Lecture 6 – Displacement,

Velocity, and Acceleration

Measurement
MCT-335: Instrumentation and Measurement
Instructor: Dr Imran Mahmood
Department of Mechatronics and Control Engineering
University of Engineering and Technology, Faisalabad Campus
Displacement (Translational)
• A straight line (translational displacement) or angular motion about
an axis (rotational displacement).
• Translational displacement transducers are instruments that measure
the motion of a body in a straight line between two points.
• Some other physical quantity such as pressure, force, acceleration, or
temperature is translated into a translational motion by the primary
measurement transducer.
Displacement (Translational)
• Resistive potentiometer
• Linear variable differential transformer
• Variable capacitance transducers
• Variable inductance transducers
• Strain gauges and piezoresistive sensors
• Piezoelectric transducers
• Laser interferometer
• Noncontacting optical sensor
Resistive potentiometer
• Resistive potentiometer - consists • The translational motion of the
of a resistance element with a body causes a motion of equal
movable contact. magnitude of the slider along the
• A voltage Vs is applied across the resistance element and a
two ends, A and B, of the corresponding change in the
resistance element and an output output voltage Vo.
voltage V0 is measured between
the point of contact C of the sliding
element and the end of the
resistance element A.
• A linear relationship exists between
the output voltage V0 and the
distance AC.
Resistive potentiometer
• Types: Wire-wound, Carbon-film, • This limits the resolution of the
Plastic-film. instrument to the distance from
• Wire-wound potentiometers one coil turn to the next.
consist of a coil of resistance • A carbon film or a conducting
wire wound on a nonconducting plastic film have better
former. resolution.
• As the slider moves along the • The resolution of these is limited
potentiometer track, it makes only by the grain size of the
contact with successive turns of particles in the film, suggesting
the wire coil. that measurement resolutions
up to 10-4 mm.
Resistive potentiometer
• Construction difficult in later two • A typical inaccuracy value that is
types due to spring system that quoted for translational motion
maintains the slider in contact resistive potentiometers is ±1%
with the resistance track. of full-scale reading.
• Life expectancy: wire-wound, • Bottom end range ±2 mm and
carbon-film, and plastic-film top end range of ±1 m.
types are typically 1 million, 5
million, and 30 million,
respectively.
Linear variable differential transformer (LVDT)
• LVDT consists of a transformer • For an excitation voltage Vs given
with a single primary winding by Vs = Vp sin(ωt), the
and two secondary windings electromotive forces (emfs)
connected in the series opposing induced in the secondary
manner. windings Va and Vb are given by:
• The object whose translational
displacement is to be measured
is physically attached to the
central iron core of the
transformer, so that all motions
of the body are transferred to
the core.
LVDT
• With the core in the central a distance x, the values of Ka and
position, Ka = Kb, and we have: Va Kb would then be Ka = K2 and Kb =
= Vb = K sin (ωt – φ), implies Vo = K1, Vo = K2 – K1 (sinωt – φ) = K1 - K2
Va - Vb = 0. (sinωt + [π – φ]), phase difference
• Suppose the core is displaced of 180˚ provides direction
upward (i.e., toward winding A) information.
by a distance x. If Ka = K1 and Kb • Thus, equal magnitude
= K2, we have: Vo = K1 - K2 (sinωt displacements +x and –x of the
– φ). core away from the central (null)
• Alternatively, the core were position, the magnitude of the
displaced downward from the output voltage Vo is the same in
null position (i.e., toward both cases.
winding B) by
LVDT
• The relationship between the • Inaccuracy is ±0.5% of full-scale
magnitude of the output voltage reading and measurement
and the core position is resolution is almost infinite.
approximately linear. • Instruments are available to
• The only moving part in an LVDT measure a wide span of
is the central iron core. measurements from ±100 micro-
• Quoted life expectancy of 200 m to ±100 mm.
years.
Variable capacitance transducers
• Principle of variable capacitance
is used in displacement
measuring transducers in various
ways.
• The capacitor plates are formed
by two concentric, hollow metal
cylinders.
• The displacement to be
measured is applied to the inner
cylinder, which alters the
capacitance.
Variable capacitance transducers
• The second form consists of two
flat, parallel, metal plates, one of
which is fixed and one of which
is movable.
• Displacements to be measured
are applied to the movable
plate, and the capacitance
changes as this moves.
• Both of these first two forms use
air as the dielectric medium
between the plates.
Variable capacitance transducers
• The final form has two flat,
parallel, metal plates with a
sheet of solid dielectric material
between them.
• The displacement to be
measured causes a capacitance
change by moving the dielectric
sheet.
Variable capacitance transducers
• Inaccuracies as low as ±0.01% • The major problem with variable
are possible with these capacitance transducers is their
instruments, with measurement high impedance.
resolutions of 1 mm.
• Individual devices can be • This makes them very
selected from manufacturers’ susceptible to noise and means
ranges that measure that the length and position of
displacements as small as 10-11
m or as large as 1 m. connecting cables need to be
• Tolerant to a wide range of chosen carefully.
environmental hazards such as • In addition, high-impedance
extreme temperatures, instruments need to be used to
radiation, and corrosive
atmospheres. measure the value of the
• Life expectancy quoted is 200 capacitance.
years.
Variable inductance transducers
• An alternative form of variable • With the core in the central
inductance transducer has a position, the output from the
similar size and physical bridge is zero.
appearance to the LVDT but has • Displacements of the core either
a center-tapped single winding. side of the null position cause a
• The two halves of the winding net output voltage that is
are connected to form two arms approximately proportional to
of a bridge circuit that is excited the displacement for small
with an alternating voltage. movements of the core.
Variable inductance transducers
• At the lower end of this span,
instruments with a range of 0-2
mm are available, whereas at
the top end, instruments with a
range of 0-5 m can be obtained.
Strain gauges and piezoresistive sensors
• Strain gauges principle: As strain
is applied to the gauge, the
shape of the cross section of the
resistance wire distorts,
changing the cross-sectional
area.
• The resistance of the wire per
unit length is inversely
proportional to the cross-
sectional area, there is a
consequential change in
resistance.
Strain gauges and piezoresistive sensors
• A piezoresistive sensor is made • They can be used to measure
from semiconductor material in larger displacements if the range
which a p-type region has been of displacement measurement is
diffused into an n-type base. extended by the scheme
• The resistance of this varies illustrated.
greatly when the sensor is
compressed or stretched.
Strain gauges and piezoresistive sensors
• The displacement to be Using this method,
measured is applied to a wedge displacements up to
fixed between two beams about 50 mm can be
carrying strain gauges. measured.
• As the wedge is displaced
downward, the beams are
forced apart and strained,
causing an output reading on
the strain gauges.
Piezoelectric transducers
• Piezoelectric transducer works on • Crystal is mechanically stiff (i.e., a
principle to generate an emf that is large force is required to compress
proportional to the distance by it), and consequently piezoelectric
which it is compressed. transducers can only be used to
• Device is manufactured from a measure the displacement of
crystal, which can be either a mechanical systems that are stiff
natural material such as quartz or a enough themselves to be
synthetic material such as lithium unaffected by the stiffness of the
sulfate. crystal.
• When the crystal is compressed, a
charge is generated on the surface
that is measured as the output
voltage.
Piezoelectric transducers
• Consequently, the output • Piezoelectric transducers are not
voltage vs time characteristic. suitable for measuring static or
slowly varying displacements.
• As a displacement-measuring
device, the piezoelectric transducer
has a high sensitivity, about 1000
times better than the strain gauge.
• Its typical inaccuracy is ±1% of full-
scale reading and its life
expectancy is three million
reversals.
Laser Interferometer
• The laser interferometer is a • Heliumeneon (He-Ne) laser is
relatively recent development used that gives an output pair of
that uses a laser light source light waves at a nominal
instead of the conventional light frequency of 5 ×1014 Hz.
source used in a standard • A He-Ne laser light is reflected of
interferometer. semi-reflector into two beams.
• The laser sources extends the • One passes towards bottom
measurement range of the semi-reflector and other
instrument. towards retroreflector.
Laser Interferometer
Laser Interferometer
• Retroreflector is connected with • The output of digital counter is
moveable unit and has polished calibrated to measure distance of
surfaces with capability to reflect measuring unit.
laser light 180˚. • The second diode gives the
• Both beams combine at bottom indication of direction of moving
semi-reflector and produce unit right/left depending on
interference fringes. wavelength.
• The combined light pass to both • Application of laser interferometer
diodes. First diode receive is CNC worktable attached with
interference fringes as light/dark retroreflector (moving unit) and
bands, amplified, counted by rest of components are fixed in a
digital counter. housing.
Energy source/detector-based range sensors
• The fundamental components in • Measurement resolution is limited
energy source/detector-based by the wavelength of the ultrasonic
range sensors are an energy energy and can be improved by
source, an energy detector, and an operating at higher frequencies.
electronic means of timing the • At higher frequencies, however,
time of flight of the energy attenuation of the magnitude of
between the source and detector. the ultrasonic wave as it passes
• The form of energy used is either through air becomes significant.
ultrasonic or light. • The typical inaccuracy of ultrasonic
• An ultrasonic sensor of frequency range-finding systems is ±0.5% of
40 kHz is common for measuring full scale.
distances up to 5 m (speed of
sound in air is 340 m/s). Ultrasonic
systems are not suitable for
measuring distances of less than
about 300 mm.
 Energy source/detector-based range sensors
• Laser light source is suitable for • In some systems, both energy
measuring only large source and detector are fixed on
displacements for which the the moving body, and operation
time of flight is long enough to depends on the energy being
be measured with reasonable reflected back from the fixed
accuracy boundary
• The speed of light in air is about • In other systems, the energy
3 × 108 m/s, so that light takes source is attached to the moving
only a few nanoseconds to travel body and the energy detector is
a meter. located within the fixed
boundary.
 Energy source/detector-based range sensors

In most cases, the sensor used functions as both a transmitter and a receiver. Allowing for both transmitting and
receiving of the ultrasonic waves by the same instrument.
Velocity
• Translational velocity cannot be measured directly and therefore
must be calculated indirectly by other means.
Differentiation of displacement
measurements
• Translational displacement transducers can be used to produce a
translational velocity signal.
• The process of differentiation always amplifies noise in a
measurement system.
• In this method, a low-noise instrument such as a DC excited carbon
film potentiometer or laser interferometer should be chosen.
• In the case of potentiometers, AC excitation must be avoided because
of the problem that harmonics in the power supply would cause.
Integration of the output of an accelerometer
• Integration of an accelerometer output can be performed to yield a
velocity signal.
• The process of integration attenuates rather than amplifies
measurement noise, and this is therefore an acceptable technique in
terms of measurement accuracy.
Conversion to rotational velocity
• Conversion from translational to rotational velocity is the final
measurement technique open to the system designer and it is the
one that is most commonly used (v = ω ⋅ r).
Calibration of velocity measurement systems
• For velocity measurement from a displacement or acceleration
measurement, the traceability of system calibration requires the
associated displacement or acceleration transducer used to be
correctly calibrated.
• For conversion of the translational velocity into rotational velocity, the
system calibration depends on the calibration of the rotational
velocity transducer used.
Acceleration
• The only class of device available • Accelerometer output can be
for measuring acceleration is the readily integrated to give
accelerometer. displacement and velocity
• These are available in a wide measurements.
variety of types and ranges • The frequency response of
designed to meet particular accelerometers can be improved
measurement requirements. by altering the level of damping
• They have a frequency response in the instrument.
between zero and a high value.
Acceleration
• Such adjustment must be done • Any acceleration of the body
carefully, however, because causes a force, Fa on the mass, M,
frequency response improvements given by : Fa = Mx´´.
are achieved only at the expense of
degrading the measurement
sensitivity.
• Most forms of accelerometer
consist of a mass suspended by a
spring and damper inside a
housing.
• The accelerometer is rigidly
fastened to the body undergoing
acceleration.
Acceleration
• This force Fa is opposed by the • This is the equation of motion of
restraining effect, Fs, of a spring a second order system.
with spring constant K, and the • In the absence of damping, the
net result is that the mass is output of the accelerometer
displaced by a distance x from its would consist of nondecaying
starting position such that: Fs = oscillations.
Kx.
• A damper is therefore included
• In steady-state, when the mass within the instrument, which
inside is accelerating at the same produces a damping force, Fd,
rate as the case of the proportional to the velocity of
accelerometer, Fa = Fs and so: the mass M given by: Fd = Bx´.
Acceleration
• Accelerometers is sensitive to • The acceleration reading is
accelerations is at right angles to obtained from the instrument by
the sensing axis (the direction measurement of the displacement
along which the instrument is of the mass within the
designed to measure acceleration). accelerometer.
• This is defined as the cross- • Many different displacement-
sensitivity and is specified in terms measuring techniques are used in
of the output, expressed as a the various types of accelerometer
percentage of the full-scale output, that are commercially available.
when an acceleration of some • Different types of accelerometer
specified magnitude (e.g., 30g) is also vary in terms of the type of
applied at 90 degrees to the spring element and form of
sensing axis. damping used.
Acceleration (Resistive)
• Resistive potentiometers are one such
displacement-measuring instrument
used in accelerometers.
• These are used mainly to measure
slowly varying accelerations and low-
frequency vibrations in the range of 0-
50g.
• The measurement resolution
obtainable is about 1 in 400 and
typical values of cross-sensitivity are
1%.
• Inaccuracy is about 1% and life
expectancy is quoted at two million
reversals. A typical size and weight are
125 cm3 and 500 g. [Link]
meters/
Acceleration (Piezoresistive)
• Strain gauges and piezoresistive • They have a major advantage over
sensors are also used in potentiometer-based accelerometers
accelerometers to measure in terms of their much smaller size
accelerations up to 200g. and weight (3 cm3 and 25 g).
• These serve as the spring element and
also measure the mass displacement,
thus simplifying the instrument’s
construction.
• Their typical characteristics are a
resolution of 1 in 1000, inaccuracy of
1%, and cross-sensitivity of 2%.

[Link]
meters/
Acceleration (LVDT)
• Another displacement
transducer found in
accelerometers is the LVDT.
• This device can measure
accelerations up to 700g with a
typical inaccuracy of 1% of full
scale.
• They are of a similar physical size
to potentiometer-based
instruments but are lighter-
weight (100 g).
Acceleration (Piezoelectric)
• The other common displacement • But because of the nature of
transducer used in accelerometers piezoelectric crystal operation,
is the piezoelectric type. such instruments are not suitable
• The major advantage of using for measuring constant or slowly
piezoelectric crystals is that they time-varying accelerations.
also act as the spring and damper
within the instrument.
• In consequence, the device is small
(15 cm3) and has a low mass (50 g).

Ref: Piezoelectric Accelerometer | Measurement

of Acceleration | Sensors and Transducers
Acceleration (Piezoelectric)
• Because the electrical impedance • Many piezoelectric crystal-based
of a piezoelectric crystal is itself accelerometers incorporate a high-
high, the output voltage must be impedance charge amplifier within
measured with a high-impedance the body of the instrument.
instrument to avoid loading effects. • This simplifies the signal
• Typical measurement resolution of conditioning requirements external
this class of accelerometer is 0.1% to the accelerometer but can lead
of full scale with an inaccuracy of to problems in certain operational
1%. environments because these
• Individual instruments are available internal electronics are exposed to
to cover a wide range of the same environmental hazards as
measurements from 0.03g full- the rest of the accelerometer.
scale up to 1000g full scale.
Microelectromechanical system (MEMS)
sensors for acceleration
• MEMS sensors are available for • Displacement of the membrane
measuring acceleration. owing to the acceleration force is
• Applications: crash sensing in measured by piezoresistors
vehicle airbags, computer game deposited on the membrane.
controllers, cell phones, and for
shake detection in digital cameras.
• Currently, two forms of MEMS
accelerometer exist. The cantilever
beam accelerometer consists of a
small mass subject to the
measured acceleration that is
mounted on a thin silicon
cantilever-shaped membrane.
MEMS Capacitive Accelerometer
(Smartphone)
• The device has three electrodes:
one movable central electrode
attached to one side of the
silicon structure and two fixed
electrodes attached to the
casing of the device and located
on either side of the central
electrode.
MEMS Capacitive Accelerometer
• A variation on this type of
accelerometer uses varying
capacitance to measure the
displacement by etching a variable
capacitor plate into the membrane.
• The balanced force accelerometer
is the alternative form of MEMS
device.
• This consists of a thin silicon
structure attached to springs at
both ends. The silicon structure
acts as the accelerometer mass.
MEMS Capacitive Accelerometer
• As the mass moves, the central
electrode attached to it moves
closer to one of the fixed
electrodes and farther away
from the other.
• The amount of movement of the
mass, and hence the
acceleration measured, is then
calculated from the change in
capacitance between the
electrodes.
Selection and Calibration of Accelerometer
• Selection of accelerometers: • Calibration primary method : mount
• The mass of the instrument is accelerometers on a table rotating
particularly important. about a vertical axis such that the
sensing axis of the accelerometer is
• This should be much less than that of pointing toward the axis of rotation of
the body whose motion is being the table. The acceleration, a, is then
measured, to avoid loading effects given by:
that affect the accuracy of the
readings obtained.
• In this respect, instruments based on • where r is the radius of rotation
strain gauges are best. measured from the center of the
rotating table to the center of the
accelerometer mass, and v is the
velocity of rotation of the table (in
revolutions per second).
Thank You