Anatomy and Physiology I

Cells and Tissues - Episode 1

Functional Anatomy of Cells: some examples
Nerve cell
• Structure: sensor at one end. Long extensions
• Function: detect changes in environment. Transmit information over long distances

Muscle cell
• Structure: tiny, long threadlike fibers
• Function: fibers shorten by sliding together to allow movement

Red blood cells

• Structure: round, biconcave structure containing hemoglobin
• Function: transports oxygen and CO2 in blood from lungs to other parts of the body

Gland
• Structure: contains sac with secretions
• Function: release of secretions changes body functions

Cells of the immune system

• Structure: varied
• Function: recognize and destroy non-self cells, eg cancer and foreign particles ‹#› ‹#›
Overview of the anatomy of a cell
Name
_I 1. Nucleus
_ 3
_
_ 2. Plasma, or cell, membrane
3. Cytoplasm

Description
Loading…
3
__ separates cell from its surrounding environment
__ thick gel-like substance inside cell composed of
organelles suspended in watery cytosol
__
↓ large membranous structure near the center

2
_
_

‹#› ‹#›
 Membranes of the cell
Location
• Plasma membrane: outer boundary of cell which separates _______
Cell from external
_________environment
• Membranous organelles: sacs and canals which separates _______
organelle from cytoplasm
_________
• Nuclear envelop: outer boundary of nucleus which separates _______
nucleus from _________
cytosol

Fluid mosaic model

• Components of the cell membrane are arranged to form a continuous sheet
• Mosaic of components is fluid:

Basic structure
• Double layer of phospholipid molecules (lipid bilayer): Hydro_______
philic heads &
hydro______
phobic tails
• Purpose of double layer:

‹#› ‹#›
 The fluid mosaic model of cell membrane states that
1. Components of the membrane are arranged to form a continuous sheet
2. The cell membrane is a rigid structure
3. The cell membrane is permeable
4. The components of the cellLoading…
membrane have a fixed location

‹#›
 1
2
Cell Membranes 2 2

3 4 3

Groupings of membrane components form rafts that float as a unit in the membrane
• Rafts (____)
3 may pinch inward to bring material into the cell or organelle

Primary structure of a cell membrane is a double layer (___)

5 of phospholipid molecules (___)
4
• Heads are hydro_________
philic (water __________)
liking or lipo_________
phobic (fat __________)
fearing
• Tails are hydro_________
phobic (water __________)
hating or lipo_________
philic (fat __________)
loving
• Phospholipids arranged in bilayers in water
• Most of the bilayer is hydrophobic; _________________________________________________

Other components
• Cholesterol (____):
I scattered among lipophilic portion and allow membrane to function properly at body
temperature
2
• Integral Membrane Proteins (____): attached to hydrophilic portion to perform specific functions ‹#› ‹#›
 Examples of Integral Membrane Proteins

_↓ 6
_ 2
_ _
4 _
3 _
5
_ _ _ _ _ _
Name Function
1. Pores or channels _____
4 forms connections between 2 cells
2. Receptor molecules _____
3 Stimulates changes in a metabolic pathway
3. Enzymes _____
i Supports and maintains cell shape, moves whole cell
4. Cell connections _____
2 Can bind to a chemical and cause changes inside the cell
5. Cytoskeleton _____
6 glycoproteins or proteins that identify cells as self or foreign
6. Cell identity markers _____
↓ Allows controlled transport of hydrophilic molecules from one
hydrophilic compartment to another
‹#›
Anatomy and Physiology I
Cells and Tissues - Episode 2
 Cytoplasm and Organelles
Cytoplasm
• gel-like internal substance of cells that includes many organelles
suspended in cytosol

Cytosol
• watery intracellular fluid

Organelles
• Perform specific functions to allow cell to survive
• Number and type of organelles present in cells depends on the overall
function of each cell
• Membranous organelles: sacs or canals made of cell membranes,
including ER, mitochondria
• Nonmembranous organelles: made of microscopic filaments or other
nonmembranous materials

‹#› ‹#›
Cellular synthesis 3

Organelles
1. Ribosome
2. Golgi Apparatus
3. Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER)

Location
___
2 Between rough ER and plasma membrane
___
3 extends from the nucleus to plasma membrane
___
I attached to rough ER OR scattered freely throughout cytoplasm

Structure (Anatomy)
___
2 Membranous organelle organized in cisternae stacked on one another
___
I Non-membranous organelle consist of 1 large subunit and 1 small subunit
___
3 Membranous-walled canals and flat, curving sacs arranged in parallel rows

‹#› ‹#›
Cellular synthesis
Organelles
1. Golgi Apparatus
2. Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER)
3. Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER)

Structure (Anatomy)
___ Smooth appearance due to lack of ribosomes

·
___ Rough appearance due to ribosomes on outer surface of the walls

Function (Physiology) Loading…

___ Synthesis of proteins for use inside or outside the cell or on cell membrane
___ Synthesis of lipids and carbohydrates, including phospholipid membranes
AND source of calcium (Ca++) storage
___
I Processes protein molecules from the ER and packages them into a secretory
vesicle: contents may then be secreted outside the cell

‹#› ‹#›
Protein factory
1
___
2 Protein is assembled by ribosomes in the rough ER 2
___
5 Processed proteins are packaged into secretory
vesicles
___
6 Secretory vesicles move towards the plasma
membrane
___
I Instructions for protein synthesis is produced by 3 5
nucleus 4
___
4 ER vesicles move to the Golgi apparatus for
6
processing and packaging 7
___
3 Assembled proteins are folded in the ER and
placed in membrane vesicles
___
7 Secretory vesicles binds with the plasma
membrane and releases proteins for export

‹#› ‹#›
Anatomy and Physiology I
Cells and Tissues - Episode 3
 Organelles Waste disposal systems of a cell
. Lysosome
. Peroxisome
. Proteosome

_
12
Location _
2___ In the cytoplasm of kidney and liver cells

1___
,
3 Throughout the cell cytoplasm of most cells

Structure
___
3 Hollow cylinders that allow proteins to go through
1___2 Small membranous sacs (vesicles) containing enzymes
,
3
_
Function _
2___ Enzymes (peroxidase and catalase) detoxify harmful substances that enter cells

___ Digestive enzymes digest structures (eg old/defective proteins), foreign particles
3
___ Break down of abnormal or misfolded proteins, or of normal proteins that are no
longer needed: proteins are unfolded and dissembled into peptides as it enters the
cylinder

‹#›
 Components of the cell
Name
1. Nucleus – instructions for life
2. Cytoskeleton – skeleton of the cell
3. Mitochondria – ipowerhouse
s
of the cell

Location
___
I Center of cell
___
2 ,
3 Throughout the cell cytoplasm

Structure
___ Contains majority of cell’s DNA
" Spherical body enclosed by a membranous envelope with many pores
___
___ Contains thousands of enzyme particles attached to both membranes
·
___ cristae (microscopic sacs) surrounded by inner and outer membranes
___ Intricately arranged, tiny, flexible fibers and rigid, rodlike pieces which
form a three-dimensional, irregularly shaped lattice

Function
___
3 Enzymes produce most of cell’s energy supply
___
I Determines both structure and function of cells and heredity
___
2 Internal supporting framework and can move the cell or its parts
‹#› ‹#›
 Cytoskeleton- types of cell fibres
Name
1. Microfilaments
2. Intermediate filaments
3. Microtubules

Anatomy (structure)
___
2 twisted protein strands that are thicker than
microfilaments I_

I smallest fibers made of thin, twisted protein strands

___
that are parallel to the long axis of cell
___
3 thickest fibers made of tiny, hollow tubes of protein 2
_
subunits arranged in a spiral fashion

Physiology (function)
___ supporting framework
&
3
_
___ move substances around inside the cell ‹#› ‹#›
 Cell extensions of the Cytoskeleton

3 2
I
2 I I
_ _ _ _ _ _

Name Structure
1. Cilia ____
I cylinders made of microtubules and molecular motors at their core
2. Flagella ____
2 same as cilia but longer and not as many
3. Microvilli ____
3 Outwards projections of plasma membrane which form tiny, fingerlike
processes, similar to the bristles of a hairbrush
Location
____
3 epithelial cells in digestive tract Function
____ sperm cells ____
2 propels cell forward with a tail-like movement
2
____
I respiratory tract ____
I brushes material past the cell surface in coordinated oar-like movements
____
3 increase surface area to help with nutrient absorption

‹#› ‹#›
 Direct cell to cell connections
Name
1. Desmosomes Location
Spot desmosomes ___ heart, nervous tissue
Belt desmosomes ___ Stomach lining, blood brain barrier
2. Tight junctions ___ Most tissue
3. Gap junctions

Structure
___“collars” of tightly fused material
2
___ interlocked fibers externally; anchored by intermediate filaments
internally
___
3 Fusion of two plasma membranes into a single structure to form channels
or “tunnels” that join the cytoplasm of two cells

Function
___ Prevents movement of material across a sheet of cells

is
___ Allows ions and other material to move from one cell directly into
another
‹#› ‹#›
___ Connects membranes of adjacent cells at various points or by encircling

Anatomy and Physiology I

Cells and Tissues - Episode 4
‹#›
Transport of substances through the cell membrane AT
Types P

1. Passive Transport
2. Active Transport 2
_
_ AT
Process P

____ Bulk movement of substances into or out of a cell

2 Substances move against their concentration gradient: from an
____
area of low concentration to an area of high concentration
____
I Substances (or water) move down their concentration gradient:
from an area of high concentration to an area of low concentration _I
_
Energy needs
____
2 Requires energy
____
I Does not require any energy expenditure

Examples
____
2 Active transport pump
_
2
____ Osmosis: movement of water
! Diffusion: movement of substances
A
_
____
____ Endocytosis: Bulk movement of substances into a cell
3 Exocytosis: Bulk movement of substances out of a cell
____ B
‹#›
Concept of passive movement of solutes and water
Diffusion: A passive process which refers to the tendency of small particles to spread out evenly within
any given space. Molecules can spread through membranes and move from an area of high
concentration to an area of low concentration, ie down a concentration gradient. It does not require any
energy expenditure of the cell membrane

The molecules of a lump of sugar are very densely packed Diffusion through a membrane: BOTH water AND
when they enter the water. As sugar molecules collide solutes can move through the membrane
frequently in the area of higher concentration, they When both solutions have the same concentration,
gradually spread away (diffuse) from one another— it has reached a dynamic equilibrium, where there
toward the area of lower concentration. Eventually, the is no NET change in the amount of water and
sugar molecules become evenly distributed. solutes on each side of the membrane.
‹#›
Passive transport processes
Process
2
1. Osmosis
2. Diffusion
_
What moves across membrane _
___
1 2 Water
,

___
2 Solutes

What stays I

___
2 Water
___
I Solutes _
_

When is equilibrium reached?

___
I Same concentration of solutes on both sides
___
2 Same volume of water on both sides
___
I Different volume of water on both sides
‹#›
‹#›
 Examples of passive transport

I 3 ,2 5 ,2 4 ,2
7
_ _ _ a_ _
_ _ _ _ _
Names Description H20 H20
1. Simple diffusion _____
3 4 6 Very specific
, ,

2. Facilitated diffusion 3 5.
_____
2 requires pores or channels
,
,
_
3. Channel mediated diffusion _____ may be open or closed (or inactive)
4. Carrier mediated diffusion 7
_____ selective passive transport of water
_

5. Gated ion channels _____

1 7 does not require special channels or carriers
,

6. Aquaporins _____
6 uses channels to facilitate rapid, high volume diffusion
7. Osmosis of water

‹#›
 • Osmotic pressure: Water pressure that develops as a result of osmosis
Osmosis & Tonicity • Tonicity: Relative osmotic pressures of two fluids or osmotic pressure
outside cell relative to osmotic pressure inside cell
Name
1. Isotonic solution
2. Hypertonic “higher pressure” solution
3. Hypotonic “lower pressure” solution

Movement of water
__↓ Not net movement
__
3 water
ater flows into cells to dilute the cytosol
__
2 water flows out of cells to dilute the solution

What happens to cells

__ May swell (become bigger)
?
_1 _2 _3
__ May shrivel (shrink in size) _ _ _
__ maintain their size and shape

Net Effect
__ Nothing, no cell damage
!
__ Cell lysis, serious damage
__ Crenation, serious damage
_2 _1 _3
_ _ _ ‹#›
 Anatomy and Physiology I
Cells and Tissues - Episode 5
‹#›
Active transport
Overview
• Requires energy to work
• Includes any mechanism that moves substances across a membrane
using cellular energy

Purpose
• To return substances back to their original location
• For bulk transport to and from the cell membrane, and across the
cell membrane

‹#›
 2
. 4
Types
Names
of Active transport
1. Pump (or active transport pump)
2. Vesicle-mediated active transport _
- _
Description
___ Moves large amounts of substances at once

i
___ Moves a substance against its concentration gradient: opposite of diffusion
___ Concentrates substances on one side of the membrane or inside an organelle
___ allows substances to enter or leave the interior of a cell without actually
2. 3

_
moving through its plasma membrane
_
Types of vesicle-mediated active transport
#
3. Exocytosis
~
4. Endocytosis
I
Description
_
___ allows new material to be added to plasma membrane
34
___ allows the removal of material from the plasma membrane
_
___ extracellular material is trapped and brought it into the cell in a vesicle
i
___ substances that is produced by the cell can be released outside the cell
‹#›
‹#›
 Calcium pump
Common active transport pumps (1 of 2)
Purpose of the calcium pump
• Pumps calcium out of the intracellular fluid back to its original location once
it is no longer needed
• Found in all muscles types

BACKGROUND How the calcium pump works

For contraction to occur, calcium ions (Ca2+) diffuses into the
intracellular space through gated ion channels.
For relaxation to occur, Ca2+ is returned to its original location
(extracellular fluid or in organelles) using the calcium pump

&
1. Two calcium ions 1. ATP breaks into ADP,
(Ca++) enter pump, releasing energy.
2. ATP associates 2. Released energy
with activating center changes pump shape &
of pump Ca++ ions are released
on opposite side of the
membrane. ‹#›
Common active transport pumps (2 of 2)
Sodium Potassium Pump (aka Na +-K+ ATPase pump)
Used to return sodium (Na+) and potassium (K+) back to their resting locations
Found in most cells in the body

BACKGROUND How the Sodium Potassium Pump (aka Na +-K+ ATPase pump) works
When too much Na+ leaves the cell
and/or too much potassium (K+) to
enter the cell, the Na +-K+ ATPase
pump works to return the ions to their
resting locations Loading…

‹#›
 Active Transport by vesicles
Terms
1. Exocytosis ot
C
2. Phagocytosis or “cell eating”- type of endocytosis
3. Pinocytosis or “cell drinking”- type of endocytosis
-

Descriptions

&
___
2 Large particles outside the cell are engulfed by plasma
membrane to form vesicle. Vesicles enter the cell and fuse with
lysosomes that release their enzymes to digest the particles _1 _2
___ Fluid and dissolved substances are engulfed by plasma _ _
"
membrane to form vesicle which then enter the cell
___ Large compounds, which are manufactured inside the cell,
are enclosed in vesicles, pulled to the membrane by
cytoskeleton, where the contents are released into the
extracellular fluid or embedded into the plasma membrane

‹#›
‹#›
 Anatomy and Physiology I
Cells and Tissues - Episode 6
‹#›
 Cell Metabolism and the role of enzymes
• Definition of cell metabolism: Set of chemical reactions in a cell
• Enzymes: functional protein that function as catalysts
• Role of enzymes in cell metabolism: Chemical catalysts that reduce the activation
energy (energy to get a reaction started) needed for a reaction

Types of chemical reactions

1. Anabolism
2. Catabolism

Examples
__
2 Hydrolysis reaction
1_
__
I Dehydration synthesis reaction

Descriptions 2_
__
I normally uses energy
__
2 normally produces energy
__
I Builds larger molecules from smaller ones
__
2 Breaks large molecules into smaller ones

‹#› ‹#›
 Enzymes and metabolism
Overview
• Enzymes regulate cell functions by regulating metabolic pathways
• Enzymes thus allow reactions to occur at the low level of free energy ↑
available at normal human body temperatures.
-

Enzyme names
• first part indicates the substrate or the type of reaction
-

• usually ends with an –ase, eg lactase, DNA polymerase

- is a
enzyme
Specificity of Enzymes
• very specific: each enzyme is effective in a single metabolic reaction
Properties
• Chemical reaction can be driven in both directions
• Continually being destroyed and replaced
• Sometimes synthesized as inactive proenzymes
-

‹#›
 Chemical structure of enzymes
Chemical structure & composition: Enzymes are functional proteins with a
complex molecular shape that allows them to catalyze chemical reactions. O O
Components of a enzymatic reaction
1. L
Substrate v
2.
3. 2
Product
Active site
- -

Description
___ raw material(s) before chemical reaction
i
___ result of the chemical reaction
___ part of enzyme which fits the substrate
-

‹#›
‹#›
Chemical structure of enzymes 1

Substrate and active site

Substrate AB fits into the active site of the enzyme 1
The fit is similar to a lock and key model
↓
2

The enzyme changes conformation (shape) and it activated

2 Active site changes
shape & reaction occurs
↓
Enzyme catabolizes/digests the substrate 3
Molecules A and B are produced as a result of the reaction and the 3

↓ Product is formed
Molecules A and B are released, enzyme returns to its native shape 4
The enzyme is ready to act as the catalyst for another#
AB molecule

What type of reaction does this enzyme catalyze? Active shape returns to original
Catabolic shape and product is released
4
‹#›
‹#›
Enzyme regulation of a metabolic pathway
In a metabolic pathway, the product of one enzyme-regulated
reaction becomes the substrate for the next reaction. Thus a whole
series of enzymes is required to keep the pathway functioning.

These enzymes are embedded in a cell membrane, whereas other

types of enzymes are mobile in the cytosol or extracellular in
location.

An entire metabolic pathway can be turned on or off by the

activation or inactivation of any one of the enzymes that catalyze V

reactions in that particular pathway.

‹#›
‹#›
Enzymes and allosteric effectors
An allosteric effector is defined as various chemical and physical agents that affect enzyme action by changing the shape of
the enzyme molecule at a site other than the active site.
It can either activate or inhibit the function of an enzyme
L
Examples of allosteric effectors -

Temperature -

pH: H+ ion concentration

Ionizing radiation
Cofactors
End products of certain metabolic pathways

Inhibition of enzyme by an allosteric effector Activation of enzyme by an allosteric effector

‹#›
‹#›
Allosteric effects on enzyme function
Allosteric effector:
temperature
Most enzymes in the
human body function Allosteric effector:
within a narrow Allosteric effector: End product
temperature range which none With Feedback Inhibition, the
corresponds to core body Without Feedback amount of End product
temperature Inhibition, this synthesized acts as an
metabolic pathway will allosteric effector. The
continue to work, metabolic pathway will stop
regardless of the once there is enough End
Allosteric effector: pH amount of End product product synthesized. This is an
Most enzymes function synthesized example of a ___________
within a certain pH range, feedback loop.
depending on where it is
needed

‹#›
‹#›
 Anatomy and Physiology I
Cells and Tissues - Episode 7
‹#›
 Catabolism and Cellular respiration
Definition of cellular respiration
• important example of cell catabolism
• process by which cells break down glucose, or a
nutrient that has been converted to glucose or one
of its simpler products, into carbon dioxide and
water.
Three chemically linked pathways of cellular
respiration
• Glycolysis
• Citric acid cycle
• Electron transport system (ETS)

‹#›
‹#›
 Cellular respiration
Process
1. Glycolysis
2. Citric acid cycle
3. Electron transport system (ETS)
Purpose
___
I Generation of energy in the form of NADH and ATP I
___
3 Generation of energy from energized electrons to ATP
___
2 Generation of energy in the form of NADH, ATP, and reduced form of FADH2 3

Process
___
3 Energized electrons from glycolysis and citric acid cycle are used to produce ATP
___
1 , 2 Complex sequential process, with each step being regulated by specific enzymes

Location
___ Mitochondria
2
___ Within cytosol (outside the mitochondria)
2

NADH: nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide

ATP: adenosine triphosphate
FADH2: flavin adenine dinucleotide ‹#›
‹#›
Electron Transport System

‹#
Cellular Respiration – End Products and ATP Yield

‹#
 Anatomy and Physiology I
Cells and Tissues - Episode 8
‹#›
 Processes for Cell Growth and
Development
Cell life cycle
• most fundamental of all living
functions
Cell reproduction CELL
• Replication of DNA ensures that GROWTH
genetic information is passed
from one generation to the next
Cell growth CELL
• depends on the use of genetic REPRODUCTION
information in DNA to make the
structural and functional proteins
needed for cell survival
• Protein synthesis (through
transcription and translation) is a
central anabolic pathway
‹#›
 Growth and Reproduction of Cells
Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA)
• A double-helix polymer composed of nucleotides
• Function: Genes from DNA are copied to RNA molecules,
which use the code to determine a cell’s structural and
functional characteristics.
• Gene: DNA segment of ~1000 bp which codes for
synthesizing one RNA strand and 1 polypeptide

Types of Ribonucleic acid (RNA)

• Can be either single or double strand
• Messenger RNA (mRNA): coding RNA derived from DNA
which may be translated into one polypeptide
• Ribosomal RNA (rRNA): noncoding RNA on ribosome
which attaches to mRNA to aid in translation
• Transfer RNA (tRNA): noncoding RNA, delivers specific
amino acid to specific codon of mRNA during translation

‹#›
‹#›
 Cell life cycle
Interphase
G1 & G2
S phase
M phase
Mitosis
Cytokinesis
G0

___ Plasma membrane, cytoplasm, fibres & organelles split into 2 cells

i
___ Identical sets of DNA is split into 2 cells
___ Reproduction of mature cells
___ Replication of DNA to produce a 2nd set
___ Plasma membrane, cytoplasm, fibres & organelles are produced
___ Synthesis of various molecules for cell growth & survival
___ Maintenance phase – not in reproduction mode

‹#›
‹#›
 Cell growth (interphase)
Growth of cell using information contained in genes of DNA occurs
during interphase

Phases
1. G1 & G2 (Growth phase)
"
2.
3.
S (Synthesis of new DNA)
Go (Maintenance phase)

Description
___ Largely anabolic process
"
___ Production of structural and functional proteins
___ No reproduction occurs in this maintenance phase
___ Production of additional cytoplasm and plasma membrane
i
___ Replication of centrosomes and DNA in anticipation of cell division
___ Growth and/or replication of organelles, self replication of .
mitochondria
I
___ Production of enzymes to make lipids, carbohydrates, and other
substances
‹#›
 Anatomy and Physiology I
Cells and Tissues - Episode 9
‹#›
 From DNA to protein
Essential amino acids (9): cannot be produced by the adult human body
G

Nonessential amino acids (11): can be produced from molecules available in the adult human body
How can four base pairs “code” for 20 amino acids?

Codon
• sequence of 3 bp which codes for unique amino acid
• Location: __________
DNA a Messenger RNA
Anticodon
• sequence of 3 bp which codes for unique amino acid
• complementary to codon
• TRNA transfer RNA
Location: __________

‹#›
 Obligatory Base pairs (bp)
Obligatory Base pairing
• Each nucleotide has contains 1 of 4 possible nitrogen bases
• This is paired with another base on the complementary strand
/Urac
il
In DNA
• Adenine is always paired with __________
•
Thymine
Cytosine is always paired with __________
Granire

In RNA
• U
Adenine on DNA is always paired with __________ on RNA
• Cytosine on DNA is always paired with __________ on RNA
•
•
o
Guanine on DNA is always paired with __________ on RNA
Thymine on DNA is always paired with __________ on RNA

If one strand of DNA has the sequence ATTCCCGTA,

(
The sequence of its complementary strand would be __________________

‹#›
‹#›
DNA Replication

Overview
• S phase: synthesis of new DNA
• Replication of the genome (the entire sequence of DNA) prepares cell for reproduction

Building of a new strand of DNA

• DNA strand uncoils and unzips in order for a new complementary strand to form
• Because strands are rebuilt in opposite directions, one strand is not completely rebuilt

Telomeres
• noncoding, protective segments of DNA at the ends of a chromosome
• Contains strands of extra nucleotides that can be lost without affecting coding part of
chromosome
• Used up during DNA replication to prevent loss of needed DNA code; rebuilt by
enzyme telomerase

‹#›
 Occurs during ____ phase in cell cycle
Process of DNA replication
1 Double stranded DNA uncoil and “unzip” -

Bases are exposed

2 Formation of new complementary DNA strands

Obligatory base pairing occurs DNA polymerase binds complementary
with nucleotides in nucleus bases to each other

3 Identical daughter DNA molecules are formed

DNA molecules coil to become distinct, but genetically identical

4 Formation of chromatids
DNA double helices attached at the center by centromere

‹#›
‹#›
 Cellular reproduction (M phase)
Terms
1. I:
Mitosis .
2. 2 M phase
.

3. 5 Cytokinesis

Description
___
I nuclear DNA is organized and distributed
___
5 Splitting of plasma membrane and cytoplasm, fibres & organelles
into two
___
2 Cells reproduce by splitting themselves into two identical daughter
cells

>
-
Mitosis has four distinct phases and ensures that genetic information is
passed from one generation to the next

‹#›
‹#›
 Some definitions

1. Centrosome __
6 pairs of identical DNA strands joined by a centromere after replication

2. Centrioles __
2 pairs of tiny cylinders in centrosome involved with spindle fibers

3. Aster __
5 beadlike structure that attaches chromatid together during early mitosis
__
3 starlike formation of microtubules (astral fibers) radiating outward from the
4. Spindle fibers
centrosome which anchor centrosome and spindle as chromosomes separate
5. Centromere __
4 microtubules which develops as aster fibers
6. Chromatids __
I composed of centrioles and aster. Area of cytoplasm near nucleus that coordinates
the building and breaking up of microtubules in the cell

‹#›
 Cell Reproduction: Phases of Mitotic cell r

division Order of occurrence

_
5 _
2 34
_ _ _I

__
Z Nuclear membrane disappears and spindle fibers are constructed.
1. I .
Telophase Each chromosome is made of 2 chromatids joined by a centromere-
2. .
2 Prophase these centrosomes/centrioles move toward opposite poles
3. .
3 Metaphase __ Production of proteins, etc needed for growth & development into
5
4. 4 .
Anaphase mature cell: DNA is replicated
5. J . Interphase __ Centromere splits to form two separate but identical chromosomes,
4
which is then pulled toward the nearest pole
IPMAT __
I Nuclear envelop forms and spindle fibers disappear. DNA returns to
its original form and location within the cell
3 Chromatids align across the equator at the centromere
__ ‹#›
‹#›
Overview of protein synthesis
1 1 Transcription
Transcription 4

splicing/editing
22 Splicing/editing 1

Transport
3 3 Transport 2

4 4Translation
Translation
3
Description 4
___ mRNA is modified
i
___ Both ends of mRNA strand are capped
___ Preliminary mRNA strand produced from gene (DNA)
___
4 Polypeptide is produced using information in mRNA
___
3 mRNA is exported through nuclear pores into the cytoplasm .

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 Anatomy and Physiology I
Cells and Tissues - Episode 10
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Transcription: from DNA to mRNA 3
11 DNA is “unzipped” in region of gene to be transcribed

J
2 2RNA nucleotides temporarily attach themselves to exposed 1 2
DNA bases

↓
3 3
RNA nucleotides bind to each other and form a chainlike
mRNA strand
___ Bases are exposed

!3
___ new mRNA sequence is identical to opposite DNA strand
___ Obligatory base pairing occurs with nucleotides in nucleus
___ RNA polymerase binds complementary bases to each other
in new mRNA strand

A (DNA) paired with __

U (mRNA) If a strand of DNA has the sequence
T (DNA) paired with __
A (mRNA) ATTCCCGTA,
C (DNA) paired with __ (mRNA) The sequence of the complementary strand of
s (mRNA)
G (DNA) paired with __ RNA would be __________________
UAAGGGCAU ‹#›
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Protein Synthesis: Splicing/Editing the transcript
mRNA
1
1. Completion of transcription 1
2
2. Editing and Splicing
3 3. mRNA ready for transport out of nucleus

___ Initial strand of mRNA is produced

2
___ Final edited strand of mRNA is ready
___ Noncoding sections (introns) are removed
___ Remaining sections containing coding (exons) are spliced
together by spliceosomes

3
Spliceosomes are ribosome-sized structures in the nucleus that splice mRNA transcripts
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 Role of transfer RNA (tRNA) and anticodons
Ribosome Ribosome mRNA

tRNA

Polypeptide
chain
Amino acid

Translation is an active process

Binding sites on tRNA molecule
• To ribosome
• To a specific amino acid
• Anticodon on tRNA binds to complementary codon on
mRNA
As soon as a codon on the mRNA molecule is read by the tRNA, an
amino acid is attached to the growing polypeptide chain

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Translation: tRNA, codons and anticodons
1 Ribosome subunits attach to start of mRNA molecule
1 Ribosome mRNA

2
2 Codon on mRNA is “read”
tRNA

Polypeptide 4
3 chain 3
Complementary anticodon on tRNA is matched to mRNA codon
5 Amino acid

4
Specific amino acid matching tRNA anticodon is brought to ribosome
6

Amino acids are joined by peptide bonds in sequence to form long

5 polypeptides strands: primary structure of protein

Polypeptides assume their secondary, tertiary and quarternary shapes to

6 form functional proteins ‹#›
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 Protein synthesis overview
. Unzips DNA molecule to expose bases
. RNA nucleotides attach themselves to exposed DNA
bases using complementary base pairing principles Transcription
. Messenger RNA (mRNA) forms along one gene (nucleus)
sequence of a DNA molecule within the cell's nucleus
. mRNA molecule separates from DNA molecule
. mRNA molecule is edited Editing/splicing (nucleus)
. mRNA molecule leaves nucleus through large nuclear
pores Transport
. Ribosome subunits attach to start of mRNA molecule
and begin the process of translation
. transfer RNA (tRNA) molecules bring specific amino
acids into place at the ribosome site
. Amino acids are brought into the proper sequence Translation
(coded by mRNA) and joined together by peptide bonds (cytoplasm)
0. Peptides join together to form long strands called
polypeptides. Several polypeptide chains may be needed
to make a complete protein molecule.
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 From polypeptides to functional proteins
After translation
• Enzymes in cytosol, ER, and Golgi apparatus fold polypetides
into their secondary, tertiary, and quaternary structures so that
they become functional proteins

Misfolded and unfolded proteins

• Can accumulate to form clumps called plaques (Alzheimer’s
Disease or Parkinson’s disease)
• Normally broken down and recycled by proteosomes

Proteome
• All the proteins synthesized by a cell

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