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Instrument Rating Quick-Review Sheets

Instrument Rating Requirements (§61.65(a)) Airworthiness Documents
1) Hold at least a current private pilot certificate (or concurrently D.I.E.
apply for a private pilot certificate) with airplane rating  Documents (ARROW PEC)
2) Be able to read, speak, write, and understand English  Inspections (AAV1ATE)
3) Receive and log ground training from an authorized instructor  Equipment (A TOMATO FLAME, FLAPS, GRABCARDD)
4) Receive logbook endorsement for knowledge test Documents
5) Receive and log flight training from an authorized instructor in A.R.R.O.W. P.E.C
an aircraft, full flight simulator, or flight training device  Airworthiness Certificate (§91.203)
6) Receive logbook endorsement for practical test  Registration (§91.203)
7) Pass knowledge test  Radio Operating License (international only FCC Form 605)
8) Pass practical test  Operating Limitations & AFM (§21.5)
Instrument Airplane Aeronautical Experience  Weight & Balance (§91.103)
(§61.65(d))  Placards (§91.9)
 50 Cross-Country Hours PIC  External Data Plate (§45.11)
10 Hours Must be in an Airplane  Compass Deviation Card (§23.2610)
 40 Simulated or Actual Instrument Time Inspections
15 Hours Dual Received from authorized instructor who holds an A.A.V.1.A.T.E.
instrument airplane rating  Airworthiness Directives (§39)
 3 Hours in Airplane appropriate to instrument airplane rating  Annual Inspection every 12 calendar months (§91.409)
within 2 calendar months preceding practical test  VOR Check within the preceding 30 days (§91.171)
 IFR dual received cross country flight on a flight plan filed with  100 Hour Inspection if for hire (§91.409)
an air traffic control facility that involves:  Altimeter, Altitude Reporting Encoder, and Static System every 24
 250 nautical miles along airways or by directed routing from calendar months (§91.411)
ATC  Transponder every 24 calendar months (§91.413)
 Instrument approach at each airport  ELT every 12 calendar months (§91.207)
 3 different kinds of approaches with use of navigation systems Equipment (§91.205)
Instrument Rating Privileges A. T.O.M.A.T.O F.L.A.M.E.S. (Day VFR)
1) Act as PIC under IFR (§61.3(e))  Airspeed Indicator
2) Act as PIC in weather conditions less than VFR (§61.3(e))  Tachometer for each engine
3) Conduct special VFR operations at night (sunset to sunrise)  Oil Pressure Gauge for each engine using pressure system
(§91.157(b)(4)(i))  Manifold Pressure Gauge (altitude engines)
 Temperature Gauge (liquid-cooled engines)
Personal Documents Required to Exercise Privileges  Oil Temperature Gauge (air-cooled engines)
(§61.3)  Fuel Gauge
P.P.M  Landing Gear Position Lights
 Pilot Certificate  Anti-collision Lights (after March 11, 1996)
 Photo ID, valid government issued  Magnetic Direction Indicator
 Medical Certificate  ELT
 Safety Belts
F.L.A.P.S. (Night VFR)
Personal Minimums & Risk Management  Fuses (spares or circuit breakers)
P.A.V.E.  Landing Light if for hire
 Pilot (I.M.S.A.F.E., currency, & proficiency  Anti-collision Lights (after August 11, 1971)
 Aircraft (D.I.E.)  Position Lights
 EnVironment (N.W.K.R.A.F.T.)  Source of adequate electrical energy
 External Pressure G.R.A.B.C.A.R.D.D. (IFR)
Pilot Self-Assessment  Generator/Alternator
I.M.S.A.F.E.  Radio – 2 Way + Navigation Equipment for route
 Illness  Altimeter
 Medications  Ball (Slip-Skid Indicator)
 Stress  Clock
 Alcohol  Attitude Indicator
 Fatigue  Rate of Turn Indicator
 External Factors  Directional Gyro (Heading Indicator)
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 DME or RNAV (If above FL240 using VORs for navigation) 5 T’s
Preflight Planning Information (§91.103)  Turn
N.E.W.K.R.A.F.T.  Timer
 NOTAMs  Tune/Twist
 Everything Pertinent to Flight  Throttle
 Weather  Talk
 Known ATC Delays Position Reporting (AIM 5-3-2)
 Runway Lengths A.T.P.A.T.E.T.A.
 Alternatives Available  Aircraft ID
 Fuel Requirements  Time
 Takeoff & Landing Distances  Position
 Altitude
Risk Management  Type of Flight Plan
D.E.C.I.D.E.  ETA
 Detect  The Next Fix
 Estimate  Any Pertinent Remarks
 Chose When Not to Fly a Procedure Turn (§91.175, AIM 5-4-
 Identify 9)
 Do S.H.A.R.P.T.T.
 Evaluate  Straight in Approach
P.P.P.  Holding in Lieu of a Procedure Turn
 Perceive  Arc
 Process  Radar Vectored to Final Approach Course
 Perform  NoPT Depicted on Chart
P.P.P.P.P.  Timed Approach
 Plan  Teardrop Course Reversal
 Plane Magnetic Compass Errors
 Pilot V.D.M.O.N.A.
 Passengers  Variation
 Programming  Deviation
 Magnetic Dip
IFR Departure Clearance Items  Oscillation
C.R.A.F.T.  Northernly Turning Errors
 Clearance Limit U.N.O.S.
 Route Undershoot
 Altitude North
 Frequency Overshoot
 Transponder Code South
Mandatory Reporting Under IFR  Acceleration/Deceleration Errors
M.A.R.V.E.L.O.U.S. V.F.R. C.500 A.N.D.S.
* = Required only when not in radar contact Accelerate
 Missed Approach (AIM 5-3-3) North
 Airspeed ±10 or 5% Change of Filed TAS, whichever is greater Decelerate
(AIM 5-3-3) South
 Reaching a Holding Fix (AIM 5-3-3)
 VFR on Top and Altitude Change During (AIM 5-3-3) Recent Flight Experience (§61.57)
 *ETA Change ±2 min (AIM 5-3-3) “no person may act as a pilot in command of an aircraft carrying
 Leaving a Holding Fix (AIM 5-3-3) passengers—unless”
 *Outer Marker (AIM 5-3-3)  Passenger Carry Requirements
 *Unforecasted Weather (§91.183) General Experience (a)
 Safety of Flight (§91.183)  In order to carry passengers during daytime
 Vacating an Altitude (AIM 5-3-3)  3 takeoffs and landings as PIC in the preceding 90 days prior
 *Final Approach Fix (AIM 5-3-3) to carrying passengers
 Radio/Navigation Failure (§91.187 & AIM 5-3-3)  For day currency, touch and goes are permitted in tricycle
 *Compulsory Reporting Points (§91.183) gear aircraft
 500 – Unable to Climb or Descend 500 fpm (AIM 5-3-3)  Acted as sole manipulator of the flight controls (i)
Crossing a Fix for Procedure Turn or Hold  If tailwheel the landings must be to a full stop (ii)
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 Must be in the same category, class, and type (if type rating Minimum Prescribed, or if none
is required) (ii) Mountainous area: 2,000 feet above the highest obstacle within a
Night Takeoff and Landing Experience horizontal distance of 4 nautical miles from the course to be flown
 In order to carry passengers during 1 hour after sunset to 1 hour Non-mountainous area: 1,000 feet above the highest obstacle
before sunrise within a horizontal distance of 4 nautical miles from the course to
 3 takeoffs and landings as PIC in the preceding 90 days prior be flown
to carrying passengers IFR Fuel Requirements (§91.167)
 For night currency and landings must be to a full stop No person may operate a civil aircraft in IFR conditions unless it
 Acted as sole manipulator of the flight controls (i) carries enough fuel to
 Must be in the same category, class, and type (if type rating Complete the flight to the first airport of intended landing;
is required) Fly from that airport to the alternate; and
Instrument Experience Fly after that for 45 minutes at normal cruising speed
6.6.H.I.T.S. IFR Flight Planning (§91.169)
Within 6 calendar months preceding the month of the flight under You ALWAYS need an alternate unless the airport has an instrument
simulated or actual instrument conditions must have logged: approach and the weather is above the 1-123 rule.
 6 Instrument Approaches 1-123 Rule
 Holding Procedures and Tasks 1 hour before and for 1 hour after the ETA, the ceiling must be at
 Intercepting and Tracking courses through the use of least
Navigational Electronic Systems 2,000 feet above the airport elevation and the visibility must at
A pilot may accomplish these requirements in a full flight least
simulator, flight training device, or aviation training device 3 Statute Miles
provided it represents the category of aircraft for the instrument  This means if weather reports are less than 2,000 ft ceilings OR
rating privileges to be maintained and the pilot performs the tasks less than 3 statute miles visibility, you must file for an alternate
and iterations in simulated instrument conditions. What qualifies as an alternate airport?
Instrument Proficiency Check No person may include an alternate airport in an IFR flight plan
If a pilot has failed to meet the instrument experience requirements unless appropriate weather reports or weather forecasts, or a
for more than 6 calendar months, they can reestablish instrument combination of them, indicate that, at the ETA at the alternate
currency only by completing an instrument proficiency check. airport, the ceiling and visibility at that airport will be at or above
Which must include the following: the following weather minima:
 Air Traffic Control Clearances and Procedures  For precision approach, ceiling 600 feet and visibility 2 statute
 Flight by Reference to Instruments miles
 Navigation Systems  For nonprecision approach, ceiling 800 feet and visibility 2
 Instrument Approach Procedures statute miles
 Emergency Operations  For no instrument approach procedure at the alternate, ceiling
 Postflight Procedures and visibility must allow for a visual descent from the MEA and
The proficiency check must be done in the appropriate aircraft landing under basic VFR
category and performed by: AIM 1-1-18(c)(9)(a)
 Examiner If the aircraft is equipped with WAAS, and there are no predicted
 Military Check Pilot WAAS outages (Check NOTAMs) at either the destination or the
 Company Check Pilot alternate, you are allowed to have only GPS based approaches.
 Authorized Instructor AIM 1-1-17(5)(c)
 Person Approved by the FAA to Conduct Instrument Practical If the aircraft has RAIM+FDE you can have one of the other. The
Tests destination OR the alternate can have only GPS based approaches,
but the other must have a ground-based approach system.
Lost Communications (§91.185)
VFR Conditions, if failure occurs in VFR conditions, or VFR is
encountered after failure, continue the flight under VFR and land as
so as practicable
IFR Conditions, if failure occurs in IFR conditions
Route (fly in the order of the following)
A.V.E. F.
 Assigned Route in last ATC clearance
 Vectored Route to the fix, route, or airway specified in the
vector clearance
 Expected Route in further clearance
 Filed Route in the flight plan
IFR Minimum Altitudes (§91.177, AIM 5-6-16) Altitude (fly the highest of the following)
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M.E.A. Holding Times (AIM 5-3-8)

 Minimum Altitude for IFR operations Inbound Leg
 Expected Altitude in further clearance At or below 14,000’ MSL
 Assigned Altitude in last ATC clearance  1 Minute
Clearance Limit Above 14,000’ MSL
 If clearance limit is a fix from which an approach begins  1.5 Minutes
 If expect further clearance is received, commence descent as *Initial outbound leg should be flown for the 1 minute or 1.5 minutes.
closely as possible Timing for subsequent outbound legs should be adjusted as
 If expect further clearance is not received, commence descent necessary to achieve proper inbound leg time.
as closely as possible to filed ETA Outbound Leg
 If clearance limit is not a fix from which an approach begins Timing begins over/abeam the fix, whichever occurs last. If abeam
 If expect further clearance is received, leave clearance limit at position cannot be determined, start timing when turn to outbound
EFC time and proceed to a fix from which an approach begins is completed
 If expect further clearance is not received, leave clearance
limit then proceed to a fix from which an approach begins and
begin descent as close as possible to filed ETA
IFR Takeoff Minimums (§91.175)
Part 91
Zero foot ceilings and zero visibility
Parts 121, 125,129, or 135
Refer to 14 CFR 97 for each airport
If not prescribed in §97;
 Two Engines or Less: 1 SM Visibility
 More Than Two Engines: ½ SM Visibility
 Helicopters: ½ SM visibility
Category Speeds and Circling (§97.3)
Based on VREF, or 1.3 VSO at maimum certificated landing weight if
VREF not specified
Category Speed Circling Distance
A <90 knots 1.3 nm
B 90-120 knots 1.5 nm
C 121-140 knots 1.7 nm
D 141-165 knots 2.3 nm Types of Altitudes (PHAK 8-6)
E 165+ knots 4.5 nm Indicated – read directly from the altimeter
Standard Climb Gradient (AIM 5-2-9 ) Absolute – vertical distance between the aircraft and terrain,
200 feet per nautical mile expressed as above ground level (AGL)
�
𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺
� ∗ 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑐𝑐𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔 = 𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑐𝑐 True – vertical distance of aircraft above sea level, expressed as
60 mean sea level (MSL)
Entry Procedures (AIM 5-3-8) Pressure – height above standard datum
Density – pressure altitude corrected for non-standard temperature
Types of Airspeeds (PHAK 8-8)
Indicated – read directly from the airspeed indicator
Calibrated – indicated airspeed corrected for installation and
instrument error
True – calibrated airspeed corrected for altitude and nonstandard
temperature (actual airspeed of aircraft through the air)
Groundspeed – true airspeed corrected for wind, actual speed of the
aircraft over the ground
NOTAM’s (AIM 5-1-3)
S.M. P.F.D.
SAA
Holding Speeds (AIM 5-3-8) “Special Activity Airspace”
Altitude (MSL) Airspeed (KIAS) Issued when active outside published scheduled times.
MHA - 6,000’ 200 Military
Pertains to U.S. military navigational aids/airports
6,001’ – 14,000’ 230
Pointer
14,001’ and above 265
“Points out”
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Issued by FSS to point out another NOTAM altimeter because the plane is below the designated altitude, but
FDC then losing track of the heading or airspeed.)
“Flight Data Center”  Omission – scanning some of the instruments but not all of the
Issued when necessary to disseminate regulatory information flight instruments can cause the pilot to not maintain positive
i.e. TFR’s, amendments to IAP’s and aeronautical charts aircraft control. (ie. Pilot thinking they are flying straight
D because of the attitude indicator is displaying straight and level,
“Distant” but due to winds the plane is slowly getting off course because
Issued to disseminate information for navigational facilities the pilot is skipping their check of the horizontal direction
i.e. taxiway closures, personnel and equipment near or crossing indicator)
runways  Emphasis – each instrument provides information to more than
Ways to file a Flight Plan (IFR) one aspect of flight. It is easier to understand and check the
Flight Service (1-800-WXBRIEF) airspeed indicator to maintain an airspeed than to also check the
ARTCC power setting and pitch which also affect airspeed. So a pilot can
ATC/Tower fall into the trap of only checking the airspeed indicator for
Flight Service Station (FSS) airspeed, but may be constantly changing settings because they
Apps or Web Services (i.e. Foreflight) don’t understand that pitch attitude and power settings also help
Fundamental Skills for Instrument Flying with this.
Instrument Cross-Check – developing a scan technique to effectively Instrument Interpretation – is developed through understanding the
check flight instruments. construction and operation of the flight instruments. When the pilot
Scanning Techniques understands how flight instruments work and what they are saying,
 Hub and Spoke – attitude indicator is the hub and the rest of the then the pilot can effectively apply corrections and know when an
instruments are the spokes. The scan works by checking the instrument fails or is not operating correctly.
attitude indicator between checking other instruments Positive Aircraft Control – after checking and interpreting flight
 Rectangle – scans the top three instruments, then the bottom instruments can a pilot apply the flight corrections need to maintain
three and repeat. control of the aircraft.
Common Errors Flight Instruments
 Fixation – staring at one instrument for too long can cause the Gyroscopic Principles
pilot to lose track of other aspects of flight. (ie. Focusing on the
Precession Rigidity in Space
Definition A force applied is felt 90° in the direction of rotation Gyroscope resists motion and stays fixed in the plane of
motion that it is spinning

How The slow rotation of the gyroscope about another axis due Due to angular momentum of the spinning gyro, it stays
to torque (the force applied on the gyroscope from a turn) vertically aligned and the plane moves around the
gyroscope providing pitch and roll
Instruments Turn Coordinator & Turn - Slip Indicator Attitude Indicator & Heading Indicator
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Electronic Flight Instruments Found in U.S. Terminal Procedures Publication (TPP)

Attitude Heading Reference System (AHRS) – Provides attitude Use of SIDs decreases clearance delivery time and simplifies
and heading information most commonly through solid state gyros departure
and sensors. Diverse Vector Area (DVA)
Air Data Computers (ADC) – Provides airspeed, altimeter, vertical ATC can establish minimum vectoring altitude (MVA) based on
speed indicator (VSI), outside air temperature (OAT), and true terrain and obstacle clearance and it provides ATC with an option
airspeed. Takes the place of the classic pitot static system. to vector aircraft around
Flight director – Provides attitude information direction by However, sometimes it is necessary for ATC to vector aircraft
displaying command bars to align the attitude indicator with. below MVA to assist the flow of traffic
Established below MVA or minimum IFR altitude (MIA) in a
Flight Management System (FMS) – Provides navigation to the
radar environment at the request of ATC
flight director and autopilot through inputted information (ie. GPS)
Noted in the Takeoff Minimums and ODP section of TPP
Primary Flight Displays (PFD) – Provides the display for the
Visual Climb Over Airport (VCOA)
primary flight instruments. Required to notify ATC
Multi-Function Displays (MFD) – Provides multiple different For IFR aircraft, operating in VMC to climb up to the instrument
displays such as: moving map, engine instruments, navigation, altitude
weather, and backup to the PFD. Departure option developed when obstacles farther than 3 SM
from the airport require a climb gradient more than 200 ft/nm
Instrument Departure Procedures (AIM 5-2-9)
Obstacle Departure Procedures (ODP) Instrument En Route Procedures (IPH Chapter 2)
Used to assist pilots in obstacle clearance Airways
Printed either textually or graphically Air Route Traffic Control Centers (ARTCC)
 Textual in nature Provide air traffic control to aircraft operating under IFR during en
Do not include ATC-related climb requirements route phase
 Converting ft/nm to fpm Workload permitting – provide advisories/assistance for aircraft
𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺 𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁𝐺𝐺𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁 𝑀𝑀𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁𝐺𝐺 𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁𝐺𝐺𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁 𝑀𝑀𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺 𝐹𝐹𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺𝑁𝑁
 = 𝑇𝑇ℎ𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔 operating under VFR
∗ =
60 1 𝑚𝑚𝑁𝑁𝐺𝐺 1 𝑚𝑚𝑁𝑁𝐺𝐺 𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁𝐺𝐺𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁 𝑀𝑀𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁𝐺𝐺
𝐹𝐹𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔 𝑓𝑓𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑔𝑔𝑚𝑚𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔 Referred to as “Centers”
90 Largest component of the NAS
 𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝑔𝑔𝑐𝑐𝑓𝑓𝑐𝑐𝑔𝑔 𝑐𝑐𝑓𝑓 𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑚𝑚𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑓𝑓𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔 𝑐𝑐𝑔𝑔 90: =
60 Divided into Sectors with unique radio frequencies
1.5 𝐺𝐺𝑚𝑚 200𝑓𝑓𝑁𝑁
1.5𝑔𝑔𝑐𝑐 𝑓𝑓𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑔𝑔 𝑇𝑇ℎ𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔
1 𝑚𝑚𝑁𝑁𝐺𝐺
∗
1 𝐺𝐺𝑚𝑚
= 300𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑐𝑐  Low Altitude Sectors
Designed for the easiest route of flight to an en route structure or a  Intermediate Altitude Sectors
climb to an altitude safe for IFR flight.  High Altitude Sectors
Developed when obstructions penetrate the 40:1 rule for obstacle  Ultra High Altitude Sectors
clearance surface (OCS)  Safe Separation
 Gradient begins from Departure End of the Runway (DER) Laterally – 5 miles
En Route Operations Vertically
 Non-mountainous: 25 NM for 1,000ft of ROC  1,000ft
 Mountainous: 46 NM for 2,000 of ROC  Below FL290
Found in U.S. Terminal Procedures Publication (TPP)  RVSM compliant FL290 – FL410
Pilot can fly ODP without ATC authorization and must determine  2,000ft
if an ODP be flown, ATC will not assign ODP unless necessary for  FL290 and above
aircraft separation.  Preferred IFR Routes
Standard Instrument Departure (SID) Established between airports to increase efficiency and capacity
ATC-requested and developed departure route Clearances issued based on these routes
 Typically for busy terminal areas Listed in the Chart Supplement
Always printed graphically  Tower En Route Control (TEC Route)
Designed at the request of ATC to increase capacity of airspace, Established to increases efficiency and reduce communication
control flow of traffic with minimal communication, and reduce requirements
noise impact on the environment  For aircraft proceeding to and from metropolitan areas
Obstacle protection is always considered in SID routes, but the  Links approach control areas
main idea is to reduce ATC/pilot workload while providing  Uses existing airways to fly under IFR without leaving an
seamless transitions to the en route structure approach control airspace
ATC clearance is required to fly a SID Airways
“NO SIDs” in remarks for flight plan if Three Dimensional Highways
 Cannot comply with SID  First Level
 Do not possess the graphical SID or;  Low Altitude Airways
 Simply do not wish to us SIDs  Start with the letter “V”
 Called “Victor” Airways
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 1,200ft AGL up to but not including 18,000ft MSL  These two waves together provide 360 unique
 Second Level combinations and create the radials
 High Altitude Airways  Types of VORs
 Start with the letter “J”  VOR
 Called “Jet Routes”  VOR/DME
 18,000ft MSL – FL450  VOR & DME
 Third Level  Provides VOR Azimuth and VOR DME
 Random Operations  VORTAC
 Above FL450  VOR & TACAN
Types of Airways  Provides VOR Azimuth, TACAN Azimuth, and TACAN
 VHF Omnidirectional Range or VOR (Low Victor Airways & DME
High Jet Routes)  How to Intercept a Radial
 Nondirectional Beacon (NDB) (Low to Medium Frequency)  Determine difference between radial to be intercepted and
 Area Navigation (RNAV) the radial the aircraft is currently on
Navigational Systems  Double the difference and add or subtract to current heading
Ground Based or NAVAIDs  Tune the desired radial
 VOR (AIM 1-1-3)  Turn to the interception heading
 Oriented to magnetic north and transmits 360 courses around  Fly interception heading until CDI needle starts to center
the station known as radials and start turning toward the magnetic heading
 Each station has a unique Morse code identifier corresponding with the radial
 If it cannot be identified, it means it is out of service  𝑇𝑇𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑔𝑔 𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔 𝑆𝑆𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑐𝑐𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔 =
𝑆𝑆𝐺𝐺𝑁𝑁𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺 𝑓𝑓𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺 𝐵𝐵𝐺𝐺𝑁𝑁𝐺𝐺𝑁𝑁𝐺𝐺𝐵𝐵 𝐶𝐶ℎ𝑁𝑁𝐺𝐺𝐵𝐵𝐺𝐺
𝐷𝐷𝐺𝐺𝐵𝐵𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺 𝐺𝐺𝑓𝑓 𝐵𝐵𝐺𝐺𝑁𝑁𝐺𝐺𝑁𝑁𝐺𝐺𝐵𝐵 𝐶𝐶ℎ𝑁𝑁𝐺𝐺𝐵𝐵𝐺𝐺
 How it works 𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑆𝑆∗𝑀𝑀𝑁𝑁𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺𝑁𝑁𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺 𝑓𝑓𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺 𝐵𝐵𝐺𝐺𝑁𝑁𝐺𝐺𝑁𝑁𝐺𝐺𝐵𝐵 𝐶𝐶ℎ𝑁𝑁𝐺𝐺𝐵𝐵𝐺𝐺
 Transmits two radio signals:  𝐷𝐷𝑐𝑐𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑐𝑐𝑔𝑔 𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔 𝑆𝑆𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑐𝑐𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔 =
𝐷𝐷𝐺𝐺𝐵𝐵𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺 𝐺𝐺𝑓𝑓 𝐵𝐵𝐺𝐺𝑁𝑁𝐺𝐺𝑁𝑁𝐺𝐺𝐵𝐵 𝐶𝐶ℎ𝑁𝑁𝐺𝐺𝐵𝐵𝐺𝐺
 Reference Phase – constant radio wave in all directions 𝑀𝑀𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺 𝑓𝑓𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺𝑚𝑚 𝑆𝑆𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺
 𝐷𝐷𝑐𝑐𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑐𝑐𝑔𝑔 𝑔𝑔𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓 𝐶𝐶𝑔𝑔𝑚𝑚𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔 = ∗
 Variable Phase – spiral radio wave from the station 60
𝐷𝐷𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔 𝑔𝑔𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓 𝑐𝑐𝑔𝑔𝑚𝑚𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔
 Full scale deflection = 10°
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 Errors  Space-based radio navigation system to determine precise

 Cone of Confusion (AIM 4-5-6) positions almost anywhere in the world
 Line of Sight (AIM 1-1-3)
 Reverse Sensing (IFH 9-14)
 Service Volumes (AIM 1-1-8)
 RPM Error (AIM 1-1-3)
 VOR Accuracy Check (§91.171)
B.A.D.V.A.G.
 Bench Check Repair Station (+/- 4°)
 Above a Prominent Landmark on an Airway (+/- 6°)
 Dual VOR (within 4° of each other)
 VOT (+/- 4°)
 180° = TO flag (Cessna 182)
 Airborne Checkpoint (+/- 6°)
 Found in Chart Supplement
 Ground Check Signal (+/- 4°)

 Logging VOR Check (§91.171)

D.E.P.S.  Components (IFH 9-25)
 Date  Space
 Error  Over 30 Navigation System using Timing and Ranging
 Place (NAVSTAR) Satellites in 6 orbital planes
 Signature  Space 60° apart at 11,000 miles above the Earth to
*If done by a bench check repair station, must be logged in aircraft provide complete coverage
logbook, or other record by repair station with bearing transmitted and  Arranged so that 5 satellites are in range at any time on
the date. Earth
 NDB (AIM 1-1-2)  Each satellite broadcasts their location and timing
 Tactical Air Navigation (TACAN) (AIM 1-1-4)  Aircraft receiver uses this information to determine its
 Distance Measuring Equipment (DME) (AIM 1-1-7) location (trilateration)
 Pulse type navigation system that displays to the pilot distance  Control
information between the aircraft and station or waypoint  Ground based monitoring stations that ensure satellite
 Sends out a radio wave and measures the time for it to come accuracy
back to the aircraft and converts that time to nautical miles  5 monitoring stations
 DME Arc  3 ground antennas
 Many instrument approach procedures (IAPs) use them to  1 master control station
follow an arc path around a station  User
 How to fly  Aircraft antennas and receivers/processors provide
 Track inbound radial positioning, velocity, and timing
 Approximately ½ mile from the DME for the arc, turn 90°  GPS equipment for IFR must be meet Technical Standard
in the direction of the arc Order standards or better (TSO C-129)
 Turn heading bug 10° in the opposite direction from the  Technical (AIM 1-1-17)
previous turn and tune to a radial 10° from the previous  If receiving under 5 satellites, annunciator will show
 Continue Turn 10 Tune 10, and monitor aircraft position “LOI/INTEG”
and correct for wind  3 Satellites = 2D
 Errors  4 Satellites = 3D
 Line of Sight  5 Satellites = RAIM + FD (Fault Detection)
 Obstacles can block DME signal  6 Satellites = RAIM + FDE (Fault Detection Exclusion)
 Slant Range  Receiver Autonomous Integrity Monitoring (RAIM)
 DME is the actual slant distance from the aircraft to the  GPS receiver verifies the integrity of the signal from the
station, rather than the horizontal distance from the GPS constellation
aircrafts position to the station  Need a minimum of 5 satellites or 4 satellites with a
*Slant Range Error does not occur with GPS DME distances barometric altimeter baro-aiding to detect an integrity
 ILS Localizer anomaly
Satellite Based  6 satellites or 5 satellites with baro-aiding to isolate a
 Area Navigation (RNAV) corrupt satellite and remove it from navigation (FDE)
 Allows a pilot to fly a route without the need to overfly  Wide Area Augmentation System (WAAS)
NAVAIDs, but using waypoints  Provides enhanced information to GPS receivers to increase
 Global Positioning System (GPS) accuracy and integrity of position
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 Components clearance over all obstructions, but do not assure navigational

 38 Wide Area Reference Stations (WRS) signal coverage.
 Receive GPS signals to detect errors Terminal Arrival Area (TAA) – lowest published altitude with
 3 Wide Area Master Stations (WMS) standard obstacle clearances when operating within the TAA
 Collects GPS information from WRS to remove errors boundaries. Provides transition from the enroute structure to the
 6 GEO Uplink Subsystems terminal environment with little pilot/ATC interactions for aircraft
 Sends the information from the WMS to the GEO equipped with RNAV systems.
satellites as navigation payloads  Standard TAAs have three areas: straight-in, left base, and right
 3 Geostationary Satellites (GEO) base
 Navigation payloads are broadcast on a GPS like signal Minimum Vectoring Altitude (MVA) – established for ATC where
across the NAS. The WAAS receivers process this there are numerous different minimum IFR altitudes, and provides
information to augment position estimates and increase 1000ft obstacle clearance in non-mountainous areas and 2000ft
accuracy. obstacle clearance in mountainous areas.
Required Navigation Performance (RNP Scaling)(IFH 9-44)  1000ft obstacle clearance may be used in mountainous areas if
Specified performance necessary for operation in a defined the airport has Airport Surveillance Radar (ASR).
airspace Off Route Obstruction Clearance Altitude (OROCA) – highest
 On-board monitoring and alerting is also required possible obstruction elevation including both terrain and other
 RNP is RNAV with on-board monitoring and alerting vertical obstructions (towers, trees, etc.). Similar to Maximum
RNP defines the total system error (TSE) that is allowed in the Elevation Figures (MEFs) on VFR sectionals, but with additional
lateral and longitudinal dimensions obstacle clearance tolerances
 The RNP value specified guarantees accuracy within that value  1000ft in non-mountainous regions
for 95% of the flight time.  2000ft in mountainous regions
Cruise Clearance (AIM 4-4-3)  Shown in 30 x 30 minute quadrants including obstruction data 4
The term “cruise” may be used instead of “MAINTAIN” to assign NM outside the quadrant
a block of airspace to a pilot from the minimum IFR altitude up to
and including the altitude specified in the cruise clearance. The Instrument Approach Procedures
pilot may level off at any intermediate altitude within this block of Operating below DA/DH or MDA (§91.175c)
airspace. Climb/descent within the block is to be made at the No pilot may operate an aircraft below the authorized MDA or
discretion of the pilot. However, once the pilot starts descent and continue an approach below the DA/DH unless
verbally reports leaving an altitude in the block, the pilot may not  The aircraft is continuously in a position from which a descent to
return to that altitude without additional ATC clearance. a landing on the intended runway can be made at anormal rate of
IFR Altitudes (Aeronautical Chart User’s Guide pg. 64-66, 106 & descent using normal maneuvers.
AIM 5-4-5)  The flight visibility is not less than the visibility prescribed in
Minimum Enroute Altitude (MEA) – lowest published altitude the standard instrument approach being used; and
between radio fixes that assures navigational signal coverage and  AIM 5-4-20
obstacle clearance requirements. RVR Visibility
Minimum Reception Altitude (MRA) – lowest published altitude (statute miles)
that a navigational signal can be received for the route and for off- 1600 1/4
course NAVAID facilities to determine a fix. 2400 1/2
Maximum Authorized Altitude (MAA) – highest published altitude 3200 5/8
for an airspace structure or route segment that assures adequate 4000 3/4
reception of navigational signals.
4500 7/8
Minimum Obstruction Clearance Altitude (MOCA) – lowest
5000 1
published altitude between VOR airway fixes that meets obstacle
6000 1¼
clearance requirements within 22 NM or 25 mi of the NAVAID.
Minimum Turning Altitude (MTA) – lowest published altitude *When converting RVR values that are not listed, do not
providing vertical and lateral obstruction clearance based on turn interpolate, use the next value (ie. 1800 RVR = 1/2sm)
criteria over fixes, NAVAIDs, waypoints, and on charted route  At least one of the following visual references for the intended
segments. runway is distinctly visible and identifiable to the pilot:
 Turn area provides obstacle clearance for both turning prior to 1. The approach light system, except that the pilot may not
the fix and turning after crossing the fix. descend below 100 feet above the touchdown zone elevation
Minimum Crossing Altitude (MCA) – lowest published altitude at unless the red terminating bards or the red side row bars are
fixes as which the aircraft must cross when proceeding in the also distinctly visible and identifiable
direction of a higher minimum enroute IFR altitude. 2. The threshold
Minimum Safe Altitude (MSA) – published for emergencies only 3. The threshold markings
in Instrument Approach Procedures (IAPs) except when 4. The threshold lights
approaches use a Terminal Arrival Area (TAA). Provide 1000ft 5. The runway end identifier lights
6. The visual glideslope indicator
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7. The touchdown zone or touchdown zone markings  Glideslope intercept altitudes prevent this error
8. The touchdown zone lights  Line of Sight
9. The runway or runway markings RNAV Approaches
10. The runway lights LNAV – lateral navigation, nonprecision (only RAIM required, not
Instrument Landing System (ILS) (IFH 9-36) WAAS)
Guidance Information LNAV+V – lateral navigation with advisory vertical navigation,
 Localizer nonprecision (requires WAAS)
 What: provides lateral guidance LNAV/VNAV – lateral navigation, vertical navigation,
 Where: departure end of runway nonprecision (requires WAAS)
 How: transmits two radio signals at different frequencies. LP – localizer performance, nonprecision (requires WAAS)
Receiver in the plane uses these two separate frequencies to LPV – localizer performance with vertical navigation,
determine left of course, right of course, or in the middle on nonprecision (requires WAAS)
course. Visual Approaches (AIM 5-4-23) -conducted on an IFR flight plan
 When the localizer fails an ILS approach is not authorized and authorizes a pilot to proceed visually and clear of clouds to the
 Glide Slope airport. The pilot must have either the airport or the preceding
 What: provides vertical guidance identified aircraft in sight. This approach must be authorized and
 Where: offset from runway centerline 250 to 600 feet, usually controlled by the appropriate air traffic control facility. Reported
about abeam thousand footers weather at the airport must have a ceiling at or above 1,000 feet and
 How: transmits a radio signal that is usually about 1.4 degrees visibility 3 miles or greater. When conducting visual approaches,
tall vertically pilots are encouraged to use other available navigational aids to assist
 When the glideslope fails, the ILS approach downgrades to a in positive lateral and vertical alignment with the runway.
nonprecision LOC approach Contact Approach (AIM 5-4-25)
Range Information An IFR approach where not flying a specific procedure. Required
 Marker Beacon to have 1SM visibility and remain clear of clouds. When trying to
 Provides information about where the plane is along the do a visual approach but because of haze or other conditions you
approach cannot see the airport you can request a contact approach to
 Three different markers continue inbound to the airport. Pilots have to request it.
 Outer Marker (OM) Radar Approach (AIM 5-4-11)
 4-7nm from end of runway  Requires radio transmitter and receiver
 FAF for nonprecision approach  Not common but can be used in an emergency
 Blue light  ATC provides range/azimuth information
 Code: – – – –  Aircraft will be vectored to FAC, advised of MDA’s and when the
 Middle Marker (MM) MAP is at the runway
 Approximately 3,000-6,000ft from threshold, or about  Airport Surveillance Radar (ASR): nonprecision and provides
DA/DH azimuth only
 Amber light  Precision Approach Radar (PAR) provides elevation guidance
 Code: – • – •  Non-gyro approach allows ATC to advise on when to start/stop turns
 Inner Marker (IM) Approach Plate Symbology
 Only for Cat II ILS Flight Categories
 Located between MM and landing threshold at the DH for Category Visibility Ceiling
the Cat II ILS approach VFR >5sm and > 3,000ft
 White Light MVFR 3 to 5sm and/or 1,000 to 3,000ft
 Code: • • • • IFR 1 to < 3sm and/or 500 to < 1,000ft
 DME LIFR < 1sm and/or < 500ft
 May be used in lieu of the OM, and to establish other fixes on
the approach
Visual Information Drugs & Alcohol (§91.17, §61.15)
 Approach Lights Drugs (FAA AME Guide, FAA Over the Counter Med Guide)
 Touchdown and Centerline Lights Must be approved by the FAA for flight activity
 Runway Lights Must not affect flight performance
Errors Always consult an Aviation Medical Examiner (AME)
 Reflection (ILS Critical Area) Antihistamine with impairing properties, is the most common drug
 Hard surfaces such as aircraft and buildings can interfere with found in pilots who have died in aviation accidents
the ILS radio signals affecting the signal the aircraft receives Alcohol
 False Glideslope 8 hours “bottle to throttle”
 Aircraft can receive a false glideslope at 9°-12° above the Must have less than 0.04 blood alcohol level
normal glideslope Must not be under the influence of alcohol
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Effects Area Forecasts (FA) – gives an idea of the general weather

 Impaired Efficiency conditions, clouds, and visual meteorological conditions over large
 Impaired Coordination areas including several states. There are 6 areas for the continental
 Deteriorated Performance US.
 Diminished Memory Inflight Weather Advisories – provided to aircraft while en route.
 Impaired Judgement They are also available to pilots before departure for flight
 Reduced Visual Field planning
 Decreased Sense of Responsibility  AIRMET – adverse weather conditions that may affect the safety
 Lower Attention Span of flight
 Issued as needed and valid for 6 hours
Aviation Weather Services (PHAK Chapter 13, AC 00-  S (IFR) – Extensive mountain obscuration, ceilings less than
45H, AIM Chapter 7) 1000 feet and/or visibility less than 3 statute miles affecting
Service Outlets over 50% of the area at one time
Flight Service Station (FSS) – a primary source for preflight  T (Turbulence) – Moderate Turbulence, surface winds of 30
weather information. A preflight weather briefing can be obtained knots or more
from 1-800-WX BRIEF. It also provides inflight weather briefing  Z (Icing) – Moderate icing, and freezing levels
services and weather advisories to flights within the FSS area of  SIGMET – adverse weather conditions that will likely affect the
responsibility. safety of flight
Telephone Information Briefing Service (TIBS) – an automated  Issued as needed and valid for 4 hours (Hurricanes are valid
telephone recording of meteorological and aeronautical for 6 hours)
information. Designed to be a preliminary briefing tool and does  Severe icing not associated with thunderstorms
not replace a standard briefing. Phone numbers for TIBS are listed  Severe or extreme turbulence or clear air turbulence (CAT)
in the Chart Supplement. not associated with thunderstorms
Weather Briefings  Dust storms or sandstorms reducing visibility below 3 statute
Standard Briefing – this provides the most information and should miles
be obtained before each flight. It provides information pertaining  Volcanic ash
to your flight:  Convective SIGMET – adverse weather conditions that will
 Adverse conditions affect the safety of flight
 If VFR flight is recommended or not  Issued as needed and valid for 2 hours
 Synopsis – the larger weather picture  Implies severe or greater turbulence, severe icing, and low-
 Current Conditions – not included if departure is more than 2 level wind shear
hours away  Severe thunderstorms due to:
 En Route Forecast – summary of weather forecast for route of  Surface winds 50 knots or greater
flight  Hail ¾ inches or greater at the surface
 Destination Forecast – expected weather for destination airport  Embedded Thunderstorms
at ETA  Squall Lines
 Winds and Temperatures Aloft  Tornadoes
 Notices to Airmen (NOTAM)  Thunderstorms covering 40% or more of 3,000 square miles
 ATC Delays or greater
 Other Information – any additional information requested Winds and Temperature Aloft Forecast (FB) – provide wind and
Abbreviated Briefing – a shortened version of a standard briefing. temperature forecasts in thousand-foot increments at specific
Used to update previous briefings if flight is delayed. locations. Forecasts are made twice a day.
Outlook Briefing – should be used when departure is 6 or more  Above FL240 temperatures are always negative
hours away. Good source for flight planning.  If winds are greater ≥100 knots, then 50 is added to the wind
Aviation Weather Reports direction, and you have to add 100 to the wind speed
Aviation Routine Weather Report (METAR) – surface weather  i.e. 845043
observations posted in a standard international code, usually  84 = 340 degrees (Wind direction based on true North)
updated hourly. If significant changes occur between scheduled  50 = 150 knots (Wind speed)
times a METAR SPECI will be issued.  43 = -43 degrees (Temperature is Celsius)
Pilot Weather Reports (PIREPs) – observations from pilots about  Winds not reported at levels that are within 1,500 feet of station
the actual current conditions in the air. Pilots are encouraged to  Temperatures are not reported at levels within 2,500 feet of
report unexpected weather conditions to FSS or ATC. station
Aviation Weather Forecasts Weather Charts
Terminal Aerodrome Forecasts (TAF) – weather report for a five- Surface Analysis Chart – it depicts the current surface weather.
statute mile radius around an airport. Valid for 24- or 30-hour time Shows areas of high and low pressure, fronts, temperatures, dew
periods and updated four times a day or every 6 hours. points, wind directions and speeds, local weather, and visual
obstructions. Updated every 3 hours
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Weather Depiction Chart – details surface conditions from  Ice pellets begin, end, or change intensity
METARs and other surface observations. Provides graphical  Squalls
display of where IFR, VFR, and MVFR weather is. Updated every  When a squall occurs.
3 hours.  Ceiling
Low-Level Significant Weather Prognostic Chart – forecast of  The ceiling (rounded to reportable values) forms or dissipates
aviation weather hazards, used to give guidance to VFR pilots. below, decreases to less than, or if below, increases to equal to
Includes fronts, isobars, cloud coverage, and precipitation areas. or exceeding:
Provides information from the surface to FL240. Issued 4 times a  3,000 feet
day and is divided into a 12- and 24-hour forecast.  1,500 feet
Radar Summary Chart – observation derived from national radar  1,000 feet
network that shows a graphic display of radar weather reports.  500 feet
Issued hourly.  The lowest standard instrument approach procedure
minimums. If none published, use 200 feet.
Aviation Weather Observations  Sky Condition
METAR  A layer of clouds or obscurations aloft drops below 1,000 feet
provides surface observations for a terminal (5sm circle around the  Volcanic Eruption
airport).  When an eruption is first noted.
Includes:  Aircraft Mishap
 Airport Identifier  Upon notification of an aircraft mishap unless there has been
 Time of Observation an intervening observation.
 Wind  Miscellaneous
 Visibility  Any other meteorological situation designated by the
 Runway Visual Range (RVR) responsible agency of which, in the opinion of the observer, is
 Present Weather Phenomena critical.
 Sky Conditions PIREP
 Temperature RADAR
 Dewpoint NEXRAD
 Altimeter Setting Terminal Doppler Weather Radar (TDWR)
 Remarks Surveillance
SPECI Airborne
 Wind Shift For air traffic controllers who manage arriving and departing
 Wind direction changes by 45 degrees or more, in less than 15 flights in the terminal area, TDWRs provide vital information and
minutes and the wind speed is 10 knots or more throughout the warnings about
wind shift.  Hazardous Wind Shear Conditions
 Visibility  Precipitation
 Surface visibility, as reported in the body of the report,  Gust Fronts
decreases to less than, or if below, increases to equal to or  Microbursts
exceeding: Satellite Imagery
 3 miles Weather Theory (PHAK Chapter 12, AC 00-6B, AIM
 2 miles Chapter 7)
 1 mile Atmosphere – blanket of air made up of a mixture of gases
 The lowest standard instrument approach procedure minimum. 78% Nitrogen
If none published, use ½ mile 21% Oxygen
 Runway Visual Range (RVR) 1% Trace gases (Argon, Carbon Dioxide)
 The highest value from the designated RVR runway decreases Atmospheric Pressure
to less than, or if below, increases to equal to or exceeding Measured in inches of mercury (“Hg) or millibars (mb)
2,400 feet during the preceding 10 minutes. Standard Sea Level Pressure (SLP) is 29.92”Hg or 1,013.2 mb
 Tornado Standard Temperature is 15°C or 59°F
 Funnel Cloud, or Waterspout Generally atmospheric pressure decreases 1 “Hg per 1,000 feet of
 Is observed increase in altitude
 Disappears, or ends Atmospheric Stability
 Thunderstorm Stability depends on the atmospheres ability to resist vertical
 Begins (a SPECI is not required to report the beginning of a motion
new thunderstorm if one is currently reported) Average rate of temperature change is 2°C (3.5°F) per 1,000 feet
 Ends Dry adiabatic lapse rate is 3°C (5.4°F) per 1,000 feet
 Precipitation Moist adiabatic lapse rate is from 1.1°C to 2.8°C (2°F to 5°F) per
 Hail begins or ends 1,000 feet
 Freezing precipitation begins, ends, or changes intensity
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 Descending
Low-Pressure (ICU) – associated with warm air masses, slow
moving, stable, and poor visibility
 Inward
 Counter-clockwise (clock high, counter low)
 Upward
Windshear – sudden, dramatic shift in windspeed, direction or both.
Can cause severe changes in aircraft performance
Air Masses – large bodies or air that take on characteristics of an area
Fronts – boundary layer between two different air masses
Warm Front – occurs when a warm air mass of air moves and
replaces a body of colder air
 Slow moving (10-25mph)
 Steady precipitation
 Stable air – poor visibility, stratus clouds
 Slides over the top of the colder air mass
Combination of moisture and temperature determine the stability Cold Front – occurs when a cold air mass moves and replaces a
of air body of warmer air
Inversion – anomaly where there is an increase in temperature with  Fast moving (25-30mph)
altitude  Showery precipitation
Moisture – Every 20°F increase in temperature doubles the amount  Unstable air – good visibility, vertical movement, cumulous
of moisture the air can hold. Every decrease of 20°F cuts the capacity clouds
in half  Plows under the warmer air mass
Humidity – amount of water vapor present in the atmosphere Stationary Front – cold and warm air mass don’t move and have
Relative Humidity – actual amount of moisture in the air compared characteristics of both warm and cold fronts
to the total amount of moisture the air could hold at that temperature  Occluded Front – when a fast-moving cold front catches up with a
Temperature/Dew Point – this relationship defines the concept of slow-moving warm front
relative humidity  Cold Front Occlusion – when the cold front is colder than the air
Dew Point – temperature at which the air can no longer hold mass ahead of the warm front
moisture  Characteristics of both warm and cold fronts
 When temperature reaches the dew point the air is completely  Warm Front Occlusion – when the cold front is warmer than the
saturated and moisture begins to condense in the form of fog, air mass ahead of the warm front
dew, frost, clouds, rain, or snow  Most violent, embedded thunderstorms, squall lines
Fog – cloud on the surface  Thunderstorms – contain most hazards to flight, flight within 20
Radiation Fog – cool air over warm surface miles should be avoided, and do not fly under them
Advection Fog – warm, moist air over cool surface Recipe: moisture, unstable air, and lifting action
Upslope Fog – warm, moist, stable air forced upslope and cools Stages:
Steam Fog – cold, dry air over warm water  Cumulous – updrafts
Ice Fog – water sublimates to ice in the air  Mature – rain begins to fall, updrafts and downdrafts
Ceiling – lowest layer of clouds reported as broken or overcast, or  Dissipating – downdrafts, anvil formation
vertical visibility into an obscuration like fog or haze Hazards:
Visibility – greatest horizontal distance at which prominent objects  Lighting, squall lines, tornadoes, turbulence, icing, hail, engine
can be viewed with the naked eye water ingestions, ceiling and visibility
Wind – motion of air relative to Earth’s surface Microbursts – small scale intense downdrafts that cause both vertical
Three forces that affect wind and horizontal Windshear
 Pressure Gradient Force – pressure difference, wind speed is Usually less than 1 mile in diameter as it descends from the cloud
directly related to the pressure gradient force. Closely space base to about 1,000 to 3,000 feet above the ground, then it
together isobars indicate strong winds transitions to horizontal outflow to approximately 2 ½ miles in
 Coriolis Force – due to rotation of the earth it causes a force at a diameter
right angle to the wind direction and directly proportional to  Up to 6,000 feet per minute (fpm) downdrafts
wind speed. As windspeed increases, Coriolis force increases. Up to 45 knot horizontal winds, resulting in up to 90 knot shear
 Friction – Between the wind and the surface there is friction that Virga is an indication of a microburst
acts opposite the wind direction. Blowing dust is also an indication
Patterns Seldom last longer than 15 minutes
 High-Pressure (OCD) – associated with cold air masses, fast Frost – formation of thing ice crystals. Can significantly reduce lift
moving, unstable with good visibility and cause the boundary layer to separate at a lower angle of attack
 Outward (AOA). Do not fly when frost is present on the aircraft.
 Clockwise (clock high, counter low) Icing (IFH 4-13) – one of the greatest hazards to flight
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Types: level flight it may cause an illusion that the aircraft is banking
 Structural – accumulation on the exterior of the aircraft in the opposite direction.
 Clear Ice – glossy, transparent  Coriolis Illusion – occurs when in a prolonged turn and the
 Mixed Ice – combination of clear and rime fluid in the inner ear moves at the same speed as the canal,
 Rime – rough, milky, opaque then a movement of the head in a different direction can send
Outside Air Temperature Icing Type that fluid moving creating the illusion of moving, turning, or
0°C to -10°C Clear accelerating in a different direction
-10°C to -15°C Mixed (clear and rime)  Graveyard Spiral – occurs when in prolonged coordinated
constant rate turn pilot may have the illusion of not turning.
-15°C to -20°C Rime
Returning to level flight, the pilot will then feel a sensation of
Turbulence – flow of wind changing from its equilibrium turning in the opposite direction and incorrectly responds by
Maintain pitch attitude at or below VA entering the turn again. With the loss of altitude due to the
Human Factors (PHAK Chapter 17) turn, the pilot compensates by pulling back on the controls.
Hypoxia – means “reduced oxygen” or “not enough oxygen” This tightens up the turn into a spiral.
Symptoms  Somatogravic Illusion – rapid acceleration causes the same
 Cyanosis  Visual Impairment sensation as tilting the head backwards. This gives the illusion
 Headache  Drowsiness of being a nose high attitude. The pilot could incorrectly push
 Euphoria  Lightheaded or Dizzy the nose forward. The opposite is also true for rapid
 Impaired Judgement  Tingling Sensations deceleration.
 Decreased response to stimuli and  Numbness  Inversion Illusion – a sudden change from a climb to straight
increased reaction time and level flight can create the illusion of tumbling backwards.
Hypoxia and Hyperventilation have common symptoms, but when The pilot could incorrectly push the aircraft into a nose low
in doubt treat for hypoxia first. attitude which could make the illusion worse.
Hypoxic Hypoxia – lack of oxygen to the body as a whole.  Elevator Illusion – a sudden upward vertical acceleration from
Hypemic Hypoxia – means "not enough blood,” lack of oxygen in an updraft gives the illusion of being in climb. The pilot could
the blood or ability to transport it to the body’s cells. incorrectly push the aircraft into a nose low attitude. The
Stagnant Hypoxia – means “not flowing,” oxygen rich blood is not opposite is also true for a sudden downward vertical
flowing to a part of the body. acceleration.
Histotoxic Hypoxia – cells inability to effectively use oxygen. *Corrective Action: TRUST YOUR INSTRUMENTS, not your body’s
Caused by alcohol or drugs. sensations*
Hyperventilation – lack of carbon dioxide in the blood caused by Somatosensory System – nerves in the skin, muscles, and joints
excessive breathing that combined with hearing help sense the body’s position based
Symptoms on gravity, feeling, and sound (“flying by the seat of your pants”)
 Visual Impairment  Tingling Sensations  No illusions and typically reliable
 Unconsciousness  Hot & Cold Sensations Visual System – eyes sense the body’s position based on what is
 Lightheaded or Dizzy  Muscle Spasms seen
Hypoxia and Hyperventilation have common symptoms, but when  Visual Illusions
in doubt treat for hypoxia first.  False Horizon – due to several potential causes of obscuring
Treatment the horizon (fog and night with city lights) it can create the
 Descend to a lower altitude illusion of a false horizon and the pilot could incorrectly align
 Use supplemental oxygen the aircraft with the false horizon and potentially a dangerous
Middle Ear & Sinus attitude.
Climbs and descents cause a pressure difference from inside the  Autokinesis – occurs when flying at night and stationary light
body to the outside. If pressure builds inside the body without appears to start moving when staring at it for long periods of
equalizing it can cause severe pain time. The pilot could incorrectly align the aircraft the
Eustachian tube allows for air pressure to equalize in the middle perceived moving light.
ear Motion Sickness – caused when the brain receives conflicting
Small openings connect sinuses and nasal passages that allow to signals about the orientation of the body.
equalize pressure  Symptoms
Do not fly with an upper respiratory infection or nasal allergic  General Discomfort  Paleness
condition  Nausea  Sweating
Spatial Disorientation – lack of awareness to the position, attitude, or  Dizziness  Vomiting
movement of an aircraft Carbon Monoxide Poisoning
Vestibular System – semicircular canals in the inner ear are Carbon Monoxide is an odorless colorless gas that bonds 200 times
positioned with three axes to sense yaw, pitch, and roll more likely to hemoglobin than oxygen.
 Vestibular Illusions Carbon Monoxide can reach the cockpit through small heaters and
 The Leans – occurs when making a sudden return to level exhaust leaks.
flight after a gradual and prolonged turn. After returning to
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Stress – body’s response to physical and psychological demands. Fog

Causing a release of hormones, increase in metabolism, blood sugar,  Has the illusion of pitching up, causing the pilot to steepen the
heart rate, respiration, and blood pressure. approach
Acute Ground Lighting Illusions
 Short term, “fight or flight”  Lights in a straight path, such as road lights or moving trains
 Healthy person can usually cope have the illusion of appearing like a runway or approach lights
Chronic *Corrective Action: Anticipate illusions and TRUST YOUR
 Long Term INSTRUMENTS*
 Exceeds the ability for an individual to cope Altitude-Induced Decompression Sickness (DCS)
 Not safe to fly Occurs when exposed to low barometric pressures that causes
 Consistent acute stress can develop into chronic stress nitrogen to turn into a gas and bubbles form in different areas of
Fatigue – associated with pilot error due to the effects that include the body.
degradation of attention, concentration, impaired coordination, and  Treatment
decreased ability to communicate  Oxygen Mask with 100% oxygen
Acute  Emergency Descent and land as soon as possible
 Short term, normal occurrence is everyday living  Areas of joint pain keep still, do not work the pain
 Rest and 8 hours of sleep ordinarily cures acute fatigue  Upon landing seek medical attention
 Skill Fatigue Scuba Diving – subjects the body to increased pressure, putting
 Timing Disruption – performing tasks as usual, but the timing more dissolved nitrogen into the body
is off.  Uncontrolled Ascent
 Disruption of the Perceptual Field – focusing on the center of  Wait 12 hours after diving to fly at altitude up to 8,000ft MSL
vision and neglecting peripheral vision (not pressurized cabin altitude)
 Causes  Controlled Ascent
 Mild Hypoxia  Wait 24 hours after diving to fly at altitudes above 8,000ft
 Physical Stress MSL (not pressurized cabin altitude)
 Psychological Stress
Chronic
 Long term, usually has psychological roots
 Continuous high stress levels produce chronic fatigue
 Not relieved by proper diet, adequate rest and sleep
 Usually requires treatment by a physician
Hypothermia – critical loss of heat from the body
Symptoms
 Cyanosis
 Goosebumps
 Shivering
Optical Illusions
Runway Width Illusion
 Narrower than usual runways have the illusion that the aircraft is
higher than it actually is, causing a lower than normal approach
 Wider than usual runways have the illusion that the aircraft is
lower than it actually is, causing a higher than normal approach
Runway & Terrain Slope Illusion
 Upsloping runways have the illusion that the aircraft is higher
than it actually is, causing a lower than normal approach
 Down sloping runways have the illusion that the aircraft is lower
than it actually is, causing a higher than normal approach
Featureless Terrain Illusion
 Absence of ground terrain features has the illusion that the
aircraft is at a higher altitude than it actually is, causing a lower
than normal approach
Water Refraction You may redistribute and share these sheets, if you do not
 Rain on the windscreen has the illusion of being at a higher make any changes and credit [Link] as the
altitude than normal, due to the horizon appearing lower than it source.
is
Haze All rights are reserved to Scot Goldie and
 Has the illusion of being at a greater distance and altitude from [Link]. Every effort was made to verify the
the runway, causing a lower than normal approach accuracy here but use at your own risk.
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Abbreviations
AAUP ................. Attention All Users Page DVA ................... Diverse Vector Area
AC ...................... Advisory Circular ELEV ................. Elevation
ADF .................... Automatic Direction Finder EMAS ................ Engineered Material Arresting System
ADIZ .................. Air Defense Identification Zone FAF .................... Final Approach Fix
AFH .................... Airplane Flying Handbook FAR.................... Federal Aviation Regulation
AFIS ................... Automatic Flight Information Service FD ...................... Flight Director
AIM .................... Aeronautical Information Manual FM...................... Fan Marker
ALS .................... Approach Light System FMS ................... Flight Management System
ALSF .................. Approach Light System with Sequenced GBAS ................. Ground Based Augmentation System
Flashing Lights GCO ................... Ground Communications Outlet
AOB ................... At-Or-Below GLS .................... Ground Based Augmentation System
AP ....................... Autopilot System Landing System
APCH ................. Approach GND CON ......... Ground Control
APP CON ........... Approach Control GP ...................... Glidepath
AR ...................... Authorization Required GPI ..................... Ground Point of Interception
ARR .................... Arrival GPS .................... Global Positioning System
ARTCC ............... Air Route Traffic Control Center GS ...................... Glide Slope
ASOS .................. Automated Surface Observation System HAA ................... Height Above Airport
ASR/PAR ........... Published Radar Minimums at this Airport HAL ................... Height Above Landing
ASSC .................. Airport Surface Surveillance Systems HAT ................... Height Above Touchdown
ATIS ................... Automatic Terminal Information Service HATh ................. Height Above Threshold
AUNICOM ......... Automated UNICOM HCH ................... Heliport Crossing Height
AWOS ................ Automated Weather Observing System HGS ................... Head-up Guidance System
AZ....................... Azimuth HIRL .................. High Intensity Runway Lights
Baro VNAV ........ Barometric Vertical Navigation HUD ................... Head-up Display
BC....................... Back Course IAF ..................... Initial Approach Fix
BND ................... Bound IAP ..................... Instrument Approach Procedure
C ......................... Circling ICAO.................. International Civil Aviation Organization
CAT .................... Category IF ........................ Intermediate Fix
CCW ................... Counter-Clockwise IFH ..................... Instrument Flying Handbook
CDI ..................... Course Deviation Indicator IM ...................... Inner Marker
Chan ................... Channel IMC .................... Instrument Meteorological Conditions
CIFP ................... Coded Instrument Flight Procedures INOP .................. Inoperative
CIR ..................... Circling INT ..................... Intersection
CLNC DEL......... Clearance Delivery IPH ..................... Instrument Procedures Handbook
CNF .................... Computer Navigation Fix K ........................ Knots
CPDLC ............... Controlled Pilot Data Link Communication KIAS .................. Knots Indicated Airspeed
CRS .................... Course LAAS ................. Local Area Augmentation System
CTAF .................. Common Traffic Advisory Frequency LDA ................... Localizer Type Directional Aid
CW ..................... Clockwise Ldg ..................... Landing
D-ATIS ............... Digital-Automatic Terminal Information LIRL .................. Low Intensity Runway Lights
Service LNAV ................ Lateral Navigation
DA ...................... Decision Altitude LNAV+V ........... Lateral Navigation with Advisory Vertical
DEP CON ........... Departure Control Guidance
DER .................... Departure End of Runway LNAV/VNAV .... Lateral Navigation with Vertical Navigation
DH ...................... Decision Height LOC ................... Localizer
DME ................... Distance Measuring Equipment LOM .................. Locator Outer Marker
DTHR ................. Displaced Threshold LP ....................... Localizer Performance
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LPV .................... Localizer Performance with Vertical RPI ..................... Runway Point of Intercept(ion)
Guidance RRL.................... Runway Remaining Lights
LR ....................... Lead Radial. Provides at least 2nm of lead to Rwy .................... Runway
assist in turning onto the intermediate/final RVR ................... Runway Visual Range
course. S ......................... Straight-in
MAA................... Maximum Authorized Altitude SALS.................. Short Approach Light system
MALS ................. Medium Intensity Approach Light System SALSF ............... Short Approach Lighting system with
MALSF ............... Medium Approach Lighting System with Sequenced Flashing Lights
Sequenced Flashers SBAS ................. Satellite Based Augmentation System
MALSR .............. Medium Approach Lighting System with SDF .................... Simplified Directional Facility
RAIL SID ..................... Standard Instrument Departure
MAP ................... Missed Approach Point SM...................... Statute Mile
MCA ................... Minimum Crossing Altitude SOIA .................. Simultaneous Offset Instrument Approach
MDA................... Minimum Descent Altitude SR-SS ................. Sunrise-Sunset
MEA ................... Minimum Enroute Altitude SSALF ............... Simplified Short Approach Lighting System
MIRL .................. Medium Intensity Runway Lights with Sequenced Flashers
MM ..................... Middle Marker SSALR ............... Simplified Short Approach Light System
MOA................... Military Operations Area with RAIL
MOCA ................ Minimum Obstruction Clearance Altitude SSALS ............... Simplified Short Approach Lighting System
MRA ................... Minimum Reception Altitude STAR ................. Standard Terminal Arrival Route
MSA ................... Minimum Safe Altitude TAA ................... Terminal Arrival Area
MTA ................... Minimum Turning Altitude TAC ................... TACAN
MVA................... Minimum Vectoring Altitude TCAS ................. Traffic Alert and Collision Avoidance
N/A ..................... Not Applicable System
NA ...................... Not Authorized TCH ................... Threshold Crossing Height
NDB ................... Non-directional Radio Beacon TDZ.................... Touchdown Zone
NM ..................... Nautical Mile TDZE ................. Touchdown Zone Elevation
NoPT .................. No Procedure Turn Required (Procedure TDZ/CL ............. Touchdown Zone and Runway Centerline
turn shall not be executed without ATC Lighting
clearance) TDZL ................. Touchdown Zone Lights
ODALS ............... Omnidirectional Approach Light System TERPS ............... United Stated Standard for Terminal
ODP .................... Obstacle Departure Procedure Instrument Procedures
OM ..................... Outer Marker THR ................... Threshold
OROCA .............. Off-Route Obstacle Clearance Altitude TODA ................ Takeoff Distance Available
PAPI ................... Precision Approach Path Indicator TORA ................ Takeoff Run Available
PAR .................... Precision Approach Radar TR ...................... Track
PBN .................... Performance Based Navigation UHF ................... Ultra High Frequency (300-3000MHz)
PDC .................... Pre-Departure Clearance UNICOM ........... Universal Communications
PHAK ................. Pilots Handbook of Aeronautical VASI .................. Visual Approach Slope Indicator
Knowledge VCOA ................ Visual Climb Over Airport
PRM ................... Precision Runway Monitor VDP ................... Visual Descent Point
R ......................... Radial VGSI .................. Visual Glide Slope Indicator
RA ...................... Radio Altimeter setting height VHF ................... Very Hight Frequency (30-300MHz)
RAIL................... Runway Alignment Indicator Lights VMC .................. Visual Meteorological Conditions
RAIM ................. Receiver Autonomous Integrity Monitoring VNAV ................ Vertical Navigation
RCLS .................. Runway Centerline Light System VOR ................... VHF Omnidirectional Range
REIL ................... Runway End Identifier Lights VORTAC ........... VOR and TACAN
RF ....................... Radius-to-Fix VOT ................... VOR Test Facility
RLLS .................. Runway Lead-in Light System WAAS ................ Wide Area Augmentation System
RNAV ................. Area Navigation WP/WPT ............ Waypoint (RNAV)
RNP .................... Required Navigation Performance WX ..................... Weather