Chapter 3: Hardware (Computer Architecture)

Computer architecture
Very early computers were fed data whilst the machines were actually running. They
weren’t able to store programs; consequently, they weren’t able to run without human
intervention.

John von Neumann developed the idea of a stored program in computer, often referred to
as the VON NEUMANN ARCHITECTURE concept or model.

His idea was to hold programs and data in a memory. Data would then move between the
memory unit and the processor.
• The program is stored on a secondary storage device
• Data and instructions are moved to memory / RAM
• Data and instructions are stored in the same memory / RAM
• Data and instructions are moved to registers to be executed
• Instructions are fetched one at a time.

Processor and memory unit are linked together by connections known as BUSES.
Buses essentially move data around the computer and also send out control signals to
make sure everything is properly synchronised.
Address bus
Carries signals relating to addresses between the processor and the memory
It is unidirectional i.e. signals travel in one direction only.

Data bus
Sends data between the processor, the memory unit and the input/output devices.
It is bi-directional i.e. data can travel in both directions.
Control bus
Carries signals relating to the control and coordination of all activities within the computer
examples include: the read and write functions. It is bi-directional as well.

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A register is simply a high-speed storage area within the computer. All data must be
represented in a register before it can be processed. For example, if two numbers are to be
added, both numbers during processing must be stored in registers and the result of the
addition must also be stored in a register called Accumulator.
Immediate Access Store (IAS): Used to hold data and instruction before they are processed.

A number of items shown in the diagram known as registers: MAR, MDR, PC and CIR.

The abbreviations stand for:

MAR memory address register

MDR memory data register
PC program counter
CIR current instruction registers.

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Components of VON NEUMANN Computer Architecture

Memory unit: It is made up of RAM and ROM.

• It contains part of application software in current use. [RAM]
• It also contains part of operating system in current use. [RAM]
• It contains BIOS information / Boot Traps / start up routine of OS. [ROM]

The computer memory unit is made up of a number of partitions. Each partition consists of
an ADDRESS and its CONTENTS. The example shown here uses 8 bits for each address
and 8 bits for the content. In a real computer memory, the address and its contents are
actually much larger than this. The address will uniquely identify every LOCATION in the
memory and the contents will be the binary.

Consider the READ operation. We will use the memory section shown in the above table.
Suppose we want to read the contents of memory location 1111 0001; the two registers
are used as follows:

• The address of location 1111 0001 to be read from is first written into the MAR.

• A ‘read signal’ is sent to the computer memory using the control bus.
• The contents of memory location 1111 0001 are then put into the MDR.

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Now let us consider the WRITE operation. Again we will use the memory section shown in
the above table. Suppose this time we want to show how the value 1001 0101 was written
into memory location 1111 1101.
• The data to be stored is first written into the MDR.
• This data has to be written into the memory location with the address 1111 1101; so
this address is now written into the MAR.

• Finally, a ‘write signal’ is sent to the computer memory using the control bus and
this value will then be written into the correct memory location.

Processor/ALU

The PROCESSOR contains the ARITHMETIC AND LOGIC UNIT (ALU).

• The ALU carries out arithmetic (e.g. add, subtract, etc.)
• It also carries out logic (e.g. AND, OR, NOT, etc.) operations to be carried out.

Control unit

• The CONTROL UNIT controls the operation of the memory, processor and
input/output devices.
• The control unit reads an instruction from memory.
This instruction is then interpreted. During that process, signals are generated
along the control bus to tell the other components in the computer what to do.

Input Unit
Input devices convert external data into a form the computer can understand and can then
process.

Output Unit
Output devices show the results of computer processing in a humanly understandable
form.
The fetch–Decode--execute cycle
To carry out a set of instructions, the processor first of all FETCHES some data and
instructions from memory and stores them in suitable registers. Both the address bus and
the data bus are used in this process.
Once this is done, each instruction needs to be decoded before finally being EXECUTED.
This is all known as the FETCH–EXECUTE CYCLE.

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[PC]Address

[MAR][PC]

[MDR][[MAR]]

[CIR][MDR]

PCPC+1

Decoded
Executed

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Clock speed is the rate at which a processor can complete a processing cycle. It is
typically measured in megahertz or gigahertz. One megahertz is equal to one million
cycles per second, while one gigahertz equals one billion cycles per second.
Bus width refers the number of parallel lines/wires that make up a particular kind of computer
bus. This determines the range of binary numbers that can be transmitted. For example, ISA
supports 8-and 16-bit bus.
Factors to improve the performance of a Computer System:

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Instruction Set:

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Embedded System:

How does an Embedded System work?

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Types of Embedded System:

Benefits and Drawbacks of Embedded System:

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Uses of Embedded System:

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