MINIA UNIVERSITY

FACULTY OF ENGINEERING
MECH. POWER ENG. AND ENERGY DEPT.

FLUID MACHINES I
Basic Principles

October 2023
 Basic Principles
1. Basic Features Of Fluid machines
2. Classification of Turbines
3. Specific Speed
4. Model testing of Hydraulic Turbo machines
5. Unit Quantities
6. Similarity ratios of Turbines by Dimensional Analysis
7. Modeling of Efficiencies

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1. Basic Features Of Fluid machines

Fluid machines

Incompressible Compressible
flow machines flow machines

Reciprocating Reciprocating
Turbomachines Turbomachines
machines machines

Hydraulic Reciprocating
Gas turbines Reciprocating
turbines pumps
compressors

Centrifugal and Diaphragm

Steam turbines
rotary pumps pumps

Compressors,
blowers & fans
❑ Fluid-flow machines are very broadly classified as turbo-machines and positive displacement
machines.
❑ A turbo-machine is a device that adds energy to a fluid or extracts energy from the fluid by virtue of
a rotating system of blades. These machines require a rotating element called rotor and relative
motion between the fluid and the rotor.
❑ If the machine adds energy it is called a pump; if it extracts energy it is called a turbine.
❑ The fluid to be pumped can be in incompressible mode throughout its passage in the machine or
compressibility effects may come in to picture at different phases of its interaction in the machine.
❑ If the fluid is water, the pump device is labeled as water pump. For compressible fluids, the pump
devices have nomenclatures such as fans, blowers and compressors.
❑ In positive displacement pumps, the fluid mass is physically displaced from one position to another
owing to mechanical action of a boundary, for example a piston. There is a flow of fluid to fill the
void created by this displacement and by repeated action, a continuous flow system is developed. A
reciprocating pump is a typical example of a positive displacement pump.

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❑ A turbine is a device to convert the stored energy of a fluid mass into mechanical energy.
❑ Depending upon the nature of the fluid involved, we have hydraulic turbine, gas turbine, steam
turbine, etc.
❑ In a hydraulic turbine, the operating fluid is water and the energy of the fluid is in various
combinations of potential energy and kinetic energy. The turbine transforms this stored energy of
water in to the rotation of a shaft through the medium of a runner.
❑ Presently, a majority of turbines has an electric generator mounted on the shaft of the turbine and
the energy of the water entering the turbine is thus ultimately converted in to electric energy.
❑ Development of an impulse turbine by LA Pelton in 1898 wherein a jet impacts on a series of
specially formed cups mounted on a wheel was the forerunner of the present-day Pelton turbine.
❑ Use of reaction principle in utilizing the energy of water efficiently was first successfully
demonstrated in Furneyron turbine (1826). This turbine was an outward flow unit. While its
efficiency was reasonably good, mechanical difficulties in its construction and operation led to its
giving way to better inward flow turbines.
❑ In 1849, JB Francis successfully developed an efficient radial inward flow reaction turbine that
effectively replaced the earlier forms. Now, all radial flow and mixed flow reaction turbines are
classified as Francis turbines.

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❑ A modern hydraulic reaction turbine consists essentially of a rotating element, called
runner, which is acted upon by water.
❑ The runner will have a series of blades. Appropriate casings (scroll casing) and guide
mechanisms (guide vanes) are provided to have efficient entry of water to the rotor.
❑ The blades of the rotor are so shaped that they have efficient interaction with flowing
water all the way from the inlet up to the exit.
❑ Figure shows the basic layout and components of a reaction turbine known as Francis
turbine. Water from a penstock enters the scroll casing, gets guided by the guide
vanes and passes through the passage between the blades of the runner. While doing
so the pressure of the water in the rotor changes. This type of turbine develops
torque by reacting to the pressure of the fluid. The water that exits the runner passes
through a divergent pipe known as draft tube and finally reaches the tailrace.
❑ Another type of reaction turbine, known as Kaplan turbine consists essentially of a
propeller acted upon by water under pressure. Figure shows schematically the
arrangements of such a turbine along with the generator.
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2. Classification of Turbines

Turbines are classified in number of ways as follows:

2.1 Depending upon Nature of Interaction with Water Flow
They are broadly classified as (i) impulse turbines, and (ii) reaction turbines.

(i) Impulse Turbine, the pressure of water does

not change while flowing through the rotor of
the machine. In these turbines, the pressure
change occur only in the nozzles of the
machine and not in the rotor. The jet
impingement takes place at atmospheric
pressure. An example of impulse turbine is
Pelton Wheel

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 (ii) Reaction Turbine, the pressure of water changes while it flows through the rotor of the
machine. The change in water velocity and reduction in its pressure causes a reaction on the
turbine blades. The flow passages are under pressure and the rotor has to be encased in an
airtight casing. Francis and Kaplan Turbines fall in the category of reaction Turbines.

2.2 Depending upon the Nature of Flow in the Machine

The turbines are classified under this category as
(a) Radial flow (b) Axial flow, (c) Mixed flow, and (d) Tangential flow turbines.

(a) Radial Flow Turbine. The flow from inlet to the outlet of the runner is along the radius. Inward radial
flow is the most common feature. Early Francis turbines were of the inward radial flow type.
(b) Tangential or Peripheral Flow Turbine. The flow direction is tangential to the runner. Pelton wheel
where the path of the jet is tangential to the path of rotating wheel is an example of this type.
(c) Mixed Flow Turbine. The water enters the rotor radially at the inlet and exits axially at the outlet.
Present-day Francis turbine is a typical example of this category.
(d) Axial Flow Turbines . The flow enters and leaves the rotor axially. The rotor blades of these turbines
are essentially in the form of a propeller, the flow enters and leaves in a direction parallel to axis of the
shaft. Kaplan turbine, a turbine with adjustable propeller blades, is an example of axial flow turbine.

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 2.3 Depending upon the Head
The turbines are classified based on the gross head as follows:
(a) High-Head Units: For gross heads greater than about 400 m are considered as high head. Pelton
turbines are usually the first choice for high head, low discharge cases.
(b) Medium-Head Units: Heads greater than about 60 m and less than 400 m are considered as
medium head. Francis turbines are commonly used in this range.
(c) Low-Head Units Heads in the range 3 m to 60 m are classified as low head units.

2.4 Depending on the Specific Speed

Classification depending upon the specific speed is a better method than the classification based on head
only. In this, both head and discharge are accounted for in an objective way.

Specific speed range

Type of turbine (Ns in kW-rpm-m units)
Pelton (Single jet) ( or per jet in a multi jet) 8–30
Francis 40–450
Kaplan 300–900
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 The overall efficiency oof the turbine is defined as the ratio of power available at the rotor shaft to
the power supplied by the water to rotor in the turbine unit.

Power available at the rotor shaft 𝑃

𝑜 = =
Power supplied by by water to the runner 𝑔𝑄𝐻
Where H is the net head
1.4 SpecificSpeed
3. Specific Speed
The specific speed is the parameter which does not explicitly contain the diameter of the runner or impeller. It is
denoted by the symbol Ns. The specific speed is used in comparing the different types of turbo-machines as every
type of turbo-machine has different specific speed.

3.1 Specific speed of pump

The specific speed of a centrifugal pump is defined as the speed at which the pump delivers one cubic meter of
liquid per second against a head of one meter.
𝑵 𝑸
𝑵𝒔 = 𝟑/𝟒
𝑯𝒎
where N is the speed in rpm. Q is the discharge in (m3 / s) and Hm is the manometric head in meters. The
dimensionless specific speed is given by

𝑵 𝑸
𝑵𝒔 =
𝒈𝑯𝒎 𝟑/𝟒 11
3.2 Specific Speed of Turbine
The specific speed of a turbine is defined as the speed at which the turbine develops unit power when working under
unit head and it is expressed as
𝑁 𝑃
𝑁𝑠 = 5/4
𝐻𝑚
where N is the speed in rpm, H is the head in m and P is the power in kilowatts. The dimensionless specific speed (or)
the power specific speed is given by:
𝑁 𝑃
𝑁𝑠𝑝 = 1/2
𝜌 𝑔𝐻𝑚 5/4
The following table shows that each type of turbo-machine works in a narrow range of specific speeds.

S. No. Turbomachine Dimensionless Specific Speed

1 Pelton Wheel 0.02-0.39
2 Frances Turbine 0.39-2.3
3 Kaplan Turbine 2.7-5.4
4 Propeller Turbine 1.6-3.6
5 Centrifugal Pumps 0.24-1.8
6 Mixed Flow Pumps 1.8-4
7 Axial Flow Pumps 3.2-5.8
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4. Model Testing Of Hydraulic Turbo Machines
Before manufacturing the large size of actual machines, their moods which are in complete similarity with the
actual machines (also called prototypes) are made. Tests will be conducted on the models and the performance
of the prototypes will conducted on the models and the performance of the prototypes will be predicted. The
complete similarity between the actual machine and the model will exist if the following conditions are satisfied:

i. Specific speed of the Model = Specific speed of the prototype

𝑁𝑠 𝑚 = 𝑁𝑠 𝑝 U

𝑁 𝑄 𝑁 𝑄 Cr
3/4
= 3/4
B
𝐻𝑚 𝑚
𝐻𝑚 𝑝

ii. Flow coefficient is the same for the model and the prototype D
The discharge Q for a hydraulic machine is given by the following equation
Q = Area x Velocity of flow
𝑄 = 𝜋𝐷𝐵 𝐶𝑟
𝐵∝𝐷
𝑄 = 𝜋𝐷2 𝐶𝑟

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 𝜋𝐷𝑁
𝑈= 𝑈 ∝ 𝐷𝑁 𝑈 ∝ 𝐶𝑟 ∝ 𝐷𝑁
60
𝑄 = 𝜋𝐷2 (𝐷𝑁)
𝑄 ∝ 𝐷3 𝑁
𝑄
= 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡
𝐷3 𝑁
(Q/D3 N) is known as flow coefficient and denoted by 
𝜙𝑚 = 𝜙𝑝
𝑄 𝑄
=
𝐷3 𝑁 𝑚
𝐷3 𝑁 𝑝
iii. Specific power of the model and prototype are same
Power of the hydraulic turbo-machine is given by:
𝑃 = 𝜌𝑔𝑄𝐻
𝑃 ∝ 𝜌𝑄𝐻
Where H is head of the machine
𝑄 ∝ 𝐷3 𝑁
𝑈 ∝ 𝐶𝑟 ∝ 𝐻 𝐻 ∝ 𝑈 ∝ 𝐷𝑁
𝑃 ∝ 𝜌 (𝐷3 𝑁)(𝐷2 𝑁 2 )
𝑃 ∝ 𝜌𝐷5 𝑁 3

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 𝑃
= 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡
𝜌𝐷5 𝑁 3
(P/ D3 N3) is known as power coefficient or specific power and denoted by 𝑃ത
𝑃ത 𝑚 = 𝑃ത 𝑝
If m = p
𝑃 𝑃
=
𝐷5 𝑁 3 𝑚 𝐷5 𝑁 3 𝑝

iv. Specific head of the model and prototype are same

𝜋𝐷𝑁
𝑈=
60
𝑈 ∝ 𝐷𝑁
𝑈 ∝ 𝐶𝑟 ∝ 𝐻
𝐻 ∝ 𝐷𝑁
𝐻
= 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡
𝐷2 𝑁 2
(gH/D2 N2) is called the head coefficient or specific head and denoted by 
 𝑚= 𝜓 𝑝
𝐻 𝐻
=
𝐷2 𝑁 2 𝑚 𝐷2 𝑁 2 𝑝

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5. Unit Quantities
The quantities or a hydraulic turbo-machine working under a unit head are called the unit quantities. The
following are the three important unit quantities which must be studied under unit head.

i. Unit
1. UnitSpeed
Speed
The speed of turbo-machine working under a unit head is termed as unit speed. It is denoted by (Nu)·The
expression for unit speed (Nu ) is obtained as follows.
Let N -Speed of a turbo-machine under a head H
H- Head under which the turbo-machine is working.
U-Tangential velocity
The tangential velocity, absolute velocity of water and head on the turbo-machine are related as
𝑈 ∝ 𝐶 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝐶 ∝ 𝐻
𝑈 ∝ 𝐷𝑁
For a given turbo-machine, the diameter D is constant
𝑁∝ 𝐻
𝑁 = 𝑘𝐻
Where k is a constant of proportionality.
When head on the turbo-machine is 1 meter, the speed N becomes unit speed Nu and hence k=Nu
𝑁
𝑁𝑢 =
𝐻
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 2. Unit
ii. UnitDischarge
Discharge
The discharge or flow through a turbo-machine working under unit head ( H= 1 m) unit is termed as unit
flow or unit discharge and denoted by QuTe expression for unit discharge is given as:
Q- discharge passing the machine at head H
Q=area of flow x velocity
For a given turbo-machine, area is constant and hence
𝑄 ∝ 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 ∝ 𝐻
𝑄=𝑘 𝐻
Where k is a constant of proportionality.
When H= 1 m, Q=Qu, the constant k= Qu
𝑄
𝑄𝑢 =
𝐻
3. Unit
iii. UnitPower
Power
The power developed by a turbo-machine working under a unit head is called the unit power Pu and it is
obtained as following:
𝑃 = 𝜂𝑜 (𝜌𝑔𝑄𝐻)
Where P= power developed
gQH= water power input
o = overall efficiency

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 𝑃 ∝ 𝑄𝐻 ∝ 𝐻 𝐻 ∝ 𝐻3/2
𝑃 = 𝑘𝐻3/2
When H=1 m, P=Pu and k=Pu
𝑃
𝑃𝑢 = 3/2
𝐻
[Link]
4. Useofofunit
Unit Quantities
quantities
The behavior of a hydraulic turbo-machine working under different heads can be easily known from the values of
the unit quantities. Let
H1, H2 be the heads on the turbo-machine,
N1, N2 are the corresponding speeds,
Q1, Q2 are the discharge and
P1, P2 are the power developed by the turbo-machine
Using the defining equations of unit quantities
𝑁1 𝑁2
𝑁𝑢 = =
𝐻1 𝐻2
𝑄1 𝑄2
𝑄𝑢 = =
𝐻1 𝐻2

𝑃1 𝑃2
𝑃𝑢 = 3/2
= 3/2
𝐻1 𝐻2 18
Hence, if the speed, discharge and power developed by a turbine under a particular head are known, then by
using the above three relations, the speed, discharge, and power developed by the same turbo-machine under
a given head can he obtained.

6. Similarity Ratios of Turbines by Dimensional Analysis

For a hydro-turbine by considering the power developed by the rotor, P, as the dependent variable
𝑃 = 𝑓 (𝐷, 𝑁, 𝑔𝐻, 𝑄, 𝜌, 𝜇)
By using the Buckingham Pi theorem method of dimensional analysis, there are seven variables and three
basic dimensions. Hence there will be four dimensionless  terms governing the phenomenon. Considering D,
N and  as repeating variables it can be shown by dimensional analysis that the four dimensionless  terms
can be expressed as
𝜋1 = 𝑓𝑛(𝜋2 , 𝜋3 , 𝜋4 )
𝑃 𝑔𝐻 𝑄 𝜌𝐷𝑁 2
= 𝑓𝑛 ( 2 2 , , )
𝜌𝑁 3 𝐷5 𝑁 𝐷 𝑁𝐷3 𝜇
The last term 4 represents the Reynolds number and can be dropped since the model and the prototype are
both in the turbulent mode.
𝑃 𝑔𝐻 𝑄
= 𝑓𝑛 ( 2 2 , )
𝜌𝑁 3 𝐷5 𝑁 𝐷 𝑁𝐷3
The variation of water density is small, then the density term  can be dropped as well as gravitational
acceleration g.
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 𝑃 𝐻 𝑄
= 𝑓𝑛 ( , )
𝑁 3 𝐷5 𝑁 2 𝐷2 𝑁𝐷3
𝑃 𝑃
𝐶𝑃 = =
𝑁 3𝐷5 𝑚 𝑁 3 𝐷5 𝑝
𝑄 𝑄
𝐶𝑄 = =
𝑁𝐷3 𝑚
𝑁𝐷3 𝑝
𝐶𝐻 = 𝐻 𝐻
=
𝑁 2𝐷2 𝑚
𝑁 2 𝐷2 𝑝
7. Modelling of efficiencies
it has been found in practice that large machines have smaller clearance to runner ratio and also smaller
relative surface roughnesses. Further, larger machines have higher Reynolds number. This would give larger
machines greater efficiencies when compared to a homologous smaller machine. Hence, modeling of
efficiencies is done by use of empirical equations. Moody’s step-up formula for turbines

Moody Step-up Formula for Efficiency

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1 − 𝜂2 𝐷1
=
1 − 𝜂1 𝐷2
In this equation, is the overall efficiency and D is the diameter of the reaction turbine or pump rotor.
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Example 1
One-fifth scale model of a pump was tested in a laboratory at 1000rpm . The head developed and the power
input at the best efficiency point were foundto be 8 m and 30 kW respectively. If the prototype pump has to
work against a head of 25 m, determine its working speed, the power required to drive it and the ratio of
the now rates handled by the two pumps.

Speed of prototype
𝐻 𝐻
=
𝑁 2𝐷2 𝑚
𝑁 2 𝐷2 𝑝
𝐻 𝐻
=
𝑁𝐷 𝑚 𝑁𝐷 𝑝
𝐻𝑝 𝐷𝑚
𝑁𝑝 = 𝑁𝑚
𝐷
𝐻𝑚 𝑝
25 1
𝑁𝑝 = ∗ ∗ 1000 = 353.5 𝑟𝑝𝑚
8 5

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Power developed by the prototype
𝑃 𝑃
=
𝑁 3 𝐷5 𝑚
𝑁 3 𝐷5 𝑝
5 3
𝐷𝑝 𝑁𝑝
𝑃𝑝 = 𝑃𝑚
𝐷𝑚 𝑁𝑚
3
353.5
𝑃𝑝 = 55 ∗ ∗ 30 = 4141.3 𝑘𝑊
1000
Ratio of the flow rates
𝑄 𝑄
=
𝑁𝐷3 𝑚
𝑁𝐷3 𝑝
3
𝑄𝑝 𝐷𝑝 𝑁𝑝
=
𝑄𝑚 𝐷𝑚 𝑁𝑚
𝑄𝑝 353.5
= 53 ∗ = 44.188
𝑄𝑚 1000

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Example 2

A turbine model of I : 10 develops 1.84 kW under a head of 5 m of water at 480 rpm . Find the power
developed by the prototype under a head of 40 m. Also find the speed of the prototype. Assume efficiency
of both the turbines to be same. Find and verify the specific speeds.

Speed of the prototype

𝐻 𝐻
=
𝑁 2 𝐷2 𝑚
𝑁 2 𝐷2 𝑝
𝐻𝑝 𝐷𝑚
𝑁𝑝 = 𝑁𝑚
𝐷
𝐻𝑚 𝑝
40 1
𝑁𝑝 = ∗ ∗ 480 = 135.76 𝑟𝑝𝑚
5 10

Power developed by the prototype

5 3
𝐷𝑝 𝑁𝑝
𝑃𝑝 = 𝑃𝑚
𝐷𝑚 𝑁𝑚
3
135.76
𝑃𝑝 = 105 ∗ ∗ 1.84 = 4163 𝑘𝑊
480
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Specific speed of the prototype
𝑁𝑝 𝑃𝑝
𝑁𝑠 𝑝 = 5/4
= 87.5
𝐻𝑝
Specific speed of the model
𝑁𝑚 𝑃𝑚
𝑁𝑠 𝑚 = 5/4
= 87.5
𝐻𝑚
The specific speed of the model is equal to the prototype and thus it is verified

Example 3
A Kaplan turbine operates under a head of 35 m, has a rotational speed of 420 rpm and develops 15 MW
of power. The overall efficiency of the turbine is 90%. Calculate the specific speed, unit speed, and unit
discharge and unit power.
𝑃 = 𝜂𝑜 𝜌𝑔𝐻𝑄
𝑃 15000 ∗ 1000 𝑚3
𝑄= = = 48.6
𝜂𝑜 𝜌𝑔𝐻 0.9 ∗ 1000 ∗ 9.8 ∗ 35 𝑠

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References

1- K. Subramanya, 2013,” Hydraulic Machines”, Tata McGraw Hill Education Private Limited.
2-A. Valan Arasu, 2001, “ Turbo Machines”, VIKAS Publishing House.
3- S. A. Korpela , 2011, “Principles of Turbomachinery”, John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
4. H. M. Badr and W. H. Ahmed, 2015, “Pumping Machinery Theory And Practice”, John Wiley &
Sons. Ltd.
5. Fluid Machinery: [Link]
6. Lab Experiments: [Link]

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