BUILDING SCIENCE AND MECHANICS -1BESC104A /204A

Introduction to building science

(1BESC104A)
MODULE 1

Importance and Scope of various fields of Civil Engineering: Surveying, Structural Engineering,
Geotechnical Engineering, Water Resources Engineering, Transportation Engineering,
Environmental Engineering, Construction Planning and Project Management.
Basic Materials of Construction: Types and Uses of Bricks, Stones, Cement, Structural Steel, Wood
and Concrete.
Structural Elements of a Building: Concept of Foundation, Plinth, Lintel, Chejja, Masonry wall,
Column, Beam, Slab, Flooring and Staircase.

Unit 1 - Importance And Scope Of Various Fields Of Civil Engineering

Engineering: It is a profession of converting scientific knowledge into useful practical applications,

where the materials & forces in nature are effectively used for the benefit of mankind. An Engineer is
a person who plays a key role in such activities.

Civil engineering- Civil engineering is an engineering discipline that deals with the design,
construction, and maintenance of the physical and naturally built environment, including public works
such as roads, bridges, canals, dams, airports, sewage systems, pipelines, structural components of
buildings, and railways. It is considered the second-oldest engineering discipline after military
engineering. Its relation to the fulfillment of human needs is direct, whereas the other engineering
branches are complementary to the function of civil engineering. It is called the general engineering
because it uses the principles and information provided by other branches of engineering while erecting
civil engineering structures.

Scopes Of Different Branches Of Civil Engineering:

1. Surveying
2. Material technology
3. Geotechnical engineering
4. Structural engineering
5. Construction technology
6. Hydraulics and water resources
7. Transportation engineering
8. Environmental engineering
9. Construction planning and project management

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1. Surveying:
Definition: It is the art & science of determining the relative positions of points on, above, or
beneath the earth's surface using direct or indirect measurements of distance, direction, and
elevation. The data is finally represented on a sheet of paper known as plan or map.
• In simple terms:
Surveying = Measurement + Mapping + Analysis
• The process of finding the vertical distance is known as levelling.
• From the plans, sections, and maps prepared by surveying, the area and volume of a particular plot
of land can be calculated.
• During a survey, surveyors use various tools to do their job successfully and accurately, such as
total stations, GPS receivers, prisms, 3D scanners, radio communicators, digital levels, dumpy level
and surveying software etc.

Classification of surveying:
Major classifications are:
1. Plane surveying: in which the curvature earth's surface is not considered. This type of survey
is carried out only for smaller areas.
2. Geodetic surveying: This type of surveying curvature of the earth's surface is considered. This
type of survey is carried out for larger areas.

Based on the purpose of the survey

1. Topographical survey:
2. City survey
3. Mine survey
4. Cadastral survey

Based on instruments used:

1. Chain survey
2. Compass survey.
3. Chain and compass survey.
4. Tachometric survey.
5. Plane table survey.
6. Electronic distance meter survey.
7. Theodolite survey.

Scope of surveying are

• For preparing the contour map to determine the best possible route and amount of earthwork
required
• For preparing the engineering map showing engineering details like highways, railways, canals,
dams, reservoirs, etc.
• Maps prepared for marking boundaries of countries, states, districts etc., avoid disputes
• To determine areas, volumes, and earthwork quantities.
• To set out alignments, foundations, and other construction works.

Applications:

 Civil engineering projects (roads, dams, bridges).

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 Land acquisition and property division.

 Navigation and mapping.
 Military and defense mapping.
 GIS (Geographic Information Systems) and remote sensing.

2. Structural Engineering:
• Structure is in assembly of two or more basic elements connecting together in such a way that it serves
the user functionally and carry the loads arising out of the self and imposed load without causing any
problem of serviceability.
Definition: Structural Engineering is a branch of Civil Engineering that deals with the analysis,
design, and construction of structures that support or resist loads.
• It deals with analysis and design of structures.
• Assessing the internal stresses in the components of a structure is known as structural analysis
• Design of structures deals with the arrangement of components of structures, selection of sustainable
material based on its characteristics and determination of size of the components to satisfy the strength
and stiffness requirement or Finding out the suitable size of structure component is known as design
of structures. It includes both Reinforced cement concrete and steel structures.
• Design of multi-storeyed buildings, towers, retaining walls, water tanks, bridges requires skills
and knowledge of structural engineering
• Civil engineer has not only to give a safe structure, but he must give economical sections.
• Designing earthquake resistant structures is attracting lot of research. All these aspects fall under
structural engineering field.

Objectives of Structural Engineering

1. To ensure strength – structure must not fail under applied loads.

2. To ensure stability – structure should not overturn or collapse.
3. To ensure serviceability – structure should not deflect, vibrate, or crack beyond permissible
limits.
4. To achieve durability – structure should last its intended lifespan with minimum maintenance.
5. To ensure economy – efficient use of materials and cost-effective design.

Structural Elements

 Beams – horizontal members carrying bending loads.

 Columns – vertical members carrying compression.
 Slabs – flat surfaces (floors, roofs).
 Trusses – framework of members forming a rigid structure.
 Frames – interconnected beams & columns.
 Foundations – transfer loads to the ground.

Applications of structural Engineering are

• Analysis and design of Dams, Bridges, Stadiums, Auditoriums, Multi - storied buildings.
• Analysis and design of power generation stations
• Analysis and design of steel industrial structures
• Repair, rehabilitation and maintenance of structures

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• Design of nuclear Power plants.

• Design of structural reinforcement for different type of structural component.
• Earthquake-resistant and wind-resistant structures.
• High-rise buildings and skyscrapers.
• Offshore structures (oil rigs, marine platforms).

3. Geotechnical Engineering:

• All the structures including machines are to be supported are founded on soil.
• Geotechnical engineering is the specialist branch of civil engineering concerned with the behaviour
of earth materials and the application of soil and rock mechanics
Definition: The study of properties & behaviour of soil under loads & changes in environmental
conditions is called Geo-technical engineering.
• Soil property may vary season to season due to variation in moisture content.
• The load from the structures is to be safely transferred to soil. For this, SBC (Safe Bearing Capacity)
of soil is properly assessed. The strength taking capacity of soil without any deformation is known
as safe bearing capacity of soil.

Scope of Geotechnical Engineering:

• To evaluate the quality and strength of soil to construct civil engineering structure
• To determine engineering properties of soil and rock.
• To evaluate earth pressure on retaining walls and underground structures.
• To decide type of foundations for different type of structures.
• For design of underground structures such as Tunnels, Shafts etc.
• Design of earthen dams for storage of water.
• For design of Roads for transportation facilities

Applications:
• Designing foundations (shallow: footings, rafts; deep: pile, caissons).
• Constructing dams, embankments, tunnels, retaining walls.
• Assessing slope stability for highways, railways, and hilly regions.
• Ground improvement for weak soils.
• Earthquake geotechnics – studying liquefaction, seismic soil-structure interaction.
• Environmental geotechnics – landfill liners, waste containment.

4. Hydraulics & Water resource Engineering:

Hydraulics:
 The study of mechanics of water & its flow characteristics is known as HYDRAULICS.
 The study of liquid, i.e. water at rest and motion is done
 When the water is at rest, the forces exerted by the water on immersed areas are found out by the
laws of mechanics. Thus, the knowledge of these forces is useful in the design of the gates used to
control the flood water in case of dams. When water is drawn off from a reservoir and conveyed
through closed conduits or open channels, the knowledge of the behaviour of liquids in motion is
useful.
 It helps to solve the problems in design of water supply distribution systems

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Scope of Hydraulic Engineering are

1. To measure the discharge of water in rivers for design of bridges
2. Design of hydro power plants for generation of electricity.
3. Design of Pumps and turbines
4. Design of water supply schemes for the city which includes design of pipes and pumps.
5. Design of canals to carry water to irrigation land from dams.
6. Design of Weirs for Dams

Water Resource:
• Water Resources Engineering (WRE) is a branch of Civil Engineering that deals with the planning,
development, distribution, and management of water resources for human use and
environmental sustainability.
OR

• Water Resource Engineering can be defined as the science which deals with the subject of tapping
water either from the surface or subsurface sources.
• Surface water such as lake, stream, ponds etc and ground water are usefully managed
• Water resources engineering is the quantitative study of the hydrologic cycle, the distribution and
circulation of water linking the earth's atmosphere, land and oceans
• It is such a vast subject that it includes in itself hydrology, irrigation, hydraulics and water supply
• It also deals with study of measurement of infill, study of rainfall, runoff and flood control.

Scope of water resource engineering are

• To arrive the total discharge of water from catchment areas
• To ensure adequate water supply for domestic, industrial, and agricultural use.
• To design the reservoir capacity to store the water
• For water quality management and pollution control.
• Supply of water for garden and recreational centers.
• Design of water supply systems for the cities and industries.
• To measure the total rainfall

Applications:
• Urban water supply and sanitation.
• Agricultural irrigation.
• Hydropower projects.
• Navigation (inland waterways).
• Flood forecasting and disaster management.
• Watershed management and water conservation.

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5. Environmental Engineering:
Definition: Environmental Engineering is a branch of Civil Engineering that applies scientific and
engineering principles to protect human health, improve environmental quality, and manage
natural resources.

• The environmental engineering branch of civil engineering studies the effects of projects on the
environment.
• Environmental engineers study and evaluate impacts to cultural resources, noise impacts, threatened
and endangered species, water quality, air quality, wetlands, and socioeconomic impacts to name a
few. Their aim is to identify the environmental impacts of a project and to suggest ways to eliminate
or mitigate those impacts.
• The goal of environmental engineering is to help develop a project that has the least amount of
impact on the natural environment.
• This very important field of civil engineering which covers both water supply and sanitary engineering.
• It deals with the supply of purified water to the public as well as control of different type pollutions
(water, air, noise and land pollutions).

Objectives of Environmental Engineering:

1. To provide safe water supply and wastewater management.

2. To control air, water, and soil pollution.
3. To design and implement solid waste management systems.
4. To promote sustainable development through eco-friendly technologies.
5. To ensure public health and environmental safety.

Scope of Environmental Engineering:

 Water Supply Engineering – intake, treatment, and distribution of potable water.

 Wastewater Engineering – collection, treatment, and safe disposal of sewage.
 Air Pollution Control – monitoring and controlling emissions.
 Solid Waste Management – segregation, collection, treatment, recycling, and disposal.
 Noise Pollution Control – reducing harmful noise levels.
 Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) – predicting impacts of projects on the environment.

Applications:

 Design of water supply networks for cities.

 Treatment of industrial effluents.
 Planning of sanitary landfills and composting plants.
 Noise barriers near highways and airports.
 Use of GIS and Remote Sensing for environmental monitoring.

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6. Transportation Engineering:
• Transportation engineering is a branch of civil engineering that involves the planning, design,
operation, and maintenance of transportation systems. Any system that moves people and goods
from one place to other falls under the scope of transportation engineering.

• The transport system includes

1. Roadways 2. Railways 3. Airways 4. Waterways.

• It helps to develop the roads to remote places

• Transportation by roads is the only mode which could give max service.
• Design, construction and maintenance of railway lines, signal system is also the part of
transportation engineering.

• The role of transportation engineers is to construct facilities related to each mode of transportation.
• These projects can range in size from small road widening projects to major freeway interchange
projects, from pedestrian pathways to multi-lane bridges on a highway. There can be some overlap
between the types of projects structural and transportation engineers work on, but transportati on
engineering focuses on the design and implementation of transportation infrastructures that are
safe, comfortable, economical, convenient, and environmentally sound.

Scope of Transportation engineering are

• It involves planning, design, construction, operation and maintenance of transportation facility.

• Planning and design of runways, roads, harbors and railways
• Maintenance and up gradation of harbors, airports, railway system based on requirements.
• It contributes economic, industrial, social and cultural development of any country.
• Design of traffic signals for control of traffic

7. Construction Planning And Project Management (CPPM):

Construction planning is an important step when building a structure because it outlines the project
and provides guidelines to ensure the project is a success.
Definition: It is the process of identifying the steps required to build a structure. It involves defining
what actions need to be completed, creating an ordered timeline of events, staffing the project and
determining the necessary materials and equipment.
• The stage are planning, scheduling, organizing, staffing, directing, controlling and coordinating.
• It comprises of men, money, materials, time and management.
• A well-crafted construction plan is important to keep the project on schedule and within budget. It
can also help ensure the overall quality of the project that meets the client's standards
Definition: Project management is the application of knowledge skills, tools and techniques to a
broad range of activities to meet the requirement of the particular project.

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• The function of project management includes defining the requirement of establishing the extent of
work. Monitoring the process of the work and adjusting deviations from the plan.

• The main element of project management is given in the below figure.

Objectives of CPPM:
• Complete project within time, cost, and quality constraints.
• Ensure efficient utilization of resources (4Ms → Manpower, Materials, Machinery, Money).
• Reduce delays and cost overruns.
• Improve coordination among stakeholders (owner, contractor, engineer, workers).
• Ensure safety and sustainability in construction.

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Module-1, Unit – 2 Basic Materials of Construction

Building materials have an important role to play in this modern age of technology. Although their most
important use is in construction activities, no field of engineering is conceivable without their use. Also,
the building materials industry is an important contributor in our national economy as its output governs
both the rate and the quality of construction work. There are certain general factors which affect the choice
of materials for a particular scheme. Perhaps the most important of these is the climatic background.
Obviously, different materials and forms of construction have developed in different parts of the world
because of climatic differences. Another factor is the economic aspect of the choice of materials. The rapid
advance of constructional methods, the increasing introduction of mechanical tools and plants, and changes
in the organization of the building industry may appreciably influence the choice of materials.

Types of Bricks and uses:

A brick is a small, hard building unit made of clay or other materials, molded and baked (fired) in a kiln,
used for construction of walls, pavements, and other structures.

Types of bricks:

1. Burnt Clay Bricks:

Description: The most common red bricks made by molding clay, drying, and burning in kilns.
Properties: Strong, durable, porous, available in four classes (First class to Fourth class).
Uses:
• First class → Load-bearing walls, foundations, flooring.
• Second class → Internal walls, partitions, where plastering is done.
• Third/Fourth class → Temporary works, road ballast, sub-base in floors.

2. Fly Ash Bricks:

Description: Produced from fly ash, cement, sand, and water. They are lightweight, have high fire
insulation, and offer a uniform finish that may not require plastering.
Properties:
• Smooth finish, uniform shape.
• High strength and low water absorption.
• Environment-friendly (reuses industrial waste).
Uses:
• Walls in residential and commercial buildings.
• High-rise buildings (lightweight reduces dead load).
• External cladding and boundary walls.

3. Engineering Bricks:
Description: Manufactured at extremely high temperatures to create a dense, strong, and highly
durable product with very low porosity. They are resistant to frost, acid, and water damage.
Properties:
• Very high compressive strength (>70 N/mm²).
• Low porosity.
• Excellent load-bearing capacity.
Uses:
• Foundations and damp-proof courses.
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• Bridges, retaining walls, tunnels.

• Sewage works and heavy engineering structures.

4. Fire Bricks (Refractory Bricks)

Description: Made from special clay that can withstand extremely high temperatures. They are used
to line furnaces, kilns, and fireplaces.
Properties:
• Can resist up to 1600°C.
• Thermal shock resistant.
• Made of silica, alumina, magnesite.
Uses:
• Lining of furnaces, kilns, chimneys, and fireplaces.
• Boilers, incinerators, steel plants.

5. Concrete Bricks
Description: Made from a mixture of cement, sand, and aggregates, these can be manufactured in
various sizes and colors by adding pigments. They are known for their strength and weather resistance.
Properties:
• Strong, durable, available in various colors/textures.
• Non-porous, weather-resistant.
Uses:
• Facades, fences, and decorative walls.
• Paving blocks and landscaping.
• Load-bearing walls in modern constructions.

6. Sand Lime Bricks (Calcium Silicate Bricks)

Description: Made by mixing sand, lime, and fly ash, then molding the mixture under pressure. They
have a smooth finish and offer high load-bearing capacity.
Properties:
• Smooth finish, uniform color.
• Accurate dimensions (less mortar required).
• Good sound insulation.
Uses:
• External walls, facades.
• Load-bearing walls in residential buildings.
• Decorative works.

Uses of Bricks in Construction

1. Walls
o Load-bearing walls for residential and commercial buildings.
o Partition walls in interiors.
2. Foundations
o Strong bricks (engineering or first-class) used in foundations and basements.
3. Pavements and Roads
o Clay or concrete bricks for sidewalks, courtyards, driveways.

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4. Refractory Structures
o Fire bricks used in furnaces, kilns, chimneys, and fireplaces.
5. Decorative / Architectural Work
o Facing bricks, colored bricks, and textured bricks for exposed walls and facades.
6. Retaining and Boundary Walls
o Engineering bricks or concrete bricks for strength and durability.

Types of Stones and Uses:

Types of Rocks:
1. Igneous Rocks
• Formation: Solidified from molten magma deep inside the earth.
• Examples: Granite ,Basalt ,Gabbro, Diorite
2. Sedimentary Rocks
• Formation: Formed by deposition and compaction of sediments (sand, silt, shells, minerals).
• Examples: Sandstone , Limestone, Shale
3. Metamorphic Rocks
• Formation: Formed when igneous or sedimentary rocks are transformed by heat, pressure, or
chemical action.
• Examples: Marble, Slate, Quartzite

Types of stones:
1. Granite

 Type: Igneous
 Properties:
o Very hard and coarse-grained, consisting mainly of quartz, feldspar, and mica.
o High compressive strength (up to 200–250 MPa).
o Low water absorption (<0.5%), making it weather-resistant.
o Durable under heavy loads and abrasion-resistant.
 Uses:
o Foundations, bridges, heavy-duty flooring, pavements.
o Monuments, statues, and countertops.
o Road kerbs and exterior cladding.

2. Marble

 Type: Metamorphic (formed from limestone under high temperature and pressure)
 Properties:
o Smooth texture, can be polished to a glossy finish.
o Moderate compressive strength (50–120 MPa).
o Moderate durability; susceptible to acid attack (reacts with acids).
o Attractive veining and natural colors.
 Uses:
o Flooring, wall cladding, decorative architectural elements.
o Monuments, statues, and sculptures.
o Staircases, countertops, and interior facades.

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3. Sandstone

 Type: Sedimentary (cemented sand grains, usually quartz)

 Properties:
o Fine to coarse-grained; easy to cut and shape.
o Moderate strength (20–170 MPa depending on type).
o Porous and absorbs water; durability varies with cementing material.
o Natural colors and texture make it aesthetically pleasing.
 Uses:
o Building walls, flooring, paving, and garden features.
o Decorative carvings, monuments, and facades.
o Road construction in crushed form.

4. Limestone

 Type: Sedimentary (calcium carbonate-rich)

 Properties:
o Soft when quarried, hardens on exposure to air.
o Compressive strength ranges from 30–250 MPa depending on type.
o Porous, moderate water absorption.
o Reacts with acids; easily cut into blocks.
 Uses:
o Building walls, foundations, and flooring.
o Cement manufacture and lime production.
o Road metal, aggregate, and decorative masonry.

5. Slate

 Type: Metamorphic (from shale or clay under pressure)

 Properties:
o Fine-grained, splits easily into thin, durable sheets (cleavage property).
o Compressive strength: 20–170 MPa.
o Low water absorption (0.4–0.7%) and resistant to frost.
o Fire-resistant and weatherproof.
 Uses:
o Roofing tiles, flooring, wall cladding.
o Blackboards, table tops, and garden paving.
o Insulation slabs and exterior decorative work.

6. Laterite

 Type: Residual soil stone (highly iron-rich, tropical regions)

 Properties:
o Soft when freshly quarried, hardens on exposure to air (due to oxidation of iron).
o Moderate compressive strength (5–50 MPa).
o High porosity initially; lightweight material.
o Weathering resistant after hardening.
 Uses:
o Low-cost walls, foundations, and blocks.
o Road sub-base material.

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o Landscaping and boundary walls.

7. Basalt

 Type: Igneous (volcanic rock, dense and fine-grained)

 Properties:
o Very hard, durable, and dark-colored.
o High compressive strength (100–300 MPa).
o Resistant to abrasion, weathering, and chemical attack.
o Low porosity; suitable for heavy loads.
 Uses:
o Road metal (aggregate), pavements, heavy-duty flooring.
o Foundations and retaining walls.
o Railway ballast and structural construction.

8. Quartzite

 Type: Metamorphic (from sandstone under heat and pressure)

 Properties:
o Extremely hard and durable; mostly quartz composition.
o High compressive strength (150–350 MPa).
o Resistant to abrasion, weathering, and chemical attack.
o Non-porous and dimensionally stable.
 Uses:
o Flooring, staircases, and paving stones.
o Structural works requiring high durability.
o Heavy-duty pavements and architectural cladding.

Uses of Stones in Construction:

1. Structural Uses
o Foundations, columns, walls, beams, bridges.
2. Road Construction
o Aggregate for roads, pavements, and runways (granite, basalt).
3. Flooring and Paving
o Granite, marble, sandstone, quartzite for durable and decorative flooring.
4. Roofing
o Slate and lightweight stones for water-resistant roofing.
5. Decorative and Architectural Applications
o Marble, sandstone, and facing stones for monuments, sculptures, and facades.
6. Cement and Concrete Industry
o Limestone is a key ingredient in cement manufacturing.
7. Marine and Outdoor Structures
o Durable stones like granite and basalt used in harbors, dams, and retaining walls.

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Types of Cement and Their Uses:

Cement is a binding material widely used in construction. Different types of cement are manufactured
to meet various construction needs, depending on the strength, durability, chemical resistance,
and special properties required.

Types of Cement and uses:

1. Ordinary Portland Cement (OPC)

 Description:
The most commonly used cement, made by grinding clinker with gypsum (3–5%).
 Grades:
o OPC 33 → 33 MPa compressive strength after 28 days.
o OPC 43 → 43 MPa compressive strength after 28 days.
o OPC 53 → 53 MPa compressive strength after 28 days.
 Properties: Fast-setting, good strength, suitable for general construction.
 Uses:
o Residential and commercial buildings.
o RCC structures, bridges, pavements.
o General concrete and masonry works.

2. Portland Pozzolana Cement (PPC)

 Description:
Blending OPC with pozzolanic materials such as fly ash, volcanic ash, or silica fumes.
 Properties:
o Higher durability and chemical resistance.
o Slower setting and heat of hydration than OPC.
 Uses:
o Marine constructions (dams, canals, bridges).
o Mass concrete works (foundations, columns).
o Areas exposed to sulfates or acidic soils.

3. Rapid Hardening Cement

 Description:
A special OPC with higher C3S content and finer grinding to achieve high early strength.
 Properties: Gains strength faster than OPC, allowing early removal of formwork.
 Uses:
o Roads, highways, and runway construction.
o Emergency repairs of structures.
o Situations requiring quick setting and high early strength.

4. Sulfate Resisting Cement (SRC)

 Description:
Cement with low C3A content to resist sulfate attack from soil or water.
 Properties: Resistant to chemical attacks; used where sulfates are present.

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 Uses:
o Foundations and basements in sulfate-rich soils.
o Marine structures, sewage pipelines.
o Water-retaining structures like tanks and dams.

5. Low Heat Cement

 Description:
Cement producing low heat of hydration, used in mass concrete works.
 Properties: Reduces thermal cracking in large concrete structures.
 Uses:
o Large dams and foundations.
o Mass concrete works where heat buildup could cause cracks.

6. Air-Entraining Cement

 Description:
Cement with chemicals to introduce microscopic air bubbles in concrete.
 Properties: Improves freeze-thaw resistance and durability in cold climates.
 Uses:
o Roads, pavements, and bridges in cold regions.
o Concrete exposed to water or repeated freezing and thawing cycles.

7. White Cement

 Description:
OPC manufactured from raw materials low in iron and manganese, giving a white color.
 Properties: Smooth, aesthetically pleasing.
 Uses:
o Decorative works, terrazzo flooring, and plastering.
o Colored concrete and architectural finishes.

8. Masonry Cement

 Description:
Special cement formulated for mortar preparation with improved workability.
 Properties: Often air-entrained to reduce shrinkage and cracking.
 Uses:
o Brickwork, blockwork, plastering.
o Mortars in walls, partitions, and masonry structures.

9. Oil Well Cement

 Description:
Special cement resistant to high temperatures and pressures in oil wells.
 Uses:
o Cementing oil wells and deep boreholes.
o Applications in petroleum and geothermal wells.

10. Expansive Cement

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 Description:
Cement that slightly expands during setting to counteract shrinkage.
 Properties: Reduces cracks in concrete structures.
 Uses:
o Grouting and foundation works.
o Repair works and heavy concrete foundations.

Types and Uses of Structural Steel:

Structural steel is a category of steel specifically designed for use in construction and structural
applications due to its strength, ductility, and durability. It is widely used in buildings, bridges, towers,
and industrial structures. Structural steel comes in different shapes, grades, and types to suit various
structural requirements.

1. Types of Structural Steel:

Structural steel can be classified based on shape, composition, and mechanical properties.

A. Based on Shape / Section

1. Rolled Steel Sections (Hot-rolled or Cold-formed)

o Common shapes include:
 I-section (or H-beams) → for beams and columns.
 T-section → for lighter beams or lintels.
 Angle (L-section) → for bracing, trusses, frames.
 Channel (C-section) → for roof purlins, floor joists.
 Flat Bars & Plates → for stiffeners, gussets, and connectors.
o Uses: Beams, columns, trusses, braces, and frames in buildings and bridges.
2. Steel Pipes and Tubes
o Circular or rectangular hollow sections (CHS, RHS, SHS).
o Uses:
 Structural frames in industrial sheds, towers, and scaffolding.
 Water or gas-carrying pipelines in structures.
3. Reinforcing Steel (Rebar / TMT Bars)
o Deformed bars for reinforced concrete (RC) structures.
o Uses:
 RC beams, slabs, columns, and foundations.
 Provides tensile strength in concrete structures.

B. Based on Composition

1. Carbon Steel
o Low, medium, or high carbon content.
o Properties: High strength, ductility varies with carbon content.
o Uses: Beams, columns, plates, and pipes in general construction.

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2. Alloy Steel
o Steel alloyed with elements like chromium, nickel, or molybdenum for improved
properties.
o Properties: Higher strength, corrosion resistance, heat resistance.
o Uses: Bridges, industrial plants, heavy machinery, and marine structures.
3. Stainless Steel
o Alloyed with chromium, nickel for corrosion resistance.
o Properties: Corrosion and heat resistant, aesthetically appealing.
o Uses: Architectural facades, roofing, handrails, chemical plants.
4. Weathering Steel (Corten Steel)
o Forms a stable rust-like layer that protects against corrosion.
o Uses: Bridges, outdoor sculptures, storage tanks, and exposed structural members.

C. Based on Mechanical Properties (Grades)

 Mild Steel (Low Carbon Steel)

o Carbon 0.05–0.25%, ductile and easy to weld.
o Uses: Beams, columns, wire rods, construction plates.
 Medium and High Carbon Steel
o Carbon 0.25–0.60%, stronger but less ductile.
o Uses: Rails, cables, wires, and high-strength structural members.
 High Strength Low Alloy (HSLA) Steel
o Alloyed for higher yield strength with lower weight.
o Uses: Bridges, high-rise buildings, offshore structures.

2. Uses of Structural Steel

Structural steel is highly versatile and is used in a variety of structural and architectural applications:

1. Buildings
o Beams, columns, floor joists, trusses, roofing structures.
o Skyscrapers and high-rise frames (steel skeleton structures).
2. Bridges and Flyovers
o Truss bridges, suspension bridges, and cantilever structures.
o High tensile strength steels are preferred for long spans.
3. Industrial Structures
o Steel frames for factories, warehouses, and sheds.
o Roof trusses, gantries, and conveyor supports.
4. Towers and Transmission Structures
o Communication towers, transmission line towers, and masts.
o Lattice steel or tubular sections are widely used.
5. Marine and Offshore Structures
o Ships, oil rigs, and offshore platforms using stainless steel or weathering steel.
6. Reinforced Concrete Structures
o Steel rebar provides tensile strength to concrete beams, slabs, and columns.
7. Architectural and Decorative Uses
o Stainless steel facades, staircases, railings, roofing, and interior elements.
8. Other Uses

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o Storage tanks, silos, pipelines, heavy machinery, and structural components of vehicles.

Types and Uses of Wood:

Wood is a natural material obtained from trees and is widely used in construction, furniture, and decorative
purposes. It is lightweight, strong, and durable, with good thermal and acoustic properties. Wood is
classified based on source, structure, and durability, and its usage depends on these properties.

1. Classification of Wood:
A. Based on Source (Botanical Classification)

1. Hardwood
o Source: Deciduous trees (broad-leaved trees).
o Examples: Teak, Mahogany, Oak, Maple, Sal, Rosewood.
o Properties:
 Dense, strong, and durable.
 Resistant to wear and insect attack (varies by species).
 Slow-growing, expensive.
o Uses:
 Structural applications: Beams, flooring, doors, windows.
 Furniture and decorative items.
 Boat building, railway sleepers, veneer.
2. Softwood
o Source: Coniferous trees (needle-leaved trees).
o Examples: Pine, Cedar, Fir, Spruce, Larch.
o Properties:
 Less dense and lighter than hardwood.
 Easier to cut and shape.
 Grows faster, cheaper.
o Uses:
 Roof trusses, scaffolding, timber framing.
 Packing cases, plywood, and general carpentry.
 Paper and pulp industry.

B. Based on Durability

1. Durable Wood
o Resistant to decay, termites, and fungi.
o Examples: Teak, Sal, Mahogany.
o Uses:
 Exterior construction, furniture, boat building, decking.
2. Non-Durable Wood
o Less resistant, requires treatment (chemical or oiling).
o Examples: Pine, Fir.
o Uses: Interior construction, temporary structures, packing cases.

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C. Based on Structure / Grain

1. Ring-Porous Wood
o Large vessels concentrated in earlywood.
o Example: Oak.
o Properties: Strong in tension, durable.
2. Diffuse-Porous Wood
o Vessels evenly distributed.
o Example: Maple.
o Properties: Uniform texture, good for furniture and flooring.

D. Engineered / Manufactured Wood

1. Plywood
o Made by gluing thin layers of wood veneers with grains at right angles.
o Properties: High strength, resists warping.
o Uses: Panels, doors, flooring, wall partitions.
2. Particle Board / Chipboard
o Made from wood chips and adhesives.
o Uses: Furniture, cabinets, interior paneling.
3. Medium Density Fiberboard (MDF)
o Made from wood fibers compressed with resin.
o Uses: Furniture, wall panels, decorative items.
4. Laminated Veneer Lumber (LVL)
o Made by bonding veneers in layers.
o Uses: Beams, lintels, columns in construction.

2. Uses of Wood in Construction and Engineering

1. Structural Uses
o Beams, joists, rafters, and roof trusses.
o Columns, scaffolding, and temporary shoring.
o Floorings, decking, and formwork for concrete.
2. Furniture and Interior Works
o Chairs, tables, cabinets, wardrobes.
o Doors, windows, paneling, and decorative moldings.
3. Marine and Outdoor Structures
o Boat building, piers, docks, and decks (requires durable wood).
o Fencing, garden structures, pergolas.
4. Packaging and Industrial Uses
o Crates, pallets, packing cases.
o Plywood for boxes and containers.
5. Special Applications
o Musical instruments (hardwood).
o Veneers, laminates, and decorative finishes.
o Paper and pulp from softwoods.

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Types and Uses of Concrete

Concrete is a composite construction material made from cement, aggregates (fine and coarse),
water, and sometimes admixtures. It is versatile, strong in compression, and widely used in
construction. Different types of concrete are used depending on strength requirements, durability,
workability, and environmental conditions.

Classification of Concrete and uses:

Concrete can be classified based on strength, density, purpose, and special properties.

A. Based on Strength

1. Normal Strength Concrete (NSC)

o Description: Concrete with compressive strength up to 40 MPa.
o Uses:
 Residential and commercial buildings.
 Pavements and flooring.
 Foundations and retaining walls.
2. High Strength Concrete (HSC)
o Description: Concrete with compressive strength greater than 40 MPa, often up to 100
MPa.
o Uses:
 High-rise buildings and long-span bridges.
 Heavy-duty pavements.
 Industrial and marine structures.

B. Based on Density

1. Normal Weight Concrete

o Description: Made with natural aggregates (2,600–2,700 kg/m³).
o Uses: General structural works like buildings, roads, bridges.
2. Lightweight Concrete
o Description: Made with lightweight aggregates (expanded clay, pumice, perlite).
Density: 1,600–1,800 kg/m³.
o Uses:
 Roof slabs, floors, and bridges.
 Reduces dead load on structures.
3. Heavyweight Concrete
o Description: Made with heavy aggregates (iron, barite, magnetite). Density: 3,500–4,000
kg/m³.
o Uses:
 Radiation shielding in hospitals and nuclear plants.
 Ballast and counterweights.

C. Based on Purpose / Special Properties

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1. Plain Cement Concrete (PCC)

 Description: Concrete without reinforcement; resists compressive stresses only.

 Uses:
o Pavements and floors
o Sidewalks and footpaths
o Foundations and base layers for structures

2. Reinforced Cement Concrete (RCC)

 Description: Concrete with embedded steel reinforcement to resist tensile and bending stresses.
 Uses:
o Beams, columns, and slabs in buildings
o Bridges and flyovers
o Retaining walls and foundations

3. Prestressed Concrete

 Description: Concrete in which internal stresses are induced by tensioned steel to counteract
tensile stresses during service.
 Uses:
o Long-span bridges
o High-rise building floors and roofs
o Water tanks and industrial structures

4. Ready-Mix Concrete (RMC)

 Description: Pre-mixed concrete produced in a batching plant and delivered to the site in truck
mixers.
 Uses:
o Large-scale constructions requiring uniform quality
o Fast placement in commercial and residential buildings
o Roads, bridges, and industrial projects

5. Self-Compacting Concrete (SCC)

 Description: Highly flowable concrete that fills molds completely without vibration.
 Uses:
o Complex formwork with congested reinforcement
o Precast elements
o Architectural structures requiring smooth surfaces

6. High-Performance Concrete (HPC)

 Description: Concrete with enhanced strength, durability, and workability using special
admixtures and materials.
 Uses:
o Long-span bridges and flyovers

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o Marine and offshore structures

o High-rise buildings and industrial floors

7. Air-Entrained Concrete

 Description: Concrete containing microscopic air bubbles to improve resistance to freeze-thaw

cycles.
 Uses:
o Roads, pavements, and runways in cold regions
o Exposed concrete in cold climates

8. Pervious / Porous Concrete

 Description: Concrete with voids allowing water to pass through.

 Uses:
o Pavements and walkways
o Parking lots and driveways
o Low-impact development for stormwater management

9. Fiber-Reinforced Concrete (FRC)

 Description: Concrete containing fibers (steel, glass, or synthetic) to control cracking and
improve toughness.
 Uses:
o Industrial floors and pavements
o Tunnel linings
o Shotcrete and sprayed concrete for slope stabilization

10. Shotcrete / Gunite

 Description: Concrete sprayed under pressure onto surfaces.

 Uses:
o Tunnels, retaining walls, and swimming pools
o Slope stabilization and rock support
o Repair and rehabilitation of damaged concrete structures

11. Mass Concrete

 Description: Large volumes of concrete poured without joints, often in thick sections.
 Uses:
o Dams and reservoirs
o Large foundations for buildings and bridges
o Heavy retaining walls and gravity structures

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Unit 3 - Structural Elements of a Building

FOUNDATION:
Definition: Foundation is the lowest part of the building or the civil structure that is in direct contact
with the soil which transfers loads from the structure to the soil safely.
 Foundation is the most important part of the building. Building activity starts with digging the
ground for foundation and then building it.
 All loads of building are transferred to the foundation through beam and column arrangement.
Its main function is to distribute the load evenly and safely to the ground.

Essential requirement of good foundation:

1. Location: the foundation structure should be so located that it is able to resist any unexpected future
influences which may adversely affected performance.
2. Stability: the foundation structure should be stable or safe against possible failures.
3. Settlement: the foundation structure should not settle or deflect to such an extent so as to impair its
usefulness and the stability of the building or adjoining structures

Types of Foundation:
1. Shallow Foundation
a) Isolated footing
b) Strip Footing
c) Combined footing

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d) Raft or Mat foundations

e) Strap footing
2. Deep Foundation
a) Pile foundations
b) Pier foundations
c) Caisson foundations

Functions:
 Distribute the load from the structure to soil evenly and safely.
 To anchor the building to the ground so that under lateral loads building will not move.
 It prevents the building from overturning due to lateral forces.
 It gives level surface for the construction of super structure.
 It distribute the non-uniform load of the superstructure evenly to the sub soil
 It minimizes the differential settlement.
 To support the structure.

PLINTH:
Definition: A part of the superstructure located between the ground level and the floor level is known as
plinth.
 Plinth beam is a reinforced concrete beam constructed between the wall and its foundation. It
is provided to prevent the extension or propagation of cracks from the foundation into the wall
above when the foundation suffers from settlement.
 The main function of the plinth is to distribute the load of the columns over the foundation evenly.
 Its height is not less than 450 mm. It is required that plinth level is at least 150 mm above the road
level, so that connections to underground drainage system can be made.
 For areas prone to flooding or heavy rainfall, the height may be increased (even up to 1.2 m).
 At the top of plinth, a damp proof course is provided. It is usually 75 mm thick plain concrete
course.

Components of Plinth Construction:

• Plinth Beam – A reinforced concrete beam at the plinth level that ties the structure and
distributes loads uniformly.
• Plinth Wall (if provided) – Masonry wall built between foundation and floor slab.
• Damp-Proof Course (DPC) – A waterproof layer (bitumen, rich concrete, or membrane) laid at
the top of the plinth wall to prevent rising dampness.
• Flooring – Laid above compacted filling and plinth beam.

Purposes of plinth beam:

1. Plinth beam prevents differential settlement and because of its provision above the foundation
all the load is uniformly transferred to the foundation.
2. It prevents dampness from entering the building through the foundation.
3. It ties all the columns.
4. It prevents cracks from foundation to the walls.
5. It prevents collapse of a building during an earthquake.
6. It distributes load uniformly.
7. It gives strength and durability to the residential units.

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8. Provides a better aesthetic appeal to the building.

LINTEL:
Definition: A lintel is a horizontal member which is placed across an opening to support the portion of
all the structure above it.
OR
A lintel is a horizontal structural member placed over an opening such as a door or window in a wall
to support the load of the structure above it.
The function of the lintel is just the same as that of the arch or a beam. However the lintel is easy
and simple to construction.
The ends of the lintel are built into the masonry and does the loads carried by the lintel is transferred
to the masonry in the jambs.
At present the lintel of RCC are widely used to span the opening for doors and windows etc in a
structure.
In general, it should be seen that the bearings of the lintel that is the distance up to which it is inserted
in the supporting walls should be the minimum of the following three conditions.
1. 100 mm
2. Height of the lintel
3. 1/10th to 1/12th of the span of the lintel.

Different types of lintel used in the construction industries are as follows:

1. Stone lintel: Stone lintel almost commonly used in the areas where availability of stone is in
abundant. Stone lintels are mostly preferred for stone masonry structures and buildings which
are faced with stones.

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2. Wooden lintel: Wooden lintel where used in olden days when the technology was not that
abundant.
3. Brick lintel: These brick lintels are used to span smaller openings (less than 1 m) with light
loadings. Brick lintels generally consist of bricks which are normally laid on ends and
occasionally on edges.
4. Steel lintels: These lintels consist of Steel angles or Rolled Steel joints. Steel lintel becomes
useful when there is no space available to accommodate the rise of an arch.
5. Reinforced concrete lintels: Reinforced concrete lintels are common in use due to their
durability, strength and fire resisting properties. For the construction of RCC lintels 1:2:4
cement concrete reinforced along with steel bar is used.
6. Reinforced brick lintels: The construction of brick lintels is very much similar to RCC lintels
but hear good quality bricks are used instead of concrete.

Functions of Lintel:
Lintel supports the walls above the openings like doors, windows, etc.
Lintel withstands the imposed loads coming from above bricks or block including the roofing
members.
The lintel is used to transfer all imposed loads to the side walls.
Sometimes lintels are used as a decorative architectural element.

CHEJJA:
Definition: Chejja or Sun-Shade means a sloping or horizontal structural overhang, usually provided
for protection from sun and rain or for architectural considerations at lintel level.
OR
A Chajja is a horizontal or slightly sloping reinforced concrete (RCC) or stone projection extending
outside the wall, usually provided above windows and doors.
 There are two types of chejja - External chejja and Internal chejja.
 Generally brick work is not provided at the free end of chejjas because chejjas are the cantilever
slabs and by providing brick work it will unnecessarily increase the load over the slab and will
require more strengthening and reinforcement but chejjas are not designed to carry loads.
 Still you can provide brick work at the free end by proper griping and strengthening.
• Materials Used
 Stone slabs (traditional, in old buildings).
 Reinforced Cement Concrete (RCC) → most common today.
 Precast RCC units → economical and faster installation.
 Wood
 Fiber sheet

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Functions of Chejja:
Usually protects from external sunlight.
Also protects from rainwater entering into the building.
It also serves as aesthetic decoration with little design on it from architectural point of view. Also it
can be used as a support for AC

MASONRY WALL:

A masonry wall is the structural unit in which member of individual units are often laid in and
bonded together by mortar.
OR
A masonry wall is a wall made from materials which have traditionally been cemented together
with the use of mortar
The masonry wall is built of industrial blocks/units of material such as stones, bricks, concrete;
hallow blocks, cellular concrete etc.
Masonry walls can be used as structural walls in buildings, and they can also be utilized to create
barriers between property lines or different areas on a property.

Types of masonry walls:

A. Based on load bearing:
1. Load bearing masonry walls: This is a wall but bears a load resisting upon it by conducting
its weight to a foundation structures. The materials often used to construct load bearing walls
in large buildings are concrete block or brick.
2. Non load bearing wall: Walls that are intended to support them self and the weight of the
cladding attached. Non load bearing walls provide no structural support and may be interior or
exterior walls.

B. Based on construction:
1. Solid walls: Masonry units laid close together with all joints filled solidly with mortar. Solid
walls are structurally bonded by metal tiles, masonry headers or by joint reinforcement
2. Reinforced masonry walls: Reinforced masonry is any type of brick, concrete or other type
of masonry that is reinforced with the use of other building materials to increase resistance to
deterioration due to weight bearings or other forms of stresses.

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3. Veneered masonry wall: A brick veneer wall is constructed by having a non-structural

external layer usually with bricks and it is bounded by an air cavity.
4. Concrete masonry wall: In concrete masonry construction the rectangular concrete blocks are
used for the wall construction which is bound together by cement mortar.

Failure of Masonry:

There are three ways in which a masonry building wall may collapse:
1. The wall may fall straight out in a monolithic piece at a 90-degree angle.
2. The wall may crumble straight down in a so-called curtain fall collapse &
3. The wall may collapse in an inward/outward fashion

Functions:
• Load-bearing → Transfer roof, slab, and floor loads to the foundation.
• Partition → Divide spaces within the building.
• Protection → Provide shelter from weather (rain, wind, heat).
• Aesthetics → Add beauty and style to the structure.
• Strength & Stability → Resist compressive loads, and in some cases lateral loads (with
reinforcement).
• It keeps the building warm in winter and cool in summer.
• It increases the thermal mass of a building.
• It provides a structure with reduced life-cycle costs.

Advantages of Masonry Walls

• Strong in compression.
• Fire resistant (especially brick and stone).
• Provides good sound and thermal insulation.
• Durable and long-lasting.
• Can be ornamental/architectural.

Limitations of Masonry Walls

• Heavy (dead load is high).
• Time-consuming construction.
• Weak in tension and bending (needs reinforcement).
• Requires skilled labor.
• Less flexible compared to steel or RCC walls.

COLUMNS:
Definition: A column is vertical structural element that transmits the load or the weight of the structure
above through axial compression to other structural elements below.
OR
A column can be defined as a vertical structural member designed to transmit a compressive load.
 In other words, a column is a compression member.
 Early columns were constructed of stone, some out of a single piece of stone.

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 Columns are frequently used to supported beams or arches on which upper part of walls or ceilings.
For the purpose of wind or earth quake, columns are designed to resist lateral forces.
 A vertical strut, columns are also called as posts, pillar, and piers.
 Columns load bearing capacity increases with the decrease in columns equivalent length. This is
the strongest column and condition. Both the ends fixed columns carries the maximum load and
effective length for this condition is considered as half the total column length.

Functions of Columns:
• Support beams and slabs.
• Transfer loads (dead load, live load, wind, seismic) to the foundation.
• Provide stability to the structure.
• Carry axial loads (direct downward forces).
• Resist bending and shear (when loads are not perfectly axial).

Classification of columns:

1. Based on shapes - Square, rectangle, circular columns

2. Based on length - short column, long column
3. Based on loading - Axially loaded, uniaxially eccentricity, biaxial eccentricity
4. Based on type of reinforcement - Tied column, spiral column, composite column

Types of Loads on Columns: Self-weight of the column multiplies by number of floors, Selfweight
of beams per running meter, Load of walls per running meter, Total Load of slab (Dead load + Live
load + Self weight).

Uses:
• Support beams, slabs, arches.
• Used in residential, commercial, industrial, and bridge structures.
• Decorative elements in architecture

BEAMS:
Definition: A beam is a structural element that are primarily resistant load applied to a laterally to a beam
axis it's mode of deflection is primarily bending.
 Different types of beams are used in construction of buildings and structures.
 These are horizontal structural elements that withstand vertical loads, shear force, and bending
moment.
 Beams transfer load that is imposed along their length to their endpoints such as walls, columns,
foundation, etc.
 Different types of beams used in building construction will be discussed based on their manner of
support, cross section shape (profile), length and material.
 Beams ensure that there is a stable load path at the foundation of the building so that the weight of
the building, roofs, ceiling, and floors are properly supported.

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 Beams may be of wood, steel or other metals, reinforced or pre-stressed concrete, plastic and even
brickwork with steel rods in the bond between bricks.
 The purpose of beams is to carry wall loads and to avoid loading a concrete slab.

Beams are classified into different types:

1. Based on support
• Simple support - a beam supported on the ends and which are free to rotate and have no moment
resistance.
• Fixed - beams supported on both ends and restrained from rotation.
• Overhanging - a simple beam extending beyond its supports on ends.
• Continuous - a beam extending over more than two supports.
• Cantilever - a projecting beam fixed only at one end and free on the other end.

2. Based on cross section - I beam, T beam, C beam.

3. Based on equilibrium condition - statically determinate beam and statically indeterminate beam.
4. Based on Geometry- Straight Beam, Curved Beam &Tapered Beam
5. Based on Construction Methods- Cast In-situ Concrete Beam, Precast Concrete Beam, Pre-stressed
Concrete Beam & Lintel Beam.

Functions:
• Load Transfer – Carries loads from slabs, roofs, or walls and transfers them to columns, walls, or
foundations.
• Resistance to Bending – Withstands bending moments caused by loads.
• Shear Resistance – Resists shear forces between supports.
• Support for Structures – Provides support for slabs, ceilings, or roofs.
• Maintains Structural Integrity – Prevents excessive deflection or collapse of the structure.
• Aesthetics (in some cases) – Can also add to the architectural look (e.g., exposed wooden or steel
beams).

SLAB:
Concrete slab is very common and important structural element, they are constructed to provide flat, useful
surfaces.
Definition: It is horizontal structural component, with top and bottom surface parallel and near so.
 The depth of a concrete slab floor is very small compared to its span. Slabs may be supported on
two sides only or have beam on all four sides.
 Types of Loads on a Slab:
1. Dead load of the slab
2. Live load
3. Floor finish load
4. Snow load in the case of roof slab
5. Earthquake loads
 Types of concrete slab used in construction: Flat slab Conventional slab, Hollow core ribbed slab
or hollow core slab, Hardy slab, Waffle slab, Sunken slab, Composite slab, Low roof slab, Projected
slab, Waist slab.

 Slabs are generally classified into one way and two way slab.

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1. One way slabs: Cast in situ method is used to construct one way slab on beams which involves
fixing of forms followed with the installation of reinforcement and finally the pouring of fresh
concrete. One way slab on beam are most suitable for spans of 3 - 6 m and a live load of 3 to 5
kN/m². They can also be used for larger spans with relatively higher cost and higher slab deflection.
Additional formwork for the beams is however needed.

2. Two way slabs: The construction of this type of slab is similar to that of one way slab on beams,
but it may need formworks. Since two way slabs are supported on all sides. Slabs on beams are
suitable for spans of about 6m and live load of 3 to 6 kN/m2. The beams increases the stiffness of
the slab, producing relatively low deflection additional formwork for the beams is needed.

Functions of slab:
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1. To provide flat surface.

2. To act as sound, heat and fire insulator.
3. It provides a covering shelter or working flat surface in buildings.
4. Its primary function is to transfer the load by bending in one or two direction.
5. The slab because the ceiling for the storey beneath it.

STAIRCASE:

Definition: Staircase is defined as the sequence of steps and it is provided to afford the means of ascend
and descend between the floors or landings.
OR
A stair is a series of steps arranged in a manner so as to connect different floors of a building
 The apartments or rooms of a building in which the stair is located is known as staircase.
 The opening or the space occupied by the stair is known as stairway.
 The other means of transportation between the floors of the building apart from stairs are lifts,
ramps and moving stairs.

Parts of Stairs:
1. Step: it is a portion of stair which permits ascend and descend.
2. Tread: it is an upper horizontal portion of step upon which the feet is placed.
3. Riser: the vertical portion between its tread on the stair.
4. Hand rail: a handrail is the rail that is designed to be grassed by the hand so has to provide stability or
support.
5. Baluster: it is vertical member of wooden or metal supporting the handrails.
6. Newel post: this is the vertical member which is placed at the ends of flight to connect handrails.
7. Run: it is the total length of the stair in a horizontal plane including landing.
8. Nosing: it is the projecting part of the tread beyond the face of the riser. It is rounded to give good
architecture effect.
9. String or stingers: these are the sloping wooden members which support the step in the state. They run
along the slope of the stair.

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Based on the shape stairs may be classified as:

(a) Straight stairs
(b) Dog legged stairs
(c) Well or open-newel stairs
(d)Geometrical stairs
(e) Spiral stairs
(f) Turning stairs.

Primary function of Stairs:

1. Provide an access from one floor to another.
2. Provide a safe means of travel between floors.
3. Provide a degree of insulation where part of a separating element between compartments in the
building.
4. Provide is suitable means of escape in case of fire.
5. Provide a means of conveying fittings and furniture’s between floor levels.

FLOORING:
Definition: Flooring refers to the permanent covering of a floor surface.
• It plays a major role in the durability, comfort, appearance, and maintenance of a building.
• The choice of flooring depends on factors such as cost, function, aesthetics, load-bearing requirements,
and maintenance.

Types:
 Mud Flooring
• Oldest and cheapest type.
• Provides a cool surface in hot climates.
• Requires frequent maintenance.
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 Brick Flooring
• Constructed using well-burnt bricks laid flat.
• Economical and durable for moderate traffic.
• Common in warehouses, godowns, and courtyards.

 Stone Flooring
• Made using stones like marble, granite, sandstone, or slate.
• Very durable, strong, and elegant.
• Expensive but long-lasting.

 Concrete Flooring
• Made with cement concrete, either plain or reinforced.
• Common in residential, commercial, and industrial buildings.
• Economical, durable, and easy to maintain.

 Tile Flooring
• Clay, ceramic, or vitrified tiles fixed with mortar or adhesives.
• Smooth, easy to clean, and available in various colors & designs.

 Wooden Flooring
• Provides warmth and aesthetic appearance.
• Common in residential houses, dance floors, auditoriums.
• Needs protection from termites and moisture.

 Glass Flooring
• Used in special architectural designs or to provide natural light below.
• Expensive and less common.

Functions:
1. Provides a Level Surface
• Creates a smooth and even platform for walking, working, or placing furniture.
2. Load Distribution
• Transfers the load of occupants, furniture, and equipment safely to the subsoil through the
foundation.
3. Comfort and Safety
• Offers a stable, non-slippery, and comfortable surface for movement.
4. Durability
• Protects the structure from wear and tear caused by foot traffic, equipment, or heavy loads.
5. Resistance to Dampness
• Acts as a barrier against moisture or groundwater seeping into the building.
6. Aesthetics
• Enhances the appearance of the interior with color, texture, and design.
7. Ease of Cleaning and Maintenance
• Provides a hygienic surface that can be easily cleaned.

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Requirements of good Flooring:

• Durable and resistant to wear.
• Easy to clean and maintain.
• Economical and aesthetically pleasing.
• Resistant to dampness, fire, and termites.
• Comfortable for users.

[Link] ENGINEERING, NCEH 35