Module -2
MATHEMATICAL MODELS OF
PHYSICAL SYSTEMS
CE-MKS-PPT
Modeling of Control Systems
• Control systems being dynamic systems in
nature require a quantitative mathematical
description of the system for analysis
• .This process of obtaining the desired
mathematical description of the system is
called Mathematical Modeling.
Modeling Requirements
• The requirements demanded by every control
system are many and depend on the system
under consideration. Major requirements are 1)
Stability 2) Accuracy and 3) Speed of Response.
• An ideal control system would be stable, would
provide absolute accuracy (maintain zero error
despite disturbances) and would respond
instantaneously to a change in the reference
variable.
• Such a system cannot, of course, be produced
Modeling Requirements
• The basic models of dynamic physical systems are
differential equations obtained by the application of
appropriate laws of nature.
• Having obtained the differential equations and where
possible the numerical values of parameters, one can
proceed with the analysis.
• When the mathematical model of a physical system is
solved for various input conditions, the results
represent the dynamic response of the system.
• The mathematical model of a system is linear, if it
obeys the principle of superposition and homogeneity
Linear Mathematical Model
• A mathematical model is linear, if the differential
equation describing it has coefficients, which are
either functions of the independent variable or
are constants.
• If the coefficients of the describing differential
equations are functions of time (the independent
variable), then the mathematical model is linear
time-varying.
• On the other hand, if the coefficients of the
describing differential equations are constants,
the model is linear time-invariant.
Modeling of Mechanical Systems
• Mechanical systems can be idealized as spring- mass-damper
systems and the governing differential equations can be obtained
on the basis of Newton’s second law of motion, which states that
• F = ma: for rectilinear motion
• where F: Force, m: mass and a: acceleration (with consistent units)
• T = I α: or Jα for rotary motion
• where T: Torque, I or J: moment of inertia and α: angular
acceleration (with consistent units)
•
Modeling of Mechanical Systems
• Mechanical systems can be of two types:
– Translation Systems
– Rotational Systems.
•
Modeling of Mechanical Systems
• The variables that described the motion are displacement,
velocity and acceleration.
– And also we have three parameters-
– Mass which is represented by ‘M’.
– Coefficient of viscous friction which is represented by ‘B’.
– Spring constant which is represented by ‘K’.
• In rotational mechanical type of systems we have three
variables-
– Torque which is represented by ‘T’.
– Angular velocity which is represented by ‘ω’
– Angular displacement represented by ‘θ’
•
• Mass is the property of a body, which stores kinetic energy.
If a force is applied on a body having mass M, then it is
opposed by an opposing force due to mass. This opposing
force is proportional to the acceleration of the body.
Assume elasticity and friction are negligible.
• F is the applied force
• Fm is the opposing force due to mass
• M is mass
• a is acceleration
• x is displacement
Spring
• Spring is an element, which stores potential
energy. If a force is applied on spring K, then it
is opposed by an opposing force due to
elasticity of spring. This opposing force is
proportional to the displacement of the
spring. Assume mass and friction are
negligible.
Spring
• Where,
• F is the applied force
• Fk is the opposing force due to elasticity of spring
• K is spring constant
• x is displacement
Damper system
• Dashpot- If a force is applied on dashpot B,
then it is opposed by an opposing force due to
friction of the dashpot. This opposing force is
proportional to the velocity of the body.
Assume mass and elasticity are negligible.
Damper system
• Fb is the opposing
force due to friction
of dashpot
• B is the frictional
coefficient
• v is velocity
• x is displacement
spring mass mechanical system
Mass -Rotation system
• Where,
• T is the applied torque
• Tj is the opposing torque
due to moment of inertia
• J is moment of inertia
• α is angular acceleration
• θ is angular displacement
Spring -Rotation system
• Where,
• T is the applied torque
• Tk is the opposing
torque due to elasticity
of torsional spring
• K is the torsional spring
constant
• θ is angular
displacement
Damper-Rotational System
• Tb is the opposing
torque due to the
rotational friction of
the dashpot
• B is the rotational
friction coefficient
• ω is the angular
velocity
• θ is the angular
displacement
Spring-Mass-Damper System -Rotational
Analogy
electrical system
• In electrical type of systems we have three
variables -
– Voltage which is represented by ‘V’.
– Current which is represented by ‘I’.
– Charge which is represented by ‘Q’.
• And also we have three parameters which are
active and passive elements –
– Resistance which is represented by ‘R’.
– Capacitance which is represented by ‘C’.
– Inductance which is represented by ‘L’.
Resistance
Inductance L
• Inductance is defined as flux linkage per unit
current. (Henry- H)
Capacitance
• Ratio of the charge on to capacitor to the
voltage across the capacitor
Mathematical Modeling of
Pneumatic Systems
• Pneumatic system uses compressible fluid as working
medium and it is usually air.
• In pneumatic systems, compressibility effects of gas
cannot be neglected and hence dynamic equations are
obtained using conservation of mass.
• In pneumatic systems, change in fluid inertia energy
and the fluid’s internal thermal energy are assumed
negligible.
• In pneumatic system, the mass and volume flow rates
are not readily interchangeable.
• Pneumatic devices involve the flow of gas or air,
through connected pipe lines and pressure vessels.
Pneumatic System
• Hence, the variables of pneumatic system are mass flow
rate, qm, and pressure P.
• • The mass flow rate is a through variable and it is
analogous
• to current. The pressure variable is across variable and is
analogous to voltage.
• The two basic elements of a pneumatic system are the
• resistance and capacitance.
• The gas flow resistance, R is defined as the rate of change
in gas pressure difference for a change in gas flow rate.
Pneumatic Capacitance
• Pneumatic capacitance is defined for a pressure vessel and
depends on the type of expansion process involved.
• The capacitance of a pressure vessel may be defined as the
ratio of change in gas stored for a change in gas pressure.
Pneumatic System
• Pros and Cons of Pneumatic systems:
– Advantages
• The air or gas used is non inflammable and so it offers
• safety from fire hazards.
• The air or gas has negligible viscosity, compared to high
• viscosity of hydraulic fluids.
• No return pipelines are required and since air can be let
• out at the end of work cycle.
– Disadvantage
• The response is slower than that of hydraulic systems
because of the compressibility of the working fluid.
Pneumatic System
• Applications of Pneumatic systems:
– Guided Missiles
– Aircraft systems
– Automation of production machines
– Automatic controllers
– Many more
Pneumatic System
Pneumatic System
• Rate of gas storage in vessel = rate of gas inflow
Pneumatic System
• Consider the system shown below:
Pneumatic System
Pneumatic System
Pneumatic System
Pneumatic System
Pneumatic System
Hydraulic Systems
• They are used in hydraulic feedback systems and in
combined electro-mechanical-hydraulic systems.
• In hydraulic devices, power is transmitted through the
action of fluid flow under pressure and the fluid is
incompressible.
• The fluid used are petroleum based oils and non –
inflammable synthetic oils.
• Hydraulic devices used in control systems are generally
classified as hydraulic motors and hydraulic linear
actuators.
• The output of a hydraulic motor is rotary motion.
• The hydraulic motor is physically smaller in size than an
electric motor for the same output.
Applications of Hydraulic systems
• Applications are power steering and brakes in
automobiles, steering mechanisms in large
ships, control of machine tools etc.
Advantages
• Hydraulic fluid acts as a lubricant and coolant.
• Comparatively small sized hydraulic actuators
can develop large forces or torques.
• Hydraulic actuators can be operated under
continuous, intermittent reversing and stalled
conditions without damage.
• Hydraulic actuators have a higher speed of
response. They offer fast starts, stops and
speed reversals.
Advantages
• With availability of both linear and rotary
actuators, the design has become more
flexible.
• Because of low leakages in hydraulic
actuators, when loads are applied the drop in
speed will be small.
• Hydraulic components are more rugged than
their counterparts.
Disadvantages:
• Hydraulic power is not readily available compared
to electric power.
• Inherent problems of leaks and sealing them
against foreign particles.
• Operating noise.
• Costs more compared to electrical system.
• Fire and explosion hazards exist.
• Hydraulic lines are not flexible as electric cables.
• Highly non linear response.
Resistance of Liquid-Level Systems
• The resistance R for liquid flow in such a pipe or restriction is
defined as the change in the level difference (the difference of
the liquid levels of the two tanks) necessary to cause a unit
change in flow rate; that is,
Resistance of Liquid-Level Systems
• The capacitance C of a tank is defined to be the change in
quantity of stored liquid necessary to cause a unit change in
the potential (head). (The potential is the quantity that
indicates the energy level of the system.)
Liquid-Level Systems
• Consider the system shown in Figure). The variables are
defined as follows:
Derivation
Derivation
Force Voltage Analogy
Force Voltage Analogy
• In order to understand this type of analogy, let
us consider a circuit which consists of series
combination of resistor, inductor and
capacitor.
•
•
Force Voltage Analogy
• Now comparing the above with that we have
derived for the mechanical system we find
that-
– Mass (M) is analogous to inductance (L).
– Force is analogous to voltage V.
– Displacement (x) is analogous to charge (Q).
– Coefficient of friction (B) is analogous to
resistance R and
– Spring constant is analogous to inverse of the
capacitor (C).
Force Current Analogy
Force Current Analogy
• Now comparing the above with that we have
derived for the mechanical system we find that,
– Mass (M) is analogous to Capacitor (C).
– Force is analogous to current I.
– Displacement (x) is analogous to flux (ψ).
– Coefficient of friction (B) is analogous to resistance 1/
R and
– Spring constant K is analogous to inverse of the
inductor (L). This analogy is known as force current
analogy.
block diagrams and transfer functions
• Transfer Functions definition
The transfer function of a control system is
defined as the ration of the Laplace transform
of the output variable to Laplace transform of
the input variable assuming all initial
conditions to be zero.
Transfer function
To derive the transfer function
• [Link] the differential equation for the
system.
• [Link] the Laplace transform of the differential
equation, assuming all initial conditions are
zero.
• [Link] the ratio of the output Y(s) to the input
R(s). This ratio is the transfer function
Block Diagram
• A control system may consist of a number of
components.
• In order to show the functions performed by
each component in control engineering, we
commonly use a diagram called the Block
Diagram.
Components Of a block diagram
Procedures for drawing block diagram
1. Write the equations that describe the
dynamic behavior for each component.
2. Take Laplace transform of these equations,
assuming zero initial conditions.
3. Represent each Laplace-transformed
equation individually in block form.
4. Assembly the elements into a complete block
diagram
Block Diagram Reduction
• Any number of cascaded blocks can be reduced by a single
block representing transfer function being a product of
transfer functions of all cascaded blocks.
2. Moving a summing point
[Link] a pick off point
[Link] transfer function for parallel sub systems
is the sum of their transfer functions
[Link] control system
1. Blocks in Series.
2. Blocks in Parallel.
3. Eliminate feedback loop.
4. Associative rule for summing point.
5. Shifting a summing point before a block.
6. Shifting a summing point aLer a block.
7. Shifting take off point before a block.
8. Shifting take off point aLer a block.
9. Shifting a take off point aLer a summing point.
10. Shifting a take off point before a summing point
Block Diagram Reduction Rules
• Follow these rules for simplifying (reducing) the block
diagram, which is having many blocks, summing points and
take-off points.
1. Check for the blocks connected in series and simplify.
2. Check for the blocks connected in parallel and simplify.
3. Check for the blocks connected in feedback loop and simplify.
4. If there is difficulty with take-off point while simplifying, shift
it towards right.
5. If there is difficulty with summing point while simplifying,
shift it towards left.
6. Repeat the above steps till you get the simplified form, i.e.,
single block.
Note − The transfer function present in this single block is the
transfer function of the overall block diagram.
Example -1
Example-2
Example -3
Find the transfer function by reducing
the block diagram
R(s)
+ G1 G2
C(s)
-
H1 H2
R(s)
+ G1
G2 C(s)
1 +G2H2
-
H1
R(s)
+ G1
G2 C(s)
1 +G2H2
-
H1(1+G2H2)
G2
R(s)
+ G1G2 C(s)
1+G2H2
-
H1(1+G2H2)
G2
R(s)
+ G1G2/(1+G2H2) C(s)
1+{G1G2/(1+G2H2)}*1
-
H1(1+G2H2)
G2
R(s)
+ G1G2/(1+G2H2) C(s)
1+{G1G2/(1+G2H2)}*1
-
H1(1+G2H2)
G2
G1G2 G1G2
1+G2H2 1+G2H2 G1G2
= =
G1G2 1+G2H2 + G1G2 1+G2H2 + G1G2
1+
1+G2H2 1+G2H2
R(s)
+ G1G2 C(s)
1+G2H2 + G1G2
-
H1(1+G2H2)
G2
G1G2
C(s) 1+G2H2+G1G2
=
R(s) G1G2 H1(1+G2H2)
1+
1+G2H2+G1G2 G2
G1G2
G1G2
1+G2H2+G1G2
1+G2H2+G1G2+G1H1+G1G2H1H2
1+G2H2+G1G2
G1G2
1+G2H2+G1G2+G1H1+G1G2H1H2
Signal Flow Graphs
MKS-Control Engineering
Conversion of Block Diagrams into
Signal Flow Graphs
Signal Flow Graphs formulation
Combined Control Flow Graphs
Example 2
Example -2
Find the transfer Function
Step-1:Find number of forward path
Forward path-1
Step-1:Find number of forward path
Forward path-2
Step-2
• Find total number of single loops
Loops
Loops
Loops
Loops
Step-3
• Total number of two non-touching loops
Step-4
• Find the value of Δ1 & Δ2
• Δn = 1-(sum of gains of loops not touching nth
forward path)
Δ1=1-0 & Δ2=1-0
Value of Δ
Step-6
• Transfer Function
VTU Question Paper
Formulation
Step-1- Identify FORWORD LOOPS
Step 2- Identify independent loops
loop2
loop3
loop4
Step-3 Identify two independent non
touching loops
• Find the value of Δ1 & Δ2
• Δn = 1-(sum of gains of loops not touching nth
forward path)
• Δ1=1-0 = 1
• Δ2=1-0 = 1
Transfer function Masons gain formula
Question: Apply Mason Gain Formula for the
following signal flow graph to fine the transfer
function. (8 Marks)
G4
G1 G2 G3
R(s) C(s)
-H1 -H2
-H3
First name all the unknowns
G4
1 G1 G2 x4 G3 x5 1
x1 x6
x2 x3
-H1 -H2
-H3
• Step 1: Find all the forward path
• Step 2: Identify independent loops and their
gains
• Step 3: Identify the two non touching loops
and their gains
• Step 4: Identify the three non touching loops
and their gains
• Step 5: Evaluate the elements of Mason’s Gain
Formula C(s)
-----
R(s)
Forward Paths
Loops
G4
1 G1 G2 x4 G3 x5 1
x1 x6
x2 x3
-H1 -H2
-H3
G4
1 G1 G2 x4 G3 x5 1
x1 x6
x2 x3
-H1 -H2
-H3
Find the value of Δ1 & Δ2 in Mason’s Gain Formula
C(s)
-----
R(s)
Δn = 1-(sum of gains of loops not touching nth forward path)
Δ1=1-0 = 1
Δ2=1-0 = 1
Transfer Function
C(s)
-----
R(s)
G1G2G3*1+G3G4 *1
1+G1H1+G3H2+G1G2G3H3+G3G4H3+G1G3H1H2
C(s)
G1G2G3+G3G4
-----
R(s) 1+G1H1+G3H2+G1G2G3H3+G3G4H3+G1G3H1H2
Find transfer function using Mason’s
gain formula
H2
H1
- - +
R(s) + G2 G3
C(s)
G1 G4
+ - + -
H4
H3