Test 2 81

PASSAGE 3

Reading
Firstly, turn over the Test 2 Listening Answer Sheet you used earlier to write your Reading answers on
the back.
The Reading test lasts exactly 60 minutes.
Certainly, make any marks on the pages below, but transfer your answers to the answer sheet as you
read since there is no extra time at the end to do so.
After checking your answers on pp 111-113, go to page 9 for the raw-score conversion table.

PASSAGE 1
Spend about 20 minutes on Questions 1-14, based on Passage 1 below.

111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111

STAINLESS STEEL
Uses
In any ordinary kitchen, there are numerous items made from stainless steel, including cutlery, utensils,
and appliances. 'Inox' or '18/10' may be stamped on the base of a good stainless steel pot: 'Inox' is
short for the French inoxydable; while 18 refers to the percentage of chromium in the stainless steel,
and 10 to its nickel content.
In hospitals, laboratories and factories, stainless steel is used for many instruments and pieces of
equipment because it can easily be sterilised, and it remains relatively bacteria-free, thus improv­
ing hygiene. Since it is mostly rust-free, stainless steel also does not need painting, so proves
cost-effective.
As a decorative element, stainless steel has been incorporated into skyscrapers, like the Chrysler
Building in New York, and the Jin Mao Building in Shanghai, the latter considered one of the most
stunning contemporary structures in China. Bridges, monuments, and sculptures are often stainless
steel; and, cars, trains, and aircraft contain stainless steel parts.
Recent alloys
As most pure metals serve little practical purpose, they are often combined or alloyed. Some examples
of ancient alloys are bronze (copper+ tin) and brass (copper+ zinc). Carbon steel (iron+ carbon),
first made in small quantities in China in the sixth century AD, was produced industrially only in mid­
nineteenth-century Europe. Stainless steel, which retains the strength of carbon steel with some added
benefits, consists of iron, carbon, chromium, and nickel, and may contain trace elements. Stainless
steel is a new invention -Austenitic stainless steel was patented by German engineers in 1912, the
same year that Americans created ferritic stainless steel, while Martensitic stainless steel was patented
as late as 1919.
Properties
The name, stainless steel, is misleading since, where there is very little oxygen or a great amount
of salt, the alloy will, indeed, stain. In addition, stainless steel parts should not be joined together
with stainless steel nuts or bolts as friction damages the elements; another alloy, like bronze, or pure
aluminium or titanium must be used.
In general, stainless steel does not deteriorate as ordinary carbon steel does, which rusts in air and
water. Rust is a layer of iron oxide that forms when oxygen reacts with the iron in carbon steel.
Because iron oxide molecules are larger than those of iron alone, they wear down the steel, causing
it to flake and eventually snap. Stainless steel, however, contains between 13-26% chromium, and,
 Test 2 83
PASSAGE 3

with exposure to oxygen, forms chromium oxide, which has molecules the same size as the iron
ones beneath, meaning they bond strongly to form an invisible film that prevents oxygen or water
from penetrating. As a result, the surface of stainless steel neither rusts nor corrodes. Furthermore, if
scratched, the protective chromium-oxide layer of stainless steel repairs itself in a process known as
passivation, which also occurs with aluminium, titanium, and zinc.
Varieties
T here are over 150 grades of stainless steel with various properties, each distinguished by its crystal­
line structure. Austenitic stainless steel, comprising 70% of global production, is barely magnetic,
but ferritic and Martensitic stainless steel function as magnets because they contain more nickel or
manganese. Ferritic stainless steel - soft and slightly corrosive - is cheap to produce, and has many
applications, while Martensitic stainless steel, with more carbon than the other types, is incredibly
strong, so it is used in fighter jet bodies, but is also the costliest to produce.
Recyclability
Stainless steel can be recycled completely, and these days, the average stainless steel object comprises
around 60% of recycled material.
Cutting-edge application
In the last few years, 3D printers have become widespread, and stainless steel infused with bronze is
the hardest material that a 3D printer can currently use.
In 3D printing, an inkjet head deposits alternate layers of stainless steel powder and organic binder
into a build box. After each layer of binder is spread, overhead heaters dry the object before another
layer of powder is added. Upon completion of printing, the whole object, still in its build box, is
sintered in an oven, which means the object is heated to just below melting point, so the binder evapo­
rates. Next, the porous object is placed in a furnace so that molten bronze can replace the binder. To
finish, the object is blasted with tiny beads that smooth the surface.
Appraisal
In less than a century, stainless steel has become essential due to its relatively cheap production cost,
its durability, and its renewability. Used in the new manufacturing process of 3D printing, its future
looks bright.
111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111
Questions 1-4
Choose the correct letter, A, B, C, or D.
Write the correct letter in boxes 1-4 on your answer sheet.

1 A stainless steel pot with '18/10' stamped on it contains

A 18% carbon and 10% iron.
B 18% iron and 10% carbon.
C 18% chromium and 10% nickel.
D 18% nickel and 10% chromium.
2 Hospitals and laboratories use stainless steel equipment because it
A is easy to clean.
B is inexpensive.
C is not disturbed by magnets.
D withstands high temperatures.
3 Stainless steel has been used in some famous buildings for its
A durability.
B beauty.
C modernity.
D reflective quality.
4 The first type of stainless steel was patented in
A China in 1912.
B Germany in 1912.
C the UK in 1919.
D the US in 1919.

Questions 5-11
Do the following statements agree with the information given in Passage 1?
In boxes 5-11 on your answer sheet, write:
TRUE if the statement agrees with the information.
FALSE if the statement contradicts the information.
NOTGIVEN if there is no information on this.
5 Stainless steel does not stain.
6 Carbon steel rusts as its surface molecules are smaller than those of iron oxide.
7 Passivation is unique to stainless steel.
8 Austenitic stainless steel is the most commonly produced type.
9 These days, Martensitic stainless steel is mainly produced in China.
10 Currently, the recycling of stainless steel takes place in many countries.
11 Close to two-thirds of a stainless steel object is made up of recycled metal.
 Test 2 87
PASSAGE1 PASSAGE2 PASSAGE 3

WRITING
SPEAKING
Questions 12-14
Label the diagrams below.
Choose NO MORE THAN TWO WORDS from the passage for each answer.
Write your answers in boxes 12-14 on your answer sheet.
3D printing using stainless steel and bronze

Sintering Replacing the binder Finishing

BUILD BOX in OVEN OBJECT in
(13)..... :··············

• ...
.-.,
./
0 . ;(:f..

c::=J
00
00

Object heated to just below Binder replaced with molten Object blasted with
(12).................... bronze. (14) .................... .
to evaporate binder.

PASSAGE2
Spend about 20 minutes on Questions 15-27, based on Passage 2 below.

Questions 15-19
Passage 2 has six paragraphs: A-F.
Choose the correct heading for paragraphs B-F from the list of headings below.
Write the correct number, i-ix, in boxes 15-19 on your answer sheet.

List of Headings
English vocabulary is hard to learn
ii Comparison of the NGSL and the NAWL
iii Description of the GSL
iv Utility and frequency should guide the choice of new lexis
v Reservations about lists and corpora
vi Leaming the NAWL raises an IELTS candidate's score
vii Reasons for overhauling the GSL
viii Benefits of the NAWL
ix Advent of corpora
Example Answer
Paragraph A iv
 Test 2 89
PASSAGE! PASSAGE2 PASSAGE 3

15 Paragraph B
16 Paragraph C
17 Paragraph D
18 Paragraph E

-----
-Word
19

----------------
Paragraph F

lists
A As any language learner knows, the acquisition of vocabulary is of critical importance. Grammar
is useful, yet communication occurs without it. Consider the utterance: 'Me station.' Certainly, 'I'd
like to go to the station' is preferable, but a taxi driver will probably head to the right place with
'Me station.' If the passenger uses the word 'airport' instead of 'station', however, the journey may
wel1 be fraught. Similarly, 'What time train Glasgow?' signals to a station clerk that a timetable is
needed even though 'What time does the train go to Glasgow?' is correct. In both of these requests,
nouns - 'station', 'time', 'train', and 'Glasgow' - carry most of the meaning; and, generally speak­
ing, foreign-language learners, like infants in their mother tongue, acquire nouns first. Verbs also
contain unequivocal meaning; for instance, 'go' indicates departure not arrival. Furthermore, 'Go' is
a common word, appearing in both requests above, while 'the' and 'to' are the other frequent items.
Thus, for a language learner, there may be two necessities: to acquire both useful and frequent words,
including some that function grammatically. It is a daunting fact that English contains around half a
million words, of which a graduate knows 25,000. So how does a language learner decide which ones
to learn?
I! The General Service List (GSL), devised by the American, Michael West, in 1953, was one
renowned lexical aid. Consisting of 2,000 headwords, each representing a word family, GSL words
were listed alphabetically, with definitions and example sentences, while a number alongside each
word showed its number of occurrences per five million words, and a percentage beside each mean­
ing indicated how often that meaning occurred. For 50 years, particularly in the US, the GSL wielded
great influence: graded readers and other materials for primary schools were written with reference to
it, and American teachers of English as a foreign language (EFL) relying heavily upon it.
C Understandably, West's 1953 GSL has been updated several times because, firstly, his list contained
archaisms such as 'shilling', while lacking words that existed in 1953 but which were popularised
later, like 'drug', 'OK', 'television', and 'victim'. Naturally, his list did not contain neologisms such
as 'email'. However, around 80% of West's original inclusions were still considered valid, accord­
ing to researchers Billuroglu and Neufeld (2005). Secondly, what constituted a headword and a word
family in the West's GSL was not entirely logical, and rules for this were formulated by Bauer and
Nation (1995). Thirdly, technological advance has meant that billions of words can now be analysed
by computer for frequency, context, and regional variation. West's frequency data was based on a
2.5-million-word corpus drawn from research by Thorndike and Lorge (1944), and some of it was
unreliable. A 2013 incarnation of the GSL, called the New General Service List (NGSL), used a
273-million-word subsection of the Cambridge English Corpus (CEC), and research indicates this list
provides a higher degree of coverage than West's.
 PASSAGE2

DA partner to the NGSL is the 2013 New Academic Word List (NAWL) with 2,818 headwords - a
modification of Averill Coxhead's 2000 AWL. The NAWL excludes NGSL words, focusing on
academic language, but, nevertheless, items in it are generally serviceable - they are merely not used
often enough to appear in the NGSL. An indication of the difference between the two lists can be
seen in just four words: the NGSL begins with 'a' and ends with 'zonings', whereas 'abdominal' and
'yeasts' open and close the NAWL.
E Over time, linguistics and EFL have become more dependent upon computerized statistical analy­
sis, and large bodies of words have been collected to aid academics, teachers, and learners. One such
body, known by the Latin word for body, 'corpus', is the CEC, created at Cambridge University in the
UK. This well-known collection has two billion words of written and spoken, formal and informal,
British, American, and other Englishes. Continually updated, its sources are very wide indeed - far
wider than West's. Although the CEC is one of many English-language corpora, it is not the largest,
but it was the one used by the creators of the NGSL and the NAWL.
E Still, a learner cannot easily access corpora, and even though the NGSL and NAWL are free
online, a learner may not know how best to use them. Linguists have demonstrated that words should
be learnt in a context (not singly, not alphabetically); that items in the same lexical set should be
learnt together; that it takes at least six different sightings or hearings to learn one item; that writ-
ten language differs significantly from spoken; and, that concrete language is easier to acquire than
abstract. Admittedly, a list of a few thousand words is not so hard to learn, but language learning is
not only about frequency and utility, but also about passion and poetry. Who cares if a word you like

----------------------
isn't in the top 5,000? If you like it or the way it sounds, you're likely to learn it. And, if you use it
correctly, at least your IELTS examiner will be impressed.

Questions 20-24
Look at the fallowing statements and the list of people on the fallowing page.
Match each statement with the correct person or people: A-E.
Write the correct letter, A-E, in boxes 20-24 on your answer sheet.
20 He / She / They created the GSL.
21 He / She / They created the AWL.
22 He / She / They standardised headwords and word families.
 Test<2 93

23 He/ She/ They reviewed the GSL for content validity.

24 His/ Her/ Their early research was narrow.

List of people
A West
B Billuroglu and Neufeld
C Bauer and Nation
D Thorndike and Lorge
E Coxhead

Questions 25-27
Answer the questions below.
Choose NO MORE THAN THREE WORDS AND I OR A NUMBER from the passage for each answer.
Write your answers in boxes 25-27 on your answer sheet.

25 How many words are there in the complete Cambridge English Corpus?

26 At least how many times must a learner see or hear a new word before it can be learnt?

27 According to the writer, what else must there be a sense of for a person to learn a new word?

PASSAGE3
Spend about 20 minutes on Questions 28-40, based on Passage 3 below.

• • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • •
WORLD HERITAGE DESIGNATION
Almost all cultures raise monuments to their own achievements or beliefs, and preserve artefacts and
built environments from the past.
There has been considerable interest in saving cultural sites valuable to all humanity since the 1950s.
In particular, an international campaign to relocate pharaonic treasures from an area in Egypt where
the Aswan Dam would be built was highly successful, with more than half the project costs borne by
50 different countries. Later, similar projects were undertaken to save the ruins of Mohenjoh-daro in
Pakistan and the Borobodur Temple complex in Indonesia.
The idea of listing world heritage sites (WHS) that are cultural or natural was proposed jointly by an
American politician, Joseph Fisher, and a director of an environmental agency, Russell Train, at a White
House conference in 1965. These men suggested a programme of cataloguing, naming, and conserv­
ing outstanding sites, under what became the World Heritage Convention, adopted by UNESCO* in
November 1972, and effective from December 1975. Today, 191 states and territories have ratified the

*The United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organisation, based in Paris, France.
convention, making it one of the most inclusive international agreements of all time. The UNESCO
World Heritage Committee, composed of representatives from 21 UNESCO member states and inter­
national experts, administers the programme, albeit with a limited budget and few real powers, unlike
other international bodies, like the World Trade Organisation or the UN Security Council.
In 2014, there were 1,007 WHS around the world: 779 of them, cultural; 197 natural; and, 31
mixed properties. Italy, China, and Spain are the top three countries by number of sites, followed by
Germany, Mexico, and India.
Legally, each site is part of the territory of the state in which it is located, and maintained by that entity,
but as UNESCO hopes sites will be preserved in countries both rich and poor, it provides some financial
assistance through the World Heritage Fund. Theoretically, WHS are protected by the Geneva Conven­
tion, which prohibits acts of hostility towards historic monuments, works of art, or places of worship.
Certainly, WHS have encouraged appreciation and tolerance globally, as well as proving a boon for
local identity and the tourist industry. Moreover, diversity of plant and animal life has generally been
maintained, and degradations associated with mining and logging minimised.
Despite good intentions, significant threats to WHS exist, especially in the form of conflict. The
Garamba National Park in the Democratic Republic of Congo is one example, where militias kill
white rhinoceros, selling their horns to purchase weapons; and, in 2014, Palmyra - a Roman site in
northern Syria - was badly damaged by a road built through it, as well as by shelling and looting. In
fact, theft is a common problem at WHS in under-resourced areas, while pollution, nearby construc­
tion, or natural disasters present further dangers.
But most destructive of all is mass tourism. The huge ancient city of Angkor Wat, in Cambodia, now
has over one million visitors a year, and the nearby town of Siem Reap - a village 20 years ago - now
boasts an international airport and 300 hotels. Machu Picchu in Peru has been inundated by tourists
to the point where it may now be endangered. Commerce has altered some sites irrevocably. Walkers
along the Great Wall near Beijing are hassled by vendors flogging every kind of item, many unrelated
to the wall itself, and extensive renovation has given the ancient wonder a Disneyland feel.
In order for a place to be listed as a WHS, it must undergo a rigorous application process. Firstly,
a state takes an inventory of its significant sites, which is called a Tentative List, from which sites
are put into a Nomination File. Two independent international bodies, the International Council on
Monuments and Sites, and the World Conservation Union, evaluate the Nomination File, and make
recommendations to the World Heritage Committee. Meeting once a year, this committee determines
which sites should be added to the World Heritage List by deciding that a site meets at least one crite­
rion out of ten, of which six are cultural, and four are natural.
In 2003, a second convention, effective from 2008, was added to the first. The Convention for the
Safeguarding of Intangible Cultural Heritage has so far been ratified by 139 states - a notable excep­
tion being the US. Aiming to protect traditions rather than places, 267 elements have already been
enshrined, including: Cambodia's Royal Ballet; the French gastronomic meal; and, watertight­
bulkhead technology of Chinese junks.
The World Heritage Committee hopes that the states that agree to list such elements will also promote
and support them, although, once again, commercialisation is problematic. For instance, after the
French gastronomic meal was listed in 20 l 0, numerous French celebrity chefs used the designation in
advertising, and UNESCO debated delisting the element. The US has chosen not to sign the second
convention due to implications to intellectual property rights. As things stand, with the first treaty,
the US has far fewer nominated sites than its neighbour Mexico, partly because some Mexican sites
are entire towns or city centres, and the US has no desire for its urban planning to be restricted by
world-heritage status. St Petersburg, in Russia, which has its entire historic centre as a WHS, intro­
duced strict planning regulations to maintain its elegant 18th-century appearance, only to discover
thousands of minor infringements by owners preferring to do what they pleased with their properties.
 Test 2 97
PASSAGE1 PASSAGE 2

With intangible elements, changes over time, due to modernisation or globalization, may be greater
than those threatening buildings. Opponents of the second convention believe traditions should not be
frozen in time, and are equally unconcerned if traditions dwindle or die.
Although the 1972 World Heritage Convention lacks teeth, and many of its sites are suffering, and
although the 2003 Convention for the Safeguarding of Intangible Cultural Heritage has proven less
popular, it would seem that the overall performance of these two instruments has been very good.
• • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • •• • • • • • • • • • • • •
Questions 28-31
Look at the following statements and the list of countries below.
Match each statement with the correct country, A-F, below.
Write the correct letter, A-F, in boxes 28-31 on your answer sheet.

28 It has the most world heritage sites.

29 Mass tourism has seriously threatened one of its sites.

30 Two men from here put forward the idea of a convention.

31 There was international support for a project here prior to the convention.

List of countries
A Pakistan
B the US
C Italy
D China
E Peru
F France
 Test 2 99
PASSAGE1 PASSAGE 2 PASSAGE 3 I

Questions 32-35
Complete the flowchart below.
Choose ONE WORD OR A NUMBER from the passage for each answer.
Write your answers in boxes 32-35 on your answer sheet.

SITE REGISTRATION
Inventory -A state or territory takes an inventoryof its important sites,
called a (32) .................... List.

Nomination File - Sites from the list above are included in a Nomination
File, which is assessed bytwo inde�endent international
(33) .................... .

Exernal File Evaluation - To be listed as a WHS, a site must meet at least

(34) ....................out of ten criteria. Most of these are (35) ......,.............. ,
but tnere are 'some natural and mixed otles too.

Questions 36-40
Complete each sentence with the correct ending, A-G, below.
Write the correct letter, A-G, in boxes 36-40 on your answer sheet.
36 The Convention for the Safeguarding of Intangible Cultural Heritage is designed to
37 The World Heritage Committee worries about
38 The US refused to sign the 2003 convention due to concerns about
39 Russian property owners have been annoyed by what they see as
40 Critics of the 2003 convention are not disturbed by

A changes to or disappearance of traditions.

B price rises due to world-heritage listing.
C over-regulation connected to world-heritage listing.
D protect traditions.
E protect built environments.
F intellectual property rights.
G the commercial exploitation of listed traditions.