A food chain is showing the transfer of energy from one organism to the next, beginning with a
producer
A food web is a network of interconnected food chains
Trophic levels describe the position of an organism in a food chain, web or pyramid.
A producer is an organism that makes its own organic nutrients, usually using energy from
sunlight, through photosynthesis.
A consumer is an organism that gets its energy by feeding on other organisms
A herbivore is an animal that gets its energy by eating plants
A carnivore is an animal that gets its energy by eating other animals
A decomposer is an organism that gets its energy from dead or waste organic material
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Pyramids of numbers represent the number of individual organisms at each trophic level in a
food chain.
Pyramids of biomass show the total mass of living organisms at each trophic level. (Biomass
refers to the total weight or dry mass of the organisms.)
Pyramids of numbers can vary in shape depending on the ecosystem. For example, in
some ecosystems, the number of producers is much higher than that of consumers,
forming a classic pyramid shape. However, in ecosystems with a single large producer
(like a tree), the pyramid might appear inverted or irregular.
Pyramids of biomass are almost always upright because the total biomass decreases at
each successive trophic level due to energy loss (through respiration, heat, and waste)
as organisms move up the food chain. This means producers generally have the most
biomass, while top-level predators have the least.
A table showing the differences between a Pyramid of Numbers, a Pyramid of Biomass,
and a Pyramid of Energy:
Feature Pyramid of Numbers Pyramid of Biomass Pyramid of Energy
Represents the Represents the total mass Represents the flow of
Definition number of organisms of living organisms at each energy at each trophic
at each trophic level trophic level level over time
Can be upright,
Typically upright but can be Always upright, as
inverted, or irregular
Shape inverted in some cases energy decreases at
depending on
(e.g., aquatic ecosystems) higher trophic levels
ecosystem
Energy (kJ/m² or
Measurement Unit Number of individuals Mass (g/m² or kg/m²)
kcal/m²)
Focuses on the count
Focuses on the total weight Focuses on the energy
Representation of of individuals,
of organisms, not the flow, not the number or
Organisms regardless of their
number mass of organisms
size
Inverted: Tree Inverted: Ocean ecosystem Always upright: Energy
Ecosystem Example ecosystem (few trees, (small phytoplankton, large is lost as heat at each
many insects) zooplankton) level
Accuracy in More accurate than Most accurate in
Less accurate (can be
Representing numbers but not as precise showing how energy is
misleading)
Energy Flow as energy transferred and lost
Importance Helps visualize the Helps visualize the biomass Helps visualize the
Feature Pyramid of Numbers Pyramid of Biomass Pyramid of Energy
population size at efficiency of energy
present at each level
each trophic level transfer between levels
A table comparing the advantages and disadvantages of pyramids of numbers, biomass, and
energy:
Type of
Advantages Disadvantages
Pyramid
- May not accurately represent energy
- Simple and easy to construct. flow (e.g., large organisms like trees at
Pyramid of
- Shows the population sizes at different the base).
Numbers
trophic levels. - Inverted pyramids can occur, making
interpretation confusing.
- Difficult to measure accurately,
- Represents the actual mass of living especially with organisms like plankton
Pyramid of material at each level, giving a better that have short life spans.
Biomass indication of energy content. - Doesn't account for energy flow and
- Always upright in most ecosystems. differences in energy content across
species.
- Most accurate representation of energy - Time-consuming and complex to
Pyramid of flow through an ecosystem. measure energy at each level.
Energy - Always upright, as energy decreases - Requires detailed data collection on
with each level. energy transfer.
Explain why the transfer of energy from one trophic level to another is often not efficient
energy is lost between each trophic level by-
Respiration
Heat Loss
Waste and Excretion
Incomplete Consumption
And insufficient energy, to support / reaches, more than five trophic levels
State advantages of using a pyramid of energy rather than a pyramid of biomass to
represent a food chain.
shows actual energy transfer ;
time is taken into account ;
more accurate
Explain, in terms of energy loss, why food chains usually have fewer than five trophic
levels
Food chains usually have fewer than five trophic levels due to the significant energy loss at
each step. Only about 10% of the energy is passed from one trophic level to the next, with the
remaining 90% lost through processes like respiration, heat production, waste, and incomplete
consumption. As energy diminishes with each transfer, there is not enough left to support
additional trophic levels beyond the fourth or fifth. This limitation in available energy prevents
ecosystems from sustaining many levels of consumers.
1. Nitrogen Fixation (by lightning and bacteria)
Purpose: Convert inert nitrogen gas (N₂) from the atmosphere into usable nitrogen
compounds.
By lightning: The high energy from lightning causes nitrogen and oxygen to combine,
forming nitrates (NO₃⁻) that dissolve in rain and enter the soil.
By nitrogen-fixing bacteria:
o Found in root nodules of legumes (e.g., peas, beans) or free-living in soil.
o Convert nitrogen gas (N₂) into ammonium ions (NH₄⁺) or nitrates.
2. Absorption of Nitrate Ions by Plants
Plants absorb nitrate ions (NO₃⁻) or ammonium ions (NH₄⁺) from the soil through
their roots.
These ions are used to make amino acids and proteins needed for growth.
3. Production of Amino Acids and Proteins
Inside plants, the absorbed nitrate ions are converted into amino acids.
Amino acids are then used to build plant proteins, essential for structure and enzymes.
4. Feeding and Digestion of Proteins
Animals eat plants (or other animals) and digest plant proteins into amino acids.
These amino acids are then used to make animal proteins in muscles, enzymes,
hormones, etc.
5. Decomposition of Plant and Animal Proteins to Ammonium Ions
When plants and animals die (or produce waste), decomposers (bacteria and fungi)
break down proteins into amino acids.
These are further broken down into ammonium ions (NH₄⁺) in a process called
ammonification.
6. Deamination
In the liver of animals, excess amino acids are broken down.
The amino group (–NH₂) is removed and converted into ammonia (NH₃), which
becomes ammonium ions (NH₄⁺).
This helps regulate nitrogen balance in animals and contributes to nitrogen in the soil
(via waste).
7. Nitrification
Nitrifying bacteria in the soil convert ammonium ions (NH₄⁺) into nitrites (NO₂⁻), and
then into nitrates (NO₃⁻).
These nitrates can then be reused by plants.
o Nitrosomonas bacteria: NH₄⁺ → NO₂⁻
o Nitrobacter bacteria: NO₂⁻ → NO₃⁻
8. Denitrification
Denitrifying bacteria convert nitrates (NO₃⁻) in the soil back into nitrogen gas (N₂).
This occurs in low-oxygen (anaerobic) conditions (e.g., waterlogged soils).
It returns nitrogen to the atmosphere and reduces soil fertility.