

Common GM Plants: SILURIAN ➢​ “Age of Corals”

➭​ SOYBEANS: Herbicide resistance ➢​ Appearance of spiders, scorpions, and
➭​ CANOLA: Herbicide resistance centipedes
➭​ COTTON: Insect resistance (Bt cotton) and herbicide ➢​ The presence of vascular plants that lived
tolerance on land
➭​ ARTIC APPLE: Enhanced visual appeal and
increased shelf life DEVONIAN ➢​ “Age of Fishes,” first amphibians
➭​ TOMATOES: Delayed ripening traits ➢​ 2nd mass extinction

CARBONIFER ➢​ Mainly tropical swamp

OUS ➢​ Earliest reptiles appear
GEOLOGIC TIME SCALE ➢​ Highest oxygen level in the history

➢​ Distinguish Earth’s history based on life forms PERMIAN ➢​ Appearance of beetles and gymnosperms
that existed at certain times since the planet’s ➢​ Diversity in reptiles
formation. ➢​ Metamorphosis in insects happened
➢​ First seed ferns appeared
➢​ 3rd mass extinction, The Great Dying

TRIASSIC ➢​ First dinosaurs and mammals

➢​ Appearance of Corals
➢​ PTEROSAURS: Flying reptiles
➢​ 4th mass extinction

JURASSIC ➢​ Dinosaurs flourished; first birds appeared

➢​ Sea monsters, sharks, and blood-red
plankton

CRETACEOUS ➢​ Continents start moving

➢​ 5th mass extinction, K-Pg
 EPOCH EVOLUTIONARY THOUGHTS

PALEOCENE ➢​ Demise of non-avian dinosaurs and ARISTOTLE ➢​ Fixity of species

recovery of life after the mass extinction (350 BCE) ➢​ SCALA NATURAE: A hierarchical
event. classification of life, known as “The
Great Chain of Being” and “Ladder of
Nature”
EOCENE ➢​ Global warming, mammal expansion, and
tropical conditions at high latitudes.
BUFFON ➢​ Species change and migrate to new
(AD 1749) environments, explaining their
OLIGOCENE ➢​ Cooling climate, grassland development,
distribution.
and mammal diversification.
ERASMUS ➢​ All life evolved from a common
MIOCENE ➢​ Rise of the first apes and warm climate.
📖
DARWIN ancestor.
(1794) ➢​ Zoonomia or The Laws of Organic
PLIOCENE ➢​ Cooling climate continues from the Life
Miocene.
LAMARCK ➢​ Species evolve from others, and
PLEISTOCENE ➢​ Ice ages, repeated glaciations, and the (1809) acquired traits are inherited.
evolution of Homo sapiens. ○​ Law of Use and Disuse
○​ Law of Inheritance of Modified
HOLOCENE ➢​ Warm, stable climate, human civilization, Characteristics
and modern ecosystems.
LYLELL ➢​ Natural changes occur gradually and
(1830) uniformly over time

EVOLUTION DARWIN &

WALLACE
➢​ Natural Selection
➢​ Descent with Modification
(1839)
VOCABULARY

CONCEPT DEFINITION
EVIDENCE OF EVOLUTION
Population Group of interbreeding species.
a. COMPARATIVE ANATOMY — Examines structural
Common States that all organisms on earth came from one
similarities and differences among various evolutionary
Descendants common ancestor. relationships.
○​ HOMOLOGOUS STRUCTURE: Similar organs,
Descendant with Offspring with changed characteristics.
Modification different function.
○​ ANALOGOUS STRUCTURE: Different organs,
Microevolution Small genetic changes within a population over
same function.
time. Focuses on changes in allele frequencies.
○​ VESTIGIAL STRUCTURE: Structures with no
Macroevolution Large-scale evolutionary changes leading to new purpose.
species.

b. MOLECULAR BIOLOGY — Examines genetic basis of

PATTERNS OF SELECTION inheritance and adaptation in organisms.
1.​ DIRECTIONAL — Favors one extreme trait (e.g. ○​ DNA SEQUENCING: Confirms shared ancestry
bacteria with antibiotic resistance) by revealing a universal genetic code and
2.​ STABILIZE — Favors intermediate common genes among organisms.
characteristics (e.g. Robins)
AMINO ACID IDENTITY IN HEMOGLOBIN POLYPEPTIDE
3.​ DISRUPTIVE — Favors two extreme phenotypes
(e.g. white rabbits are hard to survive). Human 100%

Rhesus Monkey 95%

HOW EVOLUTION WORKS
Chicken 69%
➢​ GENE POOL — Total pool of genes and alleles
present in a population (e.g. eye color, size, etc.)
c. PALEONTOLOGY — The study of ancient life through
➢​ ALLELE FREQUENCY — Proportion of particular
examining fossils.
alleles in a gene pool (e.g. white = 50, black = 30)
○​ TEMPORAL SUCCESSION: Older rock layers
have simpler organisms; younger layers have
AGENTS OF EVOLUTION
more complex ones.
➢​ MUTATION — Random mistakes in DNA ○​ TRANSITIONAL FOSSILS: Show traits of both
➢​ GENE FLOW — Movement of alleles between ancestors and descendants.
populations. ■​ Ex: Tiktaalik (fish-amphibian) & Extinct
➢​ SEXUAL SELECTION whale ancestors (Pakicetus, Indohyus,
○​ INTERSEXUAL SELECTION: Female’s Dorudon)
mate choice. ​
○​ INTRASEXUAL SELECTION: d. CONTINENTAL DRIFT — Impacted species
Competition for access to mates. distribution.
➢​ GENETIC DRIFT — Random fluctuations in allele
frequencies, leading to reduced genetic diversity. e. DEVELOPMENTAL EMBRYOLOGY — Similar embryo
○​ FOUNDER EFFECT: A small group starts development in vertebrates (e.g., gill slits, tails) supports
a new population, reducing genetic shared ancestry.
variation.
○​ BOTTLENECK EFFECT: A drastic CHARLES DARWIN
population decline due to a catastrophic
➢​ NATURAL SELECTION — The process through
event.
which populations of living organisms adapt and
change.
➢​ Observed at Galapagos Island, saw Finches
 VOCABULARY
TAXONOMY CONCEPT DEFINITION

Mutation The changes in genetic makeup that may

occur naturally or due to some
environmental stressors

Structural The physical features of an organism that

Adaptation enhance survival (e.g. camouflage, body
shape)

Photoautotrophs Organisms that use light energy to

produce their food through photosynthesis

Taxonomy The classification, naming, and

organization of organisms based on
identification and evolutionary
relationships.

Molecular The classification of organisms based on

Taxonomy DNA, RNA, and protein similarities to
determine evolutionary relationships.

Carl Linnaeus Father of Taxonomy

Systematics The study of diversity of life and the

combination of taxonomy and
phylogenetics

Binomial The two-name scientific naming system

Nomenclature for organisms, developed by Carl
Linnaeus.
○​ Genus (capitalized)
○​ Species (lowercase)

Peptidoglycan A sugar-protein polymer in bacterial cell

walls for support.
DOMAINS
Acellular No cells (e.g. viruses, viroids, and prions)i
a. DOMAIN BACTERIA
➢​ Prokaryotic and unicellular Bacteria The most recent non-cyanobacterial
ancestor
➢​ Have peptidoglycan in their cell walls
➢​ Found everywhere Monera Anucleated unicellular organisms of R.H
➭​ Ex: Escherichia coli (E. coli) Whittaker’s (1969) classification

Taxon Group of organisms at any particular level

b. DOMAIN ARCHAEA
in the classification system
➢​ Also prokaryotic but genetically different from
bacteria Biological The system of organizing organisms based
➢​ No peptidoglycan in their cell walls Classification on shared traits. It has evolved from a
two-kingdom system to more advanced
➢​ Live in extreme environments (hot springs,
classifications considering cell structure,
deep-sea vents) reproduction, and molecular data
➭​ Ex: Halobacterium (salt-loving bacteria)
Two-Kingdom Kingdom Plantae — Included all plants,
System algae, and fungi
c. DOMAIN EUKARYA
➢​ Eukaryotic (has a nucleus and membrane-bound Kingdom Animalia — Included all animals
organelles)
➢​ Includes both unicellular and multicellular Gross Considered in the Two-Kingdom
Morphology Classification; refers to an organism's
organisms
visible structure, shape, size, and form.
➢​ DIVIDED INTO 4 KINGDOMS
a.​ Protoctista (e.g. amoeba, algae) Modern Domain, Kingdom, Phylum, Class, Order,
b.​ Fungi (e.g. mushrooms, yeast) Classification Family, Genus, and Species
c.​ Plantae (e.g. trees, flowers)
Punctuated Evolutionary changes consist of rapid
d.​ Animalia (e.g. humans, insects) Equilibrium bursts of speciation alternating with long
periods in which species remain
essentially unmodified

Biological A group of organisms with similar traits

Species that can interbreed and produce fertile
offspring

Speciation The formation of new species through

evolution

Hardy- where:
Weinberg ○​ p = WW
Equilibrium 2 2 ○​ pq =
𝑝 + 2𝑝𝑞 + 𝑞 = 1 Ww
○​ q = WW