Caramelization
Caramelization is the non-enzymatic oxidation of sugar, a process used extensively in cooking
for the resulting nutty flavor and brown color. As the process occurs, volatile chemicals are
released producing the characteristic caramel flavor. The reaction involves the removal of water
(as steam) and the break down of the sugar. The caramelization reaction depends on the type of
sugar. Sucrose and glucose caramelize around 160C (320F) and fructose caramelizes at 110C
(230F).
During caramelization reactions, high dry heat causes the sugar to break down, releasing
volatile chemicals that create that signature caramel flavor. The carbohydrates—aka the sugars
found in starches—also take on a deeper color during this process, ranging from golden to deep
brown depending on the type of sugar, temperature, and cook time.
The sugars begin to melt, foam, and lose water through condensation, reacting with the
other sugar molecules to create flavorful new compounds. After the sugar has begun to
condensate, an isomerization of aldoses to ketoses occurs, leading to the final reactions:
fragmentation reactions (which create flavor) and polymerization reactions (which create color).
The signature golden brown color created by caramelization is produced by three polymer
groups: caramelans (C24H36O18), caramelens (C36H50O25), and caramelins (C125H188O80).
Caramelization can take place in any food that contains carbohydrates.
Once the sugars are hot enough a lot of chemical reactions will all happen simultaneously.
There are a few recurring patterns though.
1: Enolization
During such a reaction an oxygen atom with the sugar molecule that was initially bound to a
carbon atom with two connections, now becomes connected to one carbon and one hydrogen
atom. This slight shift in structure then enables other reactions to occur.
Note: The molecule on the left is a ‘keto’ the one on the right an ‘enol’. The reaction going from
left to right is an enolization.
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2: Dehydration
the sugar molecule will likely lose a water molecule through a reaction called dehydration.
There are several ways in which this can happen and it can also lose more than one.
3: The Wild Wild West
A lot of different reactions will and can occur during this time. During these reactions different
types of molecules will form.
Stages of the caramelization process
1. Thread Stage - At 215–230° F, the sugar will form thin threads, which can be used to make
preserves and syrups.
2. Soft Ball Stage - At 240° F, the sugar forms a soft ball that can be flattened and molded into
fudge, fondant, pralines, and caramel candies.
3. Firm Ball Stage - At 245° F, the sugar solidifies further into a more firm, sturdy ball, which is
used to make marshmallows, meringues, gummies, and toffee.
4. Hard Ball Stage - At 250–260° F, the sugar has been formed into a hard ball that holds its
shape, used to make nougat, toffee, and butterscotch.
5. Soft Crack Stage - At 270–290° F, the sugar will form pliable but firm threads, which can be
stretched into chewier candies like nougat, butterscotch, and taffy.
6. Hard Crack Stage - At 300–310° F, the sugar has hardened into brittle, fragile threads, which
are used to create hard candy, candy brittle, and glazed fruits.
7. Caramel Stage - At 320–360° F, the caramelization will be complete, and the sugar will have
changed in color and flavor.
Maillard reaction
Maillard reaction is a chemical reaction between amino acids and reducing sugars (sugars that
contain free aldehyde or ketone groups) that gives browned food its distinctive flavor. Seared
steaks, fried dumplings, cookies and other kinds of biscuits, breads, toasted marshmallows, and
many other foods undergo this reaction. It is named after French chemist Louis Camille
Maillard, who first described it in 1912 while attempting to reproduce biological protein
synthesis. The reaction is a form of non-enzymatic browning which typically proceeds rapidly
from around 140 to 165 °C (280 to 330 °F). The reactive carbonyl group of the sugar reacts with
the nucleophilic amino group of the amino acid and forms a complex mixture of poorly
characterized molecules responsible for a range of aromas and flavors. In the cooking process,
Maillard reactions can produce hundreds of different flavor compounds depending on the
chemical constituents in the food, the temperature, the cooking time, and the presence of air.
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Whereas caramelization only occurs at high temperatures (at least above 110°C (230°F), but more often
Caramelization experiment of sucrose: notice how the sugar colors darker and darker as the
reaction progresses.
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