Lecture Note

(Based on Sixth Dean Course Curriculum)

Course Title : Fundamentals of Agricultural

Extension Education
Course No. : EXT.3.2
Credit : 1+1=2

Content
Sr. Chapters Topics
no
.
1. Education Meaning, definition and Types

2. Extension Education Meaning, definition, scope and process; objectives and

principles of Extension Education

3. Extension Programme Meaning, Process, Principles and Steps in Programme

planning Development

4. Extension systems in India Extension efforts in pre-independence era (Sriniketan,

Marthandam, Firka Development Scheme, Gurgaon Experiment,
etc.) and post-independence era (Etawah Pilot Project, Nilokheri
Experiment, etc.); Reorganised Extension System (T&V system)
various extension/ agriculture development programs launched
by ICAR/ Govt. of India (IADP, IAAP, HYVP, KVK, IVLP,
ORP, ND, NATP, NAIP, PMSNY, MGMG, KCC, ARYA, FF
etc.)

5. Social Justice and poverty ITDA, IRDP/SGSY/NRLM

alleviation programme

6. Women Development RMK, MSY etc.

Programme

7. Rural Development Concept, meaning, definition; various rural development

programs launched by Govt. of India.

8. Community Development: Meaning, definition, concept and principles, Philosophy of C.D.

9. Other concepts DWCRA, Commodity Interest Groups (CIGs)., Farmers

Producer Group (FPG)

10. New trends in agriculture Privatization extension, cyber extension/ e-extension, market-led
extension extension, farmer-led extension, expert systems, etc.

11. Attributes of Innovation

12. Extension administration Meaning and concept, principles and functions

13. Monitoring and evaluation Concept and definition, monitoring and evaluation of extension
programs

14. Transfer of Technology Concept and models

15. capacity building of MANAGE, EEI, SAMETI, KVK

extension personnel

16. Extension teaching Meaning, classification, individual, group and mass contact
methods: methods

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17. ICT Applications in TOT (New and Social Media), media mix strategies

18. Agriculture journalism

19. Diffusion and adoption of Concept and meaning, process and stages of adoption, adopter
innovation: categories.

Education

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 1. Education: Word “Education” is derived from different two words viz. Latin word
EDUCARE, which means to bring up physically or mentally and French word
EDUCERE, which means leading out or leading forth.

2. Education is the process of bringing desirable changes in human behaviour in terms of

knowledge, skill and attitude.

3. Knowledge (Cognitive-Knowing Behaviour): Knowledge is understood information

possessed by an individual.
4. Attitude (Affective- Feeling Behaviour): It means feelings of an individual towards or
against psychological object; it may be a person, object, institution, thought or idea.
5. Skill (Psychomotor-Doing Behaviour): Skill is the competency in using knowledge
efficacy. There are two types of skill, (1) Mental skill and (2) Manual skill or Physical
skill.
Types of Education
1. Formal education: A formal education is the process of training and developing people
in knowledge, skills, mind and character in a structured form (within four walls) and
certified programmes.
It includes basic learning, elementary and high school, and post-secondary school
(college, trades or technical school, or university).
2. Informal education: It is the truly lifelong process whereby every individual acquires
attitudes, values, skills and knowledge from daily experience. Here learning takes place
from family, friends, peer groups, market place, training centers, the media and other
influences in a person’s environment. Eg. Son of carpenter learns carpentry from his
father while helping his father in his work.
3. Non-formal education: It is a well organized, systematic educational activity which
takes place outside the formal system in order to provide certain selected type of learning
to the selected group of individuals which includes adults, youth and women. Eg.
Training provided to the farmers by extension workers.
Differences between Non formal Education and Formal Education
Non formal Education Formal Education
It is also known as extension education, It is also known as within four walls
non-formal education, adult education, education, primary education, school
end-less education, out of the four walls education, and college education and
education, continues education and adult structured education.
education.
Education that we get out of schools and Education that we get in schools and
colleges. It is non-formal way to educate colleges. It is way to educate learners

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people, where rigid formalities are not following all the formalities.
necessary to follow all the times.
In extension education there is no fixed In this type of education there is a fixed
curriculum. Its flexibility or changeable or pre-decided curriculum/content so
depending on the needs of the learners. there are rare chances to change it.
The learners/ audiences are The learners/ audience are
heterogeneous with different goals. They homogeneous in age, education,
are varying in age, education, needs, experience etc. and have common goals.
problems, interest and other characteristics.
Teaching is horizontal and mostly need Teaching is vertical and curriculum
based and problem oriented. Extension centered. The teacher teaches and
workers and farmers exchange problems learners receive vertically. It is possible
and solutions with each other horizontally. most of the times that teacher is superior
It is not possible all the times that teacher is to learners.
superior to learners.
Extension education starts from practical Formal education starts from a
field problems and goes up to solutions to theoretical or conceptual framework
create theoretical understanding. and leads to practical or actual
fieldwork.
Final power of teaching and learning Final power of teaching and learning
remains with learners. Freedom of choice remains with teachers. Strictly
of subject matter is left to the learners. institutional norms and formalities are
Learners are not bound to learn. It is followed viz., fixed period, fixed books,
learner centered education. examination.
This education is not class oriented, This education is of a specialized nature.
subject-centered and degree-oriented. It is class, subject and degree
oriented.
Teaching is through extension personals Teaching is only through instructors
and also through local leaders.
It is continuous process through - out life At certain level, there is end of
of individual. education. It may end with school,
college or University education.
The physical facilities like classroom, Required physical facilities like
laboratory and benches are not required. classroom, laboratory, benches, and fans
Education is given at farm, home or etc. for lectures. Fixed classroom is
wherever learner wants to learn. required.
Participation is wholly voluntary, free Attendance is largely compulsory i.e.
education in matter of learner’s choice. no free education according to his
choice.
It is given using mass media, farm and Mainly lecture method is used to
home visit, result and method teach learners.
demonstration, training
It is more practical and problem solving. It is more theoretical and subject
oriented.

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 Extension Education

The word Extension is derived from two Latin words Ex and Tensio. Ex means out and Tensio
means stretch or spread and, thus meaning of Extension is spread out or stretch out knowledge
which is beyond the capacity of school education.
1. It is the out-of-school process aimed at bringing desirable changes in the knowledge, skill
and attitude of farmers, farmwomen, rural adults and youths in order to help them to
solve their problems (S. K. Wagmare, 1980).
2. According to Leagans J.P.: Extension education is the process of teaching rural people
how to live better by learning ways that improve their farm, home and community
institutions.
He also defined extension education as an applied science consisting of content
derived from research, accumulated field experiences and relevant principles drawn from
the behavioural science synthesised with useful technology into a body of philosophy,
principles, content and methods focussed on the problems of out of school education for
adults and youth
3. According to Kelsey and Hearne (1963): It is out of school system of education in which
young and adult people learn by doing.
4. According to Ensminger (1967): Extension is an education and its purpose is to change
the attitude and practices of people with whom the work is done.
Components of Extension:Activity of extension can be made possible by its three important
broad components.
These components are Extension Education, Extension Service and Extension Work.
1. Extension Education: Education is given to prepare and develop experts for extension jobs.
The State Agricultural Universities (SAUs) and Colleges, ICAR and training institutes
generally perform the role of extension education.
2. Extension Service: It is input and service oriented field professional activities done to
transfer technology from research station to farmers’ fields and transferring farmers’
problems to research stations. The work done by government extension agencies like
Department of Agriculture, Animal Husbandry, Forestry, Fishery etc. are the examples
of extension service.
3. Extension Work: Many extension activities are done with the feelings of altruism,
selflessness or humanity in helping people to help themselves. The work done by Non-
Government Organization (NGOs) or individuals with an inspiration of unselfishness is
an example of extension work.

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Objectives of Extension Education:
The general objective of the extension education is to raise the standard of living of the
farming community and rural people by helping them in using their resources like land, labors,
capital, water and livestock in the right and efficient way to increase their productivity.
The fundamental or main or broad objective of extension education is to bring about all-
round development in the life of people.
The specific objectives of extension education are as under:
1. To provide the occupational knowledge of farmers to increase their income.
2. To encourage farmer to be self-sufficient in food and other requirements.
3. To help the members of farm family to know, learn and adopt better about the world in which
they live.
4. To open-up new opportunities for rural people
5. To develop talents and leadership quality of rural people.
6. To build confidence among rural people and show them better opportunities for their
occupation.
Agricultural Extension:
Agricultural extension can be defined as an ongoing process of providing useful
information to the farmers and rural people to acquire them knowledge, skill and attitude to
utilise effectively these information or technology to improve quality and productivity of their
farm, home and institutions.
It makes available to the rural villages, scientific and factual information and training and
guidance for the solution of problems of agriculture and rural life.
Agricultural extension is a bridge that fills the gap between agricultural research stations
on the one hand and the farming population on the other by establishing a suitable teaching
organization at various levels of administration.
Principles of Extension Education
Principle: The meaning of principle is fundamental truth or law or rules or regulation one has to
follow as the basis of some actions.
To achieve expected results through any action, action should be carried out based on
sound principles. It is necessary for extension worker to acquire a comprehensive knowledge of
the principles of extension.
1. Principle of interest and need: Because extension education is informal education,
educationists cannot use compulsion on learners to learn or participate in the educational
programme. In this situation if educationist carries out educational programme considering the
need and interest of the farmers, participation of the farmers in the programme will be possible.
Thus, extension work must be based on the needs and interests of the people. These needs and

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interests differ from individual to individual, from village to village, from block to block, and
from state to state and therefore, there cannot be one common programme for all people.
2. Principle of cultural difference: Extension work should be based on the cultural background
of the people with whom the work is done. Improvement can only begin from the level of the
people where they are. This means that the extension worker should know the level of the
knowledge and skills of the people, methods and tools used by them, their customs, traditions,
beliefs, values and norms before starting the extension programme.
3. Principle of cultural change: The culture of the people undergoes change while doing
extension work. The change is necessary for growth and development of society. There may be a
difference between the situation at the time of starting the programme and today’s situation.
Therefore, with growth and development of social status, the extension work should also to be
changed to meet the cultural changes among the people.
4. Principle of participation: Extension helps people to help themselves. Good extension work
is directed towards assisting rural families to work out their own problems rather than giving
them ready-made solutions. Actual participation and experience of people in these programmes
creates self-confidence in them and also, they learn more by doing. The high level of interest
among the farmers towards any new efforts can be developed if they are involved from planning
to evaluation stages of any extension programme.
5. Principle of adaptability and flexibility: People differ from each other; one group differs
from another group and conditions also differ from place to place. An extension programme
should be flexible, so that necessary changes can be made whenever needed to meet the varying
conditions. Thus, when working with people we should not go with our pre-decided content but
after knowing their need and problems only content of programmes should be decided. Extension
workers must permit flexibility.
6. The grass roots principle of organization: A group of rural people in local community
should sponsor extension work. The programme should fit in with the local conditions. The aim
of organizing the local group is to demonstrate the value of the new practices or programmes so
that more and more people can participate.
7. The leadership principle: Extension work is based on the full utilization of local leadership.
The selection and training of local leaders to enable them to help to carry out extension work is
essential to the success of the programme. People have more faith in local leaders and they
should be used to put across a new idea so that it is accepted with the least resistance.
8. The whole-family principle: Extension work will have a better chance of success if the
extension workers have a whole-family approach, instead of piecemeal approach or separate and
non-integrated approach. Extension work should be therefore for the whole family, i.e. for male,
female and the youth. Each family member of the farmer has their impact in different manners.
Involvement of all family members in any new activity provides an opportunity to head of the
family to take quick decisions.

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9. Principle of co-operation: Extension is a co-operative venture. It is a joint democratic
enterprise in which rural people co-operate with their village, block and state officials to pursue a
common cause. It has been experiencing of many countries that people become dynamic if they
are permitted to take decision concerning their own affairs, exercise responsibility for, and are
helped to carry out projects in their own village. Most members of the village community will
willingly cooperate in carrying out a project that they helped to decide to undertake. People
should involve in planning programmes, determining objectives, setting up plan of work,
carrying out actions and evaluating results. The participation and co-operation of people are of
fundamental importance for the success of any educational behaviour. This also develops
leadership in the village and increases the confidence of the people. By participation people feel
that it is their own programme.
10. Principle of satisfaction:The end product of the effort of extension teaching is the
satisfaction that comes to the farmer, his wife or youngsters as the result of solving a problem,
meeting a need, acquiring a new skill or some other changes in behaviour. Satisfaction is the key
to success in extension work. A satisfied customer is the best advertisement. Thus, satisfaction of
the people is very essential in extension work. When a person receives satisfaction as a result of
his participation in an extension programme, he seeks further help from an extension agency.
This promotes the growth of extension work. The success of the extension work lies in the
satisfaction of the people. If participating in the programme does not satisfy the people will not
participate in the future.
11. The evaluation principle: Extension is based upon the methods of science and it needs
constant evaluation. The effectiveness of the work should be measured in terms of the changes
brought about in the knowledge, skill, attitude and adoption behaviour of the people but not
merely in terms of achievement of physical targets. The evaluation is the mirror of any extension
programme. It gives understanding about degree of success and at the same time base to
reformulate next efforts.
12. Principle of applied science: Applied agricultural science is not a one-way process. It does
not only give technology but at the same time it also collects problem of the farmers to bring to
the notice of the scientists. Two-way approach helps scientist to do the necessary changes in
technology to make it adoptable.
13. Principle of democratic approach: Extension work should try to create democratic
impression among the farmers while working with them. It can be done through giving
opportunity to the farmers to discuss and suggest their feelings. Facts about a situation should be
shared with people. All possible alternative solutions should be placed before the participants
and their merits are highlighted through mutual discussion. Ultimately, the people should leave
free to take their own decision.
14. Principle of Learning by Doing: In extension work, the farmers should be encouraged to
learn new things by doing and by direct participation. They must be a part of practice the new
ideas. It helps in developing the confidence to use the new method in future.

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15. Principle of trained specialists: It is very complicated for extension worker to keep himself
with all the new latest findings of research and all branches of science he has deal with in his
day-to-day activities. To guide farmers in an effective manner he should always take help of
well-trained specialists. This kind of involvement of various specialists will clear all the doubts
of the farmers in a methodical manner.
16. Principle of bringing variation by the use of extension teaching methods: Extension
workers should use proper extension teaching methods while educating the farmers. A
combination of a number of suitable extension methods leads to the higher success in the
adoption and diffusion of innovations and technology among the people as compared to only
lecture method. Different methods must be used under different situations. No single extension
method is effective under all conditions e.g. reading material for those who can read, radio
programme for those who have radios, puppets for those who believe in traditional way of
learning.
17. Principle of gradual efforts: Any extension programmes should be started from where
people are. After knowing their existing level of knowledge, interest, availability of inputs and
adoptability, any programme should be matched up and initiated.
18. Extension education in line with the national policies: For the sustainable results, any
programmes should be organized looking to the state and national policy. Thus, any extension
work should be based on some working principles. The knowledge of these principles is
necessary for an extension worker to get desired results.

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 Extension Programme planning
Programme: The programme is a statement of situation, objectives, problems and solutions. It is
relatively permanent but requires constant revision. It forms the basis for extension plans.
Planning: Planning is a process of preparing systematic statement of the line of actions to
achieve decided objectives based on needs and resources.
Programme Planning: Programme planning is a process of working with rural people in an
effort to recognize the problems and determine possible solutions.
Project: Project is an outline of procedure pertaining to some phase of extension work.
Specification of work to be done. Procedure to be followed to accomplish the objective.
Problem: It is a condition that people after study, with or without outside help, have decided
needs to be changed.
Aim: Aim is a broad objective. It is broad and generalized statements of directions with respect
to given activities.
Objective: Objective is direction of movements. It is the direction towards which our efforts are
directed. There are three levels of objective: Fundamental objective: All-inclusive objective. Eg.
People’s participation in planning at grass root level. General objective: More definite social
objective. Mandatory creation of Panchayati raj bodies at states. Working or specific objective:
enactment of suitable laws relating to panchayat, holding panchayat election in time.
Goal: Goal is the distance in any given direction one expects to go during particular period of
time.
Plan of work: it is an outline of activities so arranged as to enable efficient execution of
programme. It is a statement of activities to be undertaken by an individual within a definite
time. It indicates what is to be done, who will do it, how it is to be done, when it is to be done.
Calendar of work: It is plan of activities to be undertaken in a particular time [Link] is
chronological arrangement of activities.
Importance of Programme Planning:
1. It helps in avoiding future problems. A good planning always identifies and monitors
future development that will have a major impact on performance of results.
2. It helps to get institutional support of local areas. For proper implementation of the
plan, the involved person must be in substantial agreement with the plan. Planning
will help to justify the appropriations by public bodies and to obtain support of the
key personnel.
3. It gives reliable information about situation where we have to work. When and
whatever information is required about the programme, situation and resources, it is
easily available from the records.

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 4. It offers assistance. Programme planning makes sure about what is to be done and why,
establishes objectives, gives direction for carrying out work and helps in evaluating
results.
5. It prevents wastage of resources: Programme planning helps to reduce the wastage of
time, money and resources and provides general efficiency. Optimum results can be
accomplished under the prevailing circumstances and conditions.
6. It provides continuity to efforts. Programme planning presents continuity to the
programme because of availability of plan in black and white.
7. It helps in leadership development: Development of leadership is one of the keys to
success and planning is one of the best methods of developing leadership.
8. It helps to get local support: A programme planned with the cooperation of the people
and based on their needs will get full support from them.
9. It minimizes conflict. Many conflicts like conflict of resources, personalities etc. may
arise while executing a programme and these can be easily removed at planning stage. A
good programme planning can avoid unnecessary conflicts.
10. It helps in fulfilling people's needs and wants.
11. Shares commitment and responsibilities.
12. Ensures a balanced but varied programme.
13. Provides opportunity each member to feel important in the community.
14. It gives specific job to each member involved in.
15. Ensures ample preparation time.
16. It provides maximum involvement.
17. It provides better communication.
18. It helps to learn how to cooperate and compromise.
19. It provides opportunity of learning how to plan.
20. It encourages members of society to look forward to meetings
PRINCIPLES OF EXTENSION PROGRAMME PLANNING
Principles of extension programme planning and development are discussedbelow.
Extension programmes should be based on an analysis of the past experiences, present situation
and future needs. For programme determination adequate information about the people and their
situation have to be collected. The present situation is to be analyzed and interpreted on the basis
of past experiences, and future needs are arrived at by taking local people into confidence.
Extension programmes thus have the definite purpose of improving rural life through individual,
group and community actions. Extension programme planning has certain principles which hold
good irrespective of the nature of the clientele and the enterprises involved in it, and are
discussed below.
1. Extension programmes should have clear and significant objectives which could
satisfy important needs of the people. The ultimate objective of programme building is
to satisfy the needs of the people. For this purpose, significant objectives pertaining to
important needs of the people should be selected and clearly stated. The emphasis shall

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 be on what is attainable rather than on what is ideal; although one should not lose sight of
the ideal.
2. Extension programmes should fix up priority on the basis of available resources and
time. The rural people, particularly in the developing countries, have a multitude of
problems. All problems cannot be taken up at a time for solution, because of the
limitations of trained personnel; availability of funds, facilities and other resources. Time
is also a limiting factor as both the people and the funding agencies cannot wait for an
indefinite period of time to get the results. considering all these parameters it is essential
to fix up priorities in the programme.
3. Extension programmes should clearly indicate the availability and utilization of
resources. An extension programme should clearly state wherefrom the funds, facilities,
supplies and the needed personnel shall be available and how these shall be utilized. This
shall make the programme practical and workable.
4. Extension programmes should have a general agreement at various levels.
Programmes prepared at the various levels such as village, district, State and national
levels should conform to each other and shall not work at cross purposes. Similarly, the
extension programme of a particular department should not be in conflict or contradiction
with the extension pragramme of other departments.
5. Extension programmes should involve people at the local level. Extension
programmes are implemented at the local level. Local people should, therefore, be
involved all through, from programme formulation to programme implementation.
6. Extension programmes should involve relevant institutions and organizations.
Extension programmes cannot be implemented-in isolation. It requires the support of
many institutions and organizations. The programme should broadly indicate the
institutions and organizations to be involved and how they shall contribute in attaining
the programme objectives.
7. Extension programme should have definite plan of work. The plan of work Planning –
and Developing may be separately drawn up or incorporated in the programme. The
programme should at least broadly indicate how it will be executed. Unless the plan of
work is drawn up, the programme remains a theoretical exercise.
8. Extension programmes should provide for evaluation of results and reconsideration
of the programme. Extension programme is not a static outline of activities. The
programme should make provision for periodical monitoring and evaluation of results to
judge its progress. On the basis of the findings of evaluation, the programme should be
suitably modified to facilitate it reaching the objective within the stipulated period of
time.
9. Extension programmes should provide for equitable distribution of benefits
amongst the members of the community. It has been found that, in a community
generally the resource- rich persons benefit more in comparison to the resource-poor,
from the implementation of extension programmes. As this may generate social disparity

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 and social tensions, the planning of extension programmes should give adequate
emphasis on the weaker sections of the community.
STEPS OF PROGRAMME PLANNING
1. Assessing the situation: Sound plans are based on availability of relevant and reliable facts.
This includes facts about the village people, physical conditions, existing farm and home
practices, trends and outlook.
 Basic information about village: To study the situation one should collect information about
village like population, total number of families, farm families, occupation of the villages, and
facility of communication, transport, health, schooling and drinking water.
 Information about farming: like total area under cultivation, size of landholding, types of
crops grown, cattle feeds, utilization of grassland, diseases and pests’ control, position of
labour and financial position.
 Information about characteristics of local people: like their existing knowledge, skill,
understanding, attitude, interest, education level, social participation, level of scientific
orientation, ability etc.
After assembling the facts pertaining to local situation, it is important to analyze these
facts to understand situation of the area where extension work has to be done.
2. Determination of objectives: Based on information on the situation and urgency of the
problem, need and solution of the problems, extension worker decides objective to satisfy
problems and needs of the community.
 The objectives are the direction of movement. The objectives can be of different types.
Fundamental objectives, General objectives and Specific or working objectives.
 The objectives can also be classified on the basis of period of achievement like Long term
objectives: (achievable in more than 10 years), Medium term objectives (achievable within
the period of 3 to 5 years) and Short-term objectives (achievable within one year or one
season).
 The objectives must be well defined, clear and achievable, according to the need, interest and
problems of the people.
 Objective should be SMART. Which means: S= Simple, M= Measurable, A= Attainable, R=
Realistic and T= Time bound.
3. Identification of problem: At this stage the problems leading to a situation are selected to
solve.
The problems are then classified according to their nature.
 Many problems can be solved by the villagers with their own resources [Link]
road preparation
 The problems that can be solved using community cooperation e.g. village
cleanliness and
 Problems that require assistance from outside sources because of need of high costs
and technical knowledge e.g. Locust control, construction of school building, creating
irrigation facilities.

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4. Decide priority of the problems to solve: As a result of the analysis of data the important
gaps between 'what is' and 'what should be' are identified. The problems which need urgent
solution should be identified to find its solutions.
I. Drinking water
II. Lighting
III. Sanitation
IV. Digging of pond
V. Afforestation
5. Finding solution to problems: The extension worker has to consult their superiors keeping
the villagers with them in finding out proper solutions of the problems.

Execution Stage Planning Stage

Steps of Programme Planning

6. Developing the plan of work: In order to achieve the stated objectives planners should
convert them in to goals. Conversion of objective in to goal includes time limit to achieve
decided objectives.
 The means and methods attaining each objective are selected and the action plan in terms of
the calendar of activities is developed.
 It includes planning of WHAT (Subject), WHICH (Major part of Subject), WHEN (Year,
Month, Date, Time),WHERE (Place of activity) and HOW (By which method of teaching

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 such as demonstrations, discussion, meeting) to do the activities. The plan of work may be
seasonal, short-term, annual or long-term.
7. Carrying out the plan step by step: In this step whatever planner has decided in 6 th steps are
to be implemented practically by using inputs like; MAN, METHODS, Material, TIME, and
process like MOTIVATION, COORDINATION, and MANAGEMENT.
During the execution (implementation) of the plan of work people should be involved at every
step to make sure the success of the programme.
8. Evaluation of results: It is done to measure the degree of success of the programme in terms
of the objectives and goals laid out. It can be done at three levels by collecting information
before the programme, during the programme and at the end of programme.
 This is basically done to know the changes in the behaviour of the people as a result of the
extension programme.
 Evaluation shows whatever way we go is in the right direction or not?
 Evaluation shows how far our plans have progressed.
 Evaluation indicates the effectiveness of a programme.
 Evaluation helps to locate strong and weak points in any programme or plan.
 Evaluation improves our skill in working with people.
 Evaluation helps to determine priorities for activities in the plan of work.
 Evaluation brings confidence and satisfaction to our work.
 Evaluation gives bench mark information for next programme.
Extension worker and village institutions should do evaluation of programme jointly. An
effective evaluation requires adequate records of each activity. Each future programme should be
based on the results of evaluation of the previous programmes.
9. Reconsideration: The systematic and periodic evaluation of the programme will reveal the
weak and strong points of the programme. Based on these points the programme is reconsidered
and the necessary adjustments and changes are made in order to make it more meaningful and
sounder.
Programme planning is not the end product of any extension activities but it is an educational
tool for helping people to identify their own problems and make timely and judicious decisions.
From the above-mentioned cycle, it is clear that the planning of an extension programme
comprises a logical series of consecutive steps.

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 Extension System in India
India has made significant achievement in agriculture by increasing production by four
folds during last six decades. Among many drivers to accomplish this task, the policy, research
and extension support have played crucial role. Public extension played a major role in ushering
green revolution in Indian agriculture.
However, considering the varied agro-ecological situations under which farmers operate
and variations in the resource base of farmers, the extension system envisaged to achieve desired
growth in agricultural sector has to be pluralistic in nature and hence multiplicity of extension
systems are operating in India.

National Level State Level  Commodity

Boards
Ministry of  NGOs

Other Extension System

Ministry of  Input
Public Extension System

Agriculture and
Public Extension System

Agriculture (Dept. Agencies

Farmers Welfare
of Agri., Horti.,
Ministry of  Financial
Animal Husbandry,
Rural institutions
Fisheries etc.)
Development  Voluntary
Ministry of Rural
ICAR
Development organizations
SAUs

Agriculture development in India is basically a state subject. The Union Government plays
a major role in formulating national policies that has direct bearing on the growth of agricultural
sector. The Union Government mainly provides road map through its policies, programmes and
budgetary support to the sector. The programmes conceived at national level are mainly
implemented by the states through its development departments. Besides, states also formulate
region specific development programmes. Similarly, Indian Council of Agricultural Research
(ICAR) is an apex body at the national level that supports and coordinates agricultural research,
extension and education activities to evolve effective Transfer of Technology (TOT) models.
The State Agricultural Universities (SAUs) also develop region specific extension models
suitable to take up transfer of technology besides implementing the models evolved by ICAR
system. All the systems maintain coordination among them for proper functioning and avoiding
duplication of effort.
Public Extension System - National Level
At the national level the main extension service is provided by Ministry of Agriculture &
Farmers Welfare, Government of India. The ministry has 3 departments, Department of
Agriculture Cooperation and Farmers Welfare, Department of Animal Husbandry, Dairying and
Fisheries and Department of Agriculture, Research and Education. All these three departments
maintain a close coordination among them and perform their research and extension activities.

16
The Department of Agriculture Cooperation and Farmers Welfare has the main responsibility for
developing and implementing various schemes for central government. The Ministry maintains a
close relation with Indian Council of Agricultural Research (ICAR), which is a registered,
autonomous body at the national level for conducting and coordinating agricultural research. The
Ministry of Rural Development also undertakes many developmental programmes for social
welfare.
The various programmes implemented at national level are as follows:
Post-independence period: The first planned attempt started with the launching of Community
Development Programme in 1952, followed by the National Extension Service in 1953. These
programs were able to educate farmers to take up improved methods of farming across the
country. The other important Area-Based Special Programmes were; Intensive Agricultural
District Programme (IADP, 1960), Intensive Agriculture Area Programme (IAAP, 1964) and
High Yielding Varieties Programme (HYVP, 1966) besides Farmers Training Centers (1967) to
train farmers on high yielding varieties and improved methods of fanning to back up the above
programs. The cumulative effect of these programs resulted in increased productivity, which
made possible the 'Green Revolution' in Indian agriculture. In 2004 the Government launched
Kissan Call Center to provide telephonic advisory services to the farmers in local language. To
sustain agricultural growth rate at 4 per cent and more investment in agricultural and allied sector
the national government implemented RashtriyaKrishiVikasYojana in 2007. To make the
country self-sufficient in pulse production National Food Security Mission was introduced in the
same year.
However, these programs widened gap between resource rich and resource poor farmers.
In order to enable resource poor farmers to take benefit of improved farm technology, many
client-based programs were introduced. The most important ones being; Small Farmers
Development Agency (SFDA, 1970), Marginal Farmers and Agricultural Laborer’sProgramme
(MFAL, 1970), District Rural Development Agency (DRDA, 1978), Integrated Rural
Development Programme (IRDP, 1978), etc. Although, these programs were able to improve the
socio-economic conditions of beneficiaries, they were isolated in a given time and implemented
in a phased manner.

Initiatives of ICAR: The Indian Council of Agricultural Research (ICAR) took up numbers of
extension programmes over the years. The first programme was All India Coordinated Project on
National Demonstration (1964) initiated to demonstrate the genetic production potentiality of
major crops in the farmers' field. Then the Operational Research Project (ORP) was started
during 1974-75 to identify technological as well as socio-economic constraints and to formulate
and implement the problem-solving technology modules on area/watershed/ target group basis in
operational area. Then in 1974 the KrishiVigyan Kendra was introduced to provide need based
vocational training to the farmers, farm women, farm youth and extension personnel. Lab to
Land programme was launched during 1979 to transfer low cost technologies for small and
marginal farmers and agricultural laborers in agriculture and allied enterprises. Institute Village
Linkage Programme was launched during 1995. Under innovation in technology dissemination
17
component of National Agricultural Technology Project (1998), the ICAR established
Agriculture Technology Information Centre (ATIC) in each State Agricultural Universities and
ICAR institutes to work as single window support system linking the various units of research
institution with intermediary users and farmers in decision making and problem solving exercise
through availability of technology inputs, products, information and advisory services under one
roof. Since 2006-07, ICAR is implementing National Agricultural Innovation Project (NAIP), in
a consortium mode.

Public Extension System - State Level

Extension Approach of State Development Departments: Agricultural development being
the state subject, the major responsibility of implementing all the programmes of central and
state governments goes with state department of agriculture/horticulture/animal
husbandry/fishery. The major State Development Departments (Departments of Agriculture,
Horticulture, Sericulture, Animal husbandry and Fisheries) having focus on development of
agriculture and allied activities do undertake outreach activities. The effective extension activity
is visible mostly for Agriculture department, which was one of the major partners in
implementing Training and Visit System at state. Some of the states have suitably modified T
and V system (like Broad Based Extension System in Tamil Nadu) to suit their local needs.
Presently the state department of Agriculture is a nodal agency to implement Agriculture
Technology Management Agency (funded by Ministry of Agriculture and Cooperation, GOI) at
the district level. The coordination and integration of activities of other development departments
is envisaged under ATMA.
During middle of 1970s it was observed that extension services in the developing
countries were suffering from a number of weaknesses, including the engagement of extension
workers' energies on low priority tasks; the lack of single as well as clear line of command; and
low level of agricultural knowledge and skill among field level functionaries. As a means of
reforming and strengthening the extension service, a reorganized agricultural extension system
known as 'Training and Visit' (T & V) system was introduced in the country.
Training and Visit System: This system was introduced in India in 1974 with the World Bank
assistance. Training and Visit system became the dominant method of restructuring the extension
services in over sixty countries in Asia, Africa and Latin America, including India. The system
aimed to achieve change in production technologies of farmers through professional assistance
for the contact farmers from well-trained extension personnel on agricultural research and
supported by supply, service and marketing facilities which were earlier lacking in National
Extension Service.
Broad Based Extension System (BBES): This system aimed at rectifying the defects of T & V
system in some of the Indian states. In the BBE: (a) the role of subject matter specialists was
amplified and they were invited to formulate messages suitable to their land based activities
(agriculture, sericulture, animal husbandry, horticulture, human resource development, creating
agriculture infrastructure etc.), (b) village extension workers had full time job by offering

18
messages during lean season also, and (c) the concept of broad based education laid emphasis on
formulating and delivering composite messages to the farmers to meet the needs of their whole
agricultural environment.
Agriculture Technology Management Agency (ATMA): In country like India where agro-
climatic zones widely differ besides significant variation in socio-economic status of farmers',
uniform extension service is not the panacea for all the regions. It was realized that public
extension system will have to be placed in new decentralized institutional arrangements which
are demand driven, farmer-accountable, bottom-up and have farming system approach. To
address these issues, the ATMA was envisaged as alternate public extension institution of all
stakeholders at district level. Under the Support to State Extension Programme for Extension
Reforms, the extension division of the Department of Agriculture Cooperation and Farmers
Welfare makes general policies for ATMAs at national level and also provides technical and
financial supports.
The state department of Horticulture is implementing National Horticulture Mission since
2005. The human resource development through training and demonstrations is an integral part
of the mission. Under this programme, training of the farmers, field level workers and officers by
both Government sectors (SAUs and ICAR institutes) and Non-Government Organizations is
being undertaken. Departments of Animal husbandry and Fisheries are conducting a variety of
extension activities like discussion meetings, demonstrations, field visits, fairs, field days etc. by
the technical field functionaries to transfer the new technologies.
State Agricultural Universities (SAUs): The State Agricultural Universities apart from lending
support in implementing ICAR sponsored extension programmes, have evolved several
innovative extension models to effectively reach the farming community. The type of extension
activities undertaken by SAUs vary from state to state. The four agricultural universities of
Gujarat state are undertaking transfer of technologies to farmers and others through
KrishiVigyanKendras, Extension Education Units, Farmers Training Institute,
SardarSmritiKendras, Staff Training Unit, Agriculture Technology Information Centre. The
SAUs publish agriculture literature (books, booklets, folders and leaflets) in local languages for
dissemination of agricultural technologies to the farmers and extension personnel. Some of the
universities have their own mobile message services, community radio services and other
different services.
Other Extension Systems
Extension activities of Commodity Boards, Financial Institutions, Input agencies, Non-
Government Organizations and Media Organizations come under this category.
Commodity Boards (Coffee board, Spice board, Tobacco board, Dairy Development board, Tea
board, Coconut development board etc.) are extending crop/commodity specific technical know-
how to the farmers to a limited extent as many of these boards do not have grass root level
functionaries throughout the country.
Financial institutions normally provide assistance in preparation of agriculture project
proposals by their technical staff to the farmers and others.

19
 Agricultural input agencies besides providing critical inputs like seeds, planting
materials, fertilizes, plant protection chemicals etc., they also sponsor/organize training
programme to educate farming community.
The media organizations (print and electronic media) are disseminating timely
information on weather, technical information and marketing information.
Various committed Non-Government Organizations, Voluntary Organizations and
Philanthropists are also rendering rural extension services to the rural community in the field of
agriculture and allied sectors, health, sanitation, education, water supply etc., across the country.
Despite the efforts made by public as well private extension systems to put in place an
effective extension mechanism, the present extension systems appear to be inadequate to address
the challenges faced by the farmers in the context of changing agricultural scenario. There is
very little penetration of extension system below the taluka level. The major reason being lack of
grassroot level extension functionaries to work at panchayats or village level. The public
extension system would continue to play an important role in technology dissemination to serve
the large chunk of small and marginal farmers, besides the other extension service providers to
supplement and compliment the public extension service. At the same time, extension
mechanism has to be demand driven, location specific and address the diversified demands as
well as those of marketing and value addition which calls for organized arrangement of farmers.

20
 Extension Efforts in Pre-independence Era
It was during this period that the Department of Agriculture came into existence in June
1871 under the British rule, and by 1882, agricultural departments in most of the provinces
started functioning in skeleton form. Recognizing the need for new and improved methods of
cultivation based on agricultural research, the then Government had set up Imperial Agricultural
Research Institute at Pusa in Bihar in 1905, which was later in 1936 transferred in New Delhi
and now known as Indian Agricultural Research Institute (IARI).

The agricultural and rural development schemes of the pre independence era were mostly
started by philanthropist individual person in sporadic manner. There were no proper
coordination and participation of other stakeholders in those programmes. The list of those
programmes is given below:

Scheme/programme Year Initiator Remarks

Rural Reconstruction at 1903 Daniel Hamilton Developed model village based
Sundarban on cooperative principal
Cooperative moment 1904 UP State Cooperatives functioning in
rural areas are known as rural
[Link], * the
agriculturists, artisans and
persons of small means acquire
membership of these
cooperatives. The main
objectives of such societies
are to provide loans to their
members to meet their
agricultural requirements like;
agricultural implements*
fertilizers, seeds etc.
Gurgaon Project 1920 F. L. Brayne Started at Gurgaon district of
(1928) Haryana. Improving crop
production, health, rural
economy was the main
concern. Concept of Rural
Guidance or GaaonSathi was
developed. Village Guide
Sevagram Project 1920 Mahatma Gandhi Gandhian approach of village
self-help by emphasizing
cottage industries. Village
sanitation, upliftment of
backward and women in the
village
Sriniketan Project 1921 RabindraNath Tagore Developed a spirit of self-help,

21
 village leadership, organized
(West Bengal) (1914) village scouts called
BrathiBalika, established
training centers for handicrafts
and a demonstration center
Marathandam Project 1928 Spencer Hatch Started in Kerala under the
(1921) Young Men Christian
Association (YMCA). Three-
fold development, spiritual,
mental & physical, and
economic & social. Self-help
with intimate expert counsel
Baroda Village Reconstruction 1932 V. T. Krishnamachari Considered all aspects of rural
life. Improvement in standard
of living, spread education and
industrialization.
Grow More Food Campaign 1942 The British govt. To fulfill the need of food,
which had been created due to
the Second World War. This
campaign was the first one to
be organized on a national level
before independence.
Indian Village Service 1945 A. T. Mosher & Started in Allahabad and
B. N. Gupta Aligarh in U. P.
Firka Development Scheme 1946 T. Prakashan Development of village at Firka
Madras Govt. level. A firka is a revenue block
consist of 5 -8 villages. The
scheme used Gandhian ideal of
“Village Swaraj” by bringing
about not only educational,
economic, sanitary and other
developmental activities of
villages but also by revitalizing
the spirit of the people and
making them self-confident and
self-reliant

USA System:
Teaching: Morrill Act-1862; Land grant Colleges
Research: Hatch Act-1887; Experiment station
Extension: Smith Liver Act-1914; Transfer of technology and demonstration.

22
23
 Extension Efforts in Post-independence Era
(Including various agril. Developmental programmes launched by Govt. of India and ICAR)

After independence the Government of India lunched many extension/rural

developmental programmes/ schemes. From 1947 to 1960 periods mostly rural development
programmes were emphasized, after that to achieve the self-sufficiency in food production and
make the country self-reliant in food production, from 1960 to 1970 the emphasis of the
Government was to increase food production by initiating different agricultural developmental
programmes. After that from 1970 onwards the focus of the Government shift to the
development of weaker section and started to implement target group specific programmes,
employment programmes for the development of rural pore. The various programmes undertaken
by the government after indolence of the country are listed below:

Programme Year Implement Remarks

ed by
Etawah Pilot Project 1948 Albert Started in in Etawah
Mayer district of Uttar Pradesh. It
is the forerunner of
Community Development
Programme. The concept
of multipurpose village
level worker was planned.
An administrative pattern
was evolved which
facilitated extension
activities to the village
level.
Nilokheri Experiment 1948 S. K. Dey Also known as
Mazdoormanzil. Started to
rehabilitate the families
coming from Pakistan
during partition at
Nilokheri, Haryana.
Established a vocational
training center for
providing trading on
poultry, piggery and other
agricultural activities.
Bhoodan Movement 1951 VinobaBha Started at Pochampally
ve village in Telangana.
Earliest land reform
programme in the country

24
 where excess land is
provided to the landless or
tenants.
Community Development Programme (CDP) 2nd Oct., Govt. of On the recommendations
1952 India of Grow More Food
Enquiry Committee
(1952), 55 community
projects were started. Each
project covers an area of
about 450- 500 sq. miles
with about 300 villages
and a population of about 2
lakhs. Each project area
has been divided into three
development blocks. A
development block
consisted of about 100
villages with about 150-
170 sq. miles and a
population of about 60-70
thousand. Each block was
further divided into groups
of 5-10 villages. Each such
group formed the area of
operation for a Village
Level Worker (Gram
Sevak) who was the basic
level extension
functionary. The
programme emphasized all
round development of the
village community. First
nationwide extension
programme after
independence.
National Extension Services (NES) 2nd Oct., Govt. of Implemented in the areas
1953 India which were not covered by
CDP. It was less intensive
than CDP. It is a
permanent organization
and covers the whole
country. It provides the
basic organization, official,
non-official and a

25
 minimum financial
provision for development.
Panchayat Raj Institutions 1958-59 Govt. of Recommended by
India BalwantRaiMheta
committee (1957). Also
known as democratic
decentralization. It is
village self-governance. It
was 3 tire system of
Village (Gram) panchayat
at village level,
Panchayatsamiti
(talukapanchayat) at taluka
or block level and
Zilaparishad
(zilapanchayat) at district
level. First adopted by the
state of Rajasthan
in Nagaur district on 2nd
Oct., 1959.
Intensive Agriculture District Programme (IADP) 1960 Govt. of Based on the report of Ford
India Foundation team (1958)
entitled ‘India’s Food
Crisis and Steps to Meet It’
the government lunched
this programmefrom
Kharif season. This
programme was also
known as Package
Progarmme. Not only the
agriculture production was
emphasized in the
programme but the credit
facility, marketing and
value addition were also
taken care of. Every farmer
has to prepare their farm
plan. The programme was
initially started in 7
districts of the country,
Travancore, Madras
(T.N.), West Godawari
(A.P.), Sambhalpur
(Orissa), Raipur (M.P.),

26
 Ludhiana (Punjab), Aligarh
(U.P.) and Pali
(Rajasthan).
Intensive Agriculture Area Programme (IAAP) 1964 Govt. of It was similar to IADP but
India less intensive than IADP.
Intensive Cattle Development Project (ICDP) 1964-65 Govt. of It was envisaged to locate
India the breeding tracts of
indigenous breeds of cattle
and buffaloes and in the
milk sheds of large dairy
projects. The establishment
of ICDPs was linked with
the dairy plants so as to
enable the dairy plants to
collect and process milk to
their full capacities. Each
ICDP was expected to
cover one lakh breedable
female bovine population
and to provide necessary
inputs and technical
services.
High Yielding Variety Programme (HYVP) 1966 Govt. of Introduction of dwarf
India wheat variety. Tremendous
increase in food grain
production. William Gaud
termed this as Green
Revolution. Dr. N. E.
Borlog and Dr. M. S.
Swaminathan were the two
important persons who
contributed whole
heartedly to the
programme.
Small Farmers Development Agency (SFDA) 1970-71 Govt. of Under the RBI appointed
India All India Rural Credit
Review Committee, B.
Venkatappiah
recommended this
programme. The scheme
implemented by the agency
to provide loan from the
loan institutions, co-
operatives and commercial

27
 banks, to study the
problems of the small
farmers, to arrange small
irrigation, provide new
agricultural instruments
and to build field project
after assessing the
resources of the farmers.
The subsidy under this
scheme was 25% (for non-
tribal farmer) and 50% (for
tribal farmer). 50 such
projects were implemented
throughout the country
during the fourth five-year
plan.
Marginal Farmers and Agricultural Labour 1970-71 Govt. of The agency provides
Development Agency (MFALA) India intensive agricultural
methods, loans, and
production materials for
the increment in income of
the marginal farmers and
agricultural labourers. 41
such projects were
implemented throughout
the country.
Tribal and Hill Area Development Programme 1973-74 Govt. of Initially tribal development
India project was launched in 8
districts of four states.
Srikakulam (A.P.),
Singhbhum (Bihar),
Jhabua& Raipur (M. P.),
Ganjam, Koraput,
Keonjhar and Phulbani
(Orissa). Hill area
development project was
launched in Paudigarhwal
(U. P.) and Nangva
(Manipur). These areas
were getting special aid
from planning commission
for developmental
activities, like, best
utilization of water and

28
 land, providing facility of
housing for the landless
farmers, minimizing the
traditional planting of trees
and Jhoomfarming, cattle
development, dairy
development, piggeries,
goat, sheep, beehive and
silk-worm taming.
Drought Prone Area Programme (DPAP) 1973-74 Govt. of Only implemented in those
India areas where rain was
scares, drought was
frequent and no facility for
irrigation. Main activities
included was protection of
land and water resources,
planting of trees,
development of dairy,
animal husbandry, sheep
rearing practices and other
subsidiary income
generating activities.
Command Area Development Programme 1974 Govt. of Focused on specific area to
(CADP) India utilize the available water
in proper manner which
can be achieved through
reducing the wastage of
water by over irrigation
and drainage, scheduling
of irrigation, leveling of
fields, encouraging
encourage night irrigation,
following proper methods
of irrigation etc.
The Integrated Child Development Services 2nd Oct., Govt. of The Integrated Child
(ICDS) 1975 India Development Services
(ICDS) scheme is a
government initiative for
the all-round development
(health, nutrition and
education) of children
under 6. Its aim is to
reduce infant mortality,
child malnutrition and to

29
 provide pre-school
education.
Desert Development Programme (DDP) 1977-78 Govt. of Main aim was integrated
India development of desert
area. This programme is
operational in 227 blocks
of 36 districts of seven
states i.e. Rajasthan,
Haryana, Gujarat, and
Jammu & Kashmir.
Increasing production,
level of income, providing
the facility of employment
and best utilization of the
available resources were
the thrust areas of the
programme.
Integrated Rural Development Programme 1978 Govt. of It was the largest poverty
(IRDP) India alleviation programme of
the country. The
programme was designed
to enable the rural poor
families to cross the
poverty line by providing
productive assets and
inputs to the target groups.
The programme was
implemented in all the
blocks in the country as a
centrally sponsored
scheme funded on 50:50
basis by the Centre and
State. For effective
implementation of the
programme District Rural
Developmental Agency
(DRDA) was created. The
programme now merged
with SGSY.
Training of Rural Youth for Self-Employment 15th Govt. of To provide training
(TRYSEM) Aug., India facilities and create self-
1979 employment among rural
unemployed youths. It is a
facilitating component of

30
 IRDP. It was designed to
provide technical and basic
skills to rural youth (18- 35
years age) from families
below poverty line to
enable them to take up
self-employment.
National Rural Employment Programme (NREP) 1980 Govt. of It was designed to
India significantly increase
employment opportunities
in rural areas by creating
additional gainful
employment for
unemployed and under
employed persons. Wages
were paid partly in cash
and partly in food grain 1-2
kg/day/head. Central and
state government share was
50:50.
Development of Women and Children in Rural 1982 Govt. of It was a sub component of
Areas (DWCRA) India IRDP. It is directed at
raising the income levels
of women of poor
households so as to enable
their organized
participation in social
development towards
economic self-reliance.
Later it was merged with
SGSY
JawaharRozgarYojana (JRY) 1989 Govt. of The National Rural
India Employment Program
(NREP) and Rural
Landless Employment
Guarantee Programme
(RLEGP) were merged
together to form JRY. The
Yojana was implemented
on rural scale. Every
village was to be covered
through Panchayati Raj
Institutions. The village
got aide and support from

31
 DRDA. Expenditures were
born by central and state in
80:20 ratios.
Employment Assurance Scheme (EAS) 1993 Govt. of Provide gainful
India employment during the
lean agricultural season in
manual work to all able-
bodied adults in rural areas
who are in need and
desirous of work, but
cannot find it.
RashtriyaMahilaKosh (RKM) 1993 Govt. of The RKM was established
India for socio-economic
empowerment of women.
It is a facilitating
agency wherein RMK prov
ides loans to NGO-MFIs
termed as Intermediary
Organizations (IMO)
which on-lend to Self Help
Groups (SHGs) of
women. It is an
autonomous body
appointed as
nodal agencies for reaching
out to the women
beneficiaries with easy
access of micro credit for
income generating
activities.
MahilaSamridhiYojana (TRENDS) 1993 Govt. of Objective was to
India empowering the rural
women through building
thrift habit, self-reliance
and confidence among
them. Provide economic
security to the rural women
and to encourage, the
saving habit among them.
It also provides
microfinance to the women
entrepreneurs.
Rural Housing (IndraAwasYojana) January, Govt. of Rural housing
1996 India programme,as an

32
 independent programme ,
started with Indira
AwaasYojana (IAY) in
January 1996. Although
IAY addressed the housing
needs in the rural areas,
certain gaps were
identified during the
concurrent evaluations and
the performance Audit by
Comptroller and Auditor
General (CAG) of India in
2014.
To address these gaps in
the rural housing program
and in view of
Government’s commitment
to providing “Housing for
All’’ by the scheme 2022,
the of has IAY has been re-
structured into Pradhan
MantriAwaasYojana –
Gramin (PMAY-G) w.e.f.
1st April 2016.
Swarnajayanti Gram SwarojgarYojana (SGSY) 1999 Govt. of Provide sustainable income
India to poorest of the poor
people living in rural areas.
6 previous programme i.e.
IRDP, TRYSEM,
DWCRA, Million Wells
Scheme, Ganga
KalyanYojna and SITRA
(Supply of Improved
Toolkits to Rural Artisans)
were merged together. The
SGSY aims at
providing self-employment
to villagers through the
establishment of Self-Help
Groups. Activity clusters
are identified based on the
local resource and skill of
the people. The
programme focused on
establishing
microenterprise in the

33
 village.
Kisan Credit Card 1999- Govt. of Helps the farmers to access
2000 India timely and adequate credit.
It was started by the RBI
and NABARD. The limit
of finance was decided by
the lead bank. The card is
valid for five years and
subjected to annual
renewal. KCC offering
credit to the farmers in two
typesviz., Cash Credit and
Term Credit (for allied
activities such as pump
sets, land development,
plantation, drip
irrigations).
Antyodaya Anna Yojana (AAY) 25th Govt. of Provide highly subsidized
Dec., India food to the poorest families
2000 of the country. First
implemented in Rajasthan.
The beneficiaries can
purchase 35 kg of rice and
wheat at Rs. 3 per Kg for
rice and Rs. 2 per Kg for
wheat. The beneficiaries
can purchase the food
grain from Public
Distribution System (PDS).
GraminBhandharanYojana 1st April, Govt. of Government provides
Or Rural Godown Scheme, 2001 India supports to an individual, a
company, a farmer, local
government, NGOs and
various associations, if
they build or renovate rural
godowns.
The scheme has been
subsumed into capital
investment subsidy sub-
scheme “Agricultural
Marketing Infrastructure
(AMI)” of Integrated
Scheme for Agricultural
Marketing (ISAM) scheme
w.e.f 01.04.2014.

34
SampoornaGrameenRozgarYojana (SGRY) 2001 Govt. of Provide providing gainful
India employment to the rural
poor. The programme was
implemented through the
Panchayati Raj institutions.
Previous EAS and JRY
were merged to this
programme. Expenditures
were born by central and
state in 75:25 ratios.
Agri Clinic and Agri Business Centres (ACABC) 2002 Govt. of The scheme aims to
India promote the establishment
of Agri-Clinics and Agri-
Business Centres
(ACABC) all over the
country. The MANAGE
provide necessary training
to the applicant and
NABARD will provide the
fund for establishing the
centres. Agri-Clinics are
envisaged to provide
expert advice and services
to farmers on various
aspects of farming. Agri-
Business Centres are
commercial units of agri-
ventures established by
trained agriculture
professionals. Such
ventures may include
maintenance and custom
hiring of farm equipment,
sale of inputs and other
services in agriculture and
allied areas, including
post-harvest management
and market linkages for
income generation and
entrepreneurship
development. Graduates in
agriculture and allied
subjects, Diploma holder
in Agri. & allied subjects,

35
 Post graduates in
Agriculture can apply for
the scheme.
Kisan Call Centre 2004 Govt. of The call centers were
India established across the
country to deliver
extension services to the
farming community in
local language. A farmer
from any part of the
country can contact the
Call Centre by dialing the
toll-free No. 1800-180-
1551 and present their
problems/queries related to
farming. The operator at
the Kisan Call Centre will
attempt to answer the
problems/queries of the
farmers immediately. In
case the operator at the
Call Centre is not able to
address the farmer’s query
immediately, the call will
be forwarded to identified
agricultural specialists.
National Project on Organic Farming 2004 Govt. of Objective was to promote
India organic farming practices,
provide financial and
technical support for
setting up of organic input
production unit and human
resource development and
awareness creation and
market development for
Quality Control of Organic
Inputs.
National Rural Employment Guarantee Act 2005 Govt. of The act aims to guarantee
India the right to work. The
primary objective was to
enhancing livelihood
security in rural areas by
providing at least 100 days
of guaranteed wage

36
 employment in a financial
year, to every household
whose adult members
volunteer to do unskilled
manual work. Employment
is to be provided within
5 km of an applicant’s
residence, and minimum
wages are to be paid. If
work is not provided
within 15 days of applying,
applicants are entitled to an
unemployment
allowance. Now this is
known as Mahatma Gandhi
National Rural
Employment Guarantee
Act (MNREGA).
National Horticulture Mission (NHM) 2005 Govt. of The main objective was to
India develop horticulture to the
maximum potential
available in the State and
to augment production of
all horticultural production
of all horticultural
products. Food processing
and value addition of
horticultural crop was also
emphasized.
National Food Security Mission (NFSM) 2007 Govt. of To increase the production
India of rice, wheat, and pulses
by 10 million tonnes, 8
million tonnes, and 2
million tonnes respectively
by the end of the Eleventh
Plan (2012). Increase
production through area
expansion and
productivity; create
employment opportunities;
and enhance the farm-level
economy (i.e. farm profits)
to restore confidence of
farmers. NFSM now has 5

37
 components: NFSM: Rice,
NFSM: Wheat, NFSM:
Pulse, NFSM: Coarse
cereals, NFSM:
Commercial crops.
RashtriyaKrishiVikasYojana (RKVY) 2007 Govt. of The programmeseeks to
India achieve 4% annual growth
in agriculture through
development of
Agriculture and its allied
sectors. It provides the
state government more
autonomy to draw up plans
for increased public
investment in Agriculture
and allied sector. It also
emphasized to draw up the
agricultural plan for the
district and state.
Livestock Insurance Scheme 2008-09 Govt. of To Safe Guard assured
India protection to the animals of
the farmer against eventual
losses.
Benefit of subsidy is to be
restricted to 5 animals per
beneficiary per household
for all animals except
sheep, goat, pig and rabbit.
National Rural Livelihood Mission (NRLM) 2011 Govt. of This scheme is focused on
India promoting self-
employment and
organization of rural poor.
The basic idea behind this
programme is to organize
the poor into SHG (Self
Help Groups) groups and
make them capable for
self-employment by
introducing some
entrepreneurial activity.
The SGSY is remolded
into this programme.
Deendayal Disabled Rehabilitation Scheme 13th July, Govt. of NGOs are provided
(DDRS) 2013 India financial assistance for
providing various services

38
 to people with disabilities,
such as special schools,
vocational training centers,
community-based
rehabilitation, pre-school
and initial interference etc.
DeenDayalUpadhyayaGrameenKaushalyaYojana 25th Sept., Govt. of The Vision of DDU-GKY
(DDU-GKY) 2014 India is to “Transform rural poor
youth into an economically
independent and globally
relevant workforce”.
The scheme aims to
provide skill to the poor
youth of the country,
thereby giving them
opportunities for growth.
Pradhan MantriAwasYojana (PMAY) 2015 Govt. of Pradhan
India MantriAwasYojana has
been established by the
Government of India to
offer affordable houses to
various sections of the
society. This scheme offers
interest subsidy on the
home loans taken by
individuals belonging to
EWS (Economically
Weaker Section), LIG
(Low Income Group), and
MIG 1 & 2 (Middle
Income Group 1 & 2).
Pradhan Mantri KisanSamman Nidhi Yojana 1stFebruar Govt. of To provide income support
y 2019 India to all eligible land-holding
farmers and their families.
PM-KISAN scheme also
aims to supplement the
financial needs of the
farmers in procuring
various inputs to ensure
proper crop health and
appropriate yields,
commensurate with the
anticipated farm income.
One District One Product January Govt. of To focused on fostering
2018 India balanced regional

39
 development in India by
promoting a specific
product in each district.
The program aims to boost
local economies, generate
employment, and improve
product quality and market
access.
Programmes of ICAR
All India Coordinated Project on National 1964 ICAR This nationwide
Demonstration (AICPND) demonstration project was
conducted to show the
farmers the genetic
production potentiality of
the crop. The
demonstrations were laid
out in the field of actual
farmers with small
holding. The average size
of the demonstration plot
was 1 ha. It may be 1 acre
if bigger plot was not
available. There was a
specific yield target for
each demonstration. The
demonstration was
conducted by the
agricultural scientists in
association with local
extension workers.
Operational Research Project (ORP) 1974-75 ICAR Aimed to disseminate the
proven technology among
the farmers in water shade
basis, covering whole
village or cluster of
villages. It also studies the
constraints as barriers to
rapid spread of improved
technical knowledge.
Demonstrate the impact of
new technology on a large
scale, covering whole
village or cluster of
villages at a time.

40
KrishiVigyan Kendra (KVK) 1974 ICAR Designed to impart need
based skill oriented
vocational training to the
farmers, in-service field
level extension workers
and the youth who wish to
go for self-employment.
KVK provides learning
through work experience
and concerned with
technical literacy. There
was no specific syllabus
for training; it was based
on the need of the farmers.
From 1992 all the transfer
of technology programmes
of ICAR, viz. AICPND,
ORP and LLP are merged
to the KVK and new
mandate for KVK was
made. The mandates were
no farm testing, training
and front-line
demonstration.
Lab to Land Programme (LLP) 1979 ICAR The programme was
launched as golden jubilee
celebration of ICAR. The
overall objective of the
programme was to improve
the economic condition of
the small and marginal
farmers and landless
agricultural labourers,
particularly SC and ST, by
transferring improved low-
cost technology. Also
encourage supplementary
source of income.
Institute Village Linkage Programme (IVLP) & 1995 ICAR It lays emphasis on the
Technology Assessment and Refinement Project research aspect through the
(TARP) participation of farmers. It
is a production system-
oriented project with agro-
ecosystem analysis of the

41
 adopted villages, which
helps in identify the
problems, priorities them
and finalize the
technological intervention
point which are further
developed into action plans
to overcome the problems
through assessment and
refinement of technologies.
National Agricultural Technology Project 1998 ICAR It was world bank financed
(NATP) project. Innovation in
Technology Dissemination
(ITD) component was
planned in this project.
ITD aims to develop a
transfer of technology
system which will be more
demand driven, well
integrated with research,
financially sustainable and
accountable to the
stakeholders. Under this
programme ATMA, ATIC
were conceptualized. The
project emphasizes the
research, extension and
farmers linkage.
National Agricultural Innovation Project (NAIP) 2006 ICAR This was also world bank
financed project. The
project facilitated
accelerated and sustainable
transformation of Indian
agriculture so that it can
support poverty alleviation
and income generation.
The project was
implemented in consortium
mode. The specific
objectives of the project
were: developing capacity
of the Indian NARS,
promote research from
production to consumption,

42
 improve livelihood
security of the rural people,
and to develop capacity
undertake basic and
strategic research in
agriculture and allied
fields.
National Innovations in Climate Resilient 2011 ICAR It is a network project
Agriculture (NICRA) which aims to enhance
resilience of Indian
agriculture to climate
change and climate
vulnerability through
strategic research and
technology demonstration.
The project consists of four
components viz. Strategic
Research, Technology
Demonstration, Capacity
Building and
Sponsored/Competitive
Grants.
Attracting and Retaining Youth in Agriculture 2015 ICAR The objective was to
(ARYA) facilitate the
entrepreneurial
development of youth in
rural areas to take up
various agriculture, allied
and service sector
enterprises for sustainable
income and gainful
employment. The
identified youth were
trained on entrepreneurship
development skills by
providing a basket of
options to start agriculture
ventures for self-
employment. It will also
attract the rural youth to go
for agriculture as an
occupation.
My Village My Pride/ MeraGaon, MeraGourav 2015 ICAR To enhance the direct
(MGMG) interface of the agricultural

43
 scientists with the farmers.
Provide farmers with
required information,
knowledge and advices on
regular basis. Under this
scheme group of scientists
will select a village and
remain in continuous touch
with that village and
provide required
information to the farmers
of that village.

44
 Rural Development
Rural Development in India is one of the most important factors for growth of Indian
economy. India is primarily an agriculture-based country and around 67 per cent (2011 censes)
of its population lives in rural area. The Ministry of Rural Development in India is the apex body
for formulating policies, regulations and acts parenting to the development of the rural sector.
Agriculture, handicrafts, fisheries, poultry, dairy are some of the common contributors to the
rural business and economy. It means it is concerned with economic growth, social justice, and
improvement in the living standard of the rural people by providing adequate and quality social
services and minimum basic needs.

The present strategy of rural development mainly focuses on poverty alleviation, better
livelihood opportunities, provision of basic amenities and infrastructure facilities through
innovative programmes of wage and self-employment. This can be achieved by implementing
various programmes in partnership with government organizations and various communities,
non-governmental organizations, community-based organizations, panchayat raj institutions and
industrial establishments.

For better understanding one should clearly understand the following concepts:

Community: A body of people having common rights, privileges or interests or living in the
same geographical area under the same laws and regulations.

Development: It is act of improving by expanding or enlarging or refining.

Community Development: It is a process of developing or building up communities of men and

women to enable their empowerment, self- sufficiency and control over their environment.

Rural area: It refers to an area where people are engaged mostly in primary activities to produce
things first time in co-operation with nature.

Rural Development: Rural development is a process of bringing desirable changes in the life of
rural mass in terms of their social, economic, cultural, psychological, technological, health and
infrastructural conditions. It is a process of improving the standards of people residing in rural
areas.

Objective of rural development:

The fundamental objective of the rural development is to raise the level of living standards of the
rural people. The specific objectives are:

 To increase the availability and widen the distribution of basic life sustaining articles
such as food, clothes, shelter, health care and security.

45
  To raise standards of living by providing of more jobs, increasing purchasing power,
better education and greater attention to cultural humanistic values.
 To expand the range of economic and social choice of individuals by freeing them from
slavery (gulami) and dependence.
Importance of Rural Development:

Rural development is a national necessity and has considerable importance in India because of
the following reasons.

 To develop rural area as a whole in terms of culture, society, economy, technology and
health.
 To develop living standard of rural mass.
 To develop rural youths, children and women.
 To develop and empower human resource of rural area in terms of their skill, knowledge,
attitude and other abilities.
 To develop infrastructure facilities of rural area.
 To provide minimum facility to rural mass in terms of drinking water, education,
transport, electricity and communication.
 To develop rural institutions like panchayat, co-operatives, post, banking and credit.
 To provide financial assistance to develop the artisans in the rural areas, farmers and
agrarian unskilled labour, small and big rural entrepreneurs to improve their economy.
 To develop rural industries through the development of handicrafts, small scale
industries, village industries, rural crafts, cottage industries and other related economic
operations in the rural sector.
 To develop agriculture, animal husbandry and allied areas.
 To restore uncultivated land, provide irrigation facilities and motivate farmers to adopt
improved seed, fertilizers, package of practices of crop cultivation and soil conservation
methods.
 To develop entertainment and recreational facility for rural mass.
 To develop leadership in rural area.
 To improve rural marketing facility.
 To minimize gap between the urban and rural in terms of facilities availed.
 To improve rural people’s participation in the development of state and nation as a
whole.
 To improve scope of employment for rural mass.
 To eliminate rural poverty.
 To solve the problems faced by the rural mass for their development.

46
Problems in Rural Development

1. People related:
 Traditional way of thinking.
 Poor understanding.
 Low level of education to understand developmental efforts and new technology.
 Deprived psychology and scientific orientation.
 Lack of confidence.
 Poor awareness.
 Low level of education.
 Existence of unfelt needs.
 Personal ego.
2. Agricultural related problems:
 Lack of expected awareness, knowledge, skill and attitude.
 Unavailability of inputs.
 Poor marketing facility.
 Insufficient extension staff and services.
 Multidimensional tasks to extension personnel.
 Small size of land holding.
 Division of land.
 Unwillingness to work and stay in rural areas.
3. Infrastructure related problems:
 Poor infrastructure facilities like water, electricity, transport, educational institutions,
communication, health, storage facility etc.
4. Economic problems:
 Unfavourable economic condition to adopt high cost technology.
 High cost of inputs.
 Underprivileged rural industries
5. Social and Cultural problems:
 Cultural norms and traditions
 Conflict within and between groups, castes, religions, regions, languages.
6. Leadership related problems:
 Leadership among the hands of inactive and incompetent people.
 Malafied interest of leaders.
 Biased political will.
7. Administrative problems:
 Earlier, majority of the programmes were planning based on top to bottom approach and
were target oriented.
 Political interference.
 Lack of motivation and interest.
 Unwillingness to work in rural area.

47
  Improper utilization of budget.

Various Rural Development Programmes Launched by Govt. of

India
Sr. Name of Programmes Year of Importance Remark
Starting
1. Panchayat Raj System 1959  Political will of the Govt in sharing
authority and responsibility with the
Panchayats. Enactment of laws relating to
PRIsa basic pattern ofDemocratic
decentralization with theGrampanchayat
(Village Council) at the village level, the
PanchayatSamiti at the block level and the
ZillaParishad (district council) at the district
level.
2. Antyodaya Anna Yojana Dec.,  The main objective of the scheme is to
(AAY) 2000 ensure food security and to create hunger
free India.
 Twenty-five kilograms (kg) of food grains
were made available to each eligible family
at a highly subsidized rate of Rs. 2 per kg
for wheat and Rs.3 per kg for rice. This
quantity has been enhanced from 25 to 35 kg
with effect from April, 2002.

3. DeenDayalUpadhyayaGrame 25th Sept.,  The Vision of DDU-GKY is to “Transform

enKaushalyaYojana(DDU- 2014 rural poor youth into an economically
GKY) independent and globally relevant
workforce”.
 The scheme aims to provide skill to the poor
youth of the country, thereby giving them
opportunities for growth.
4. Deendayal Disabled 13 July,  NGOs are provided financial assistance for
th

Rehabilitation Scheme 2013 providing various services to people with

(DDRS) disabilities, such as special schools,
vocational training centers, community-based
rehabilitation, pre-school and initial
interference etc.
5. GraminBhandharanYojana 1st April,  Government provides supports to an
Or Rural Godown Scheme, 2001 individual, a company, a farmer, local
government, NGOs and various associations,
if they build or renovate rural godowns.
 The scheme has been subsumed into capital

48
 investment subsidy sub-scheme “Agricultural
Marketing Infrastructure (AMI)” of
Integrated Scheme for Agricultural
Marketing (ISAM) scheme w.e.f 01.04.2014.
6. Rural Housing January, Rural housing programme,as an independent
(IndraAwasYojana) 1996 programme , started with Indira AwaasYojana
(IAY) in January 1996. Although IAY
addressed the housing needs in the rural areas,
certain gaps were identified during the
concurrent evaluations and the performance
Audit by Comptroller and Auditor General
(CAG) of India in 2014.
2. To address these gaps in the rural housing
program and in view of Government’s
commitment to providing “Housing for All’’
by the scheme 2022, the of has IAY has been
re-structured into Pradhan MantriAwaasYojana
–Gramin (PMAY-G) w.e.f. 1st April 2016.
7. The Integrated Child 2nd Oct., The Integrated Child Development Services
Development Services 1975 (ICDS) scheme is a government initiative for
(ICDS) the all-round development (health, nutrition
and education) of children under 6. Its aim is to
reduce infant mortality, child malnutrition and
to provide pre-school education.
8. Integrated Rural 1978-79  Programme aims at providing self-
Development Programme employment to the rural poor through
acquisition of productive assets or
appropriate skills to generate additional
income on sustainable base.
 It is for small and marginal farmers,
agricultural labourers and rural artisans living
Below Poverty Line (BPL), Scheduled Caste/
Scheduled Tribe families and physically
handicapped person.
9. Swarnjayanti Gram 1999  For rural poor living Below Poverty Line
SwarozgaraYojana (BPL) in rural area for taking of self-
employment as individuals or in a group-
which called as Self-Help Group
10. Livestock Insurance Scheme 2008-09  To Safe Guard assured protection to the
animals of the farmer against eventual
losses.
 Benefit of subsidy is to be restricted to 5
animals per beneficiary per household for
all animals except sheep, goat, pig and
rabbit.
11. Mahatma Gandhi National August  The “Mahatma Gandhi National Rural

49
 Rural Employment Guarantee 25, 2005 Employment Guarantee Act”, MGNREGA),
Act is an Indian labor law and social
security measure that aims to guarantee the
‘right to work’.
 It aims to enhance livelihood security in rural
areas by providing at least 100 days of wage
employment in a financial year to every
household whose adult members volunteer to
do unskilled manual work.
12. RashtriyaKrishiVikasYojana( 29th May,  To orient agricultural development strategies,
RKVY) 2007 to reaffirm its commitment to achieve 4 per
National Agriculture cent annual growth in the agricultural sector
Development Programme during the 11th plan.

13. National Food Security October,  For stagnating food grain production and an
Mission 2007 increasing consumption need of the growing
population, Government of India has
launched this Centrally Sponsored Scheme.
 The aim is to bridge the yield gap in respect
of these crops through dissemination of
improved technologies and farm management
practices.
14. National Rural Livelihood June,  It is a poverty alleviation scheme
Mission 2011 implemented by Union Ministry of Rural
Development.
15. Pradhan MantriAwasYojana 2015  Pradhan MantriAwasYojana has been
(PMAY) established by the Government of India to
offer affordable houses to various sections of
the society. This scheme offers interest
subsidy on the home loans taken by
individuals belonging to EWS (Economically
Weaker Section), LIG (Low Income Group),
and MIG 1 & 2 (Middle Income Group 1 &
2).

50
Community Development- meaning, definition, Concept & principles,
Philosophy of C.D
Community: A community consists of persons in social interaction within a geographical area
and having common centers of interest & activities and functioning together in the chief concern
of life.
Development: Orderly movement of individual from lower level of functioning to the higher
level of functioning.
Community Development: Community Development is a movement designed to promote better
living for the whole community with the active participation and on the initiative of the
community. Community Development Is technically aided and locally organized Self-help
Community Development has been described as a (Mukherji) process of change from the
traditional way of living of rural communities to progressive ways of living; method by which
people can be assisted to develop themselves on their own capacity and resources, programme
for accomplishing certain activities in fields concerning the welfare of the rural people and
movement for progress with a certain emotional and ideological content
The two essential elements in community development are
1. Participation by the people themselves in efforts to improve their level of living with as
much reliance as possible on their own initiative and
2. The provision of technical and other services in ways which encourage initiative, self-
help and mutual help and make these more effective.
Basic Philosophy:
Basic philosophy of community development programme was
1. Individual development
2. Development of family.
3. Awareness of the responsibilities and self-motivation among the people
4. Community development
5. Development of Cooperativeness among the people
6. To create confidence towards science and technology
7. Development of rural leadership
8. Development of rural institutions
9. Development of other resources for community development
Principles of Community Development
The United Nations Economic and Social Council has been trying to define such principles and
concepts of Community Development as well acceptable to all its-member-States and which they
should agree to implement as far as possible.
1. Activities undertaken must correspond to the basic needs of the community, projects
should be initiated in response to the expressed needs of the people.

51
 2. Local improvements may be achieved through unrelated efforts in each substantive field;
however, full and balanced community development requires concerted action and the
establishment of multipurpose programmes.
3. Changed attitudes in people are as important as the material achievements of community
projects during the initial stages of development.
4. Community development aims at increased and better participation of the people in
community affairs, revitalization of existing forms of local government and transition
towards effective local administration where it is not yet functioning.
5. The identification, encouragement and training of local leadership should be a basic
objective in any programme.
6. Greater reliance on the participation of women and youth in community projects. 7. To be
fully effective, self-help projects for communities require both intensive and extensive
assistance by the Government.
7. Implementation of community development programme on a national scale requires
adoption of consistent policies, specific administrative arrangements, recruitment and
training of personnel, mobilization of local and national resources and organization of
research, experimentation and evaluation.
8. The resources of Non-Governmental Organizations should be fully utilized in
Community Development Programmes at the local, national and international level.
9. Economic and social progress at the local level necessitates parallel development on a
wider national scale.
Objectives of Community Development Programme
The fundamental or basic objective of Community Development in India was the development of
people. Its broad objectives were: (i) economic development (ii) social justice and (iii)
democratic growth.
Basic objectives:
1. The all-round development of the rural community.
2. To develop the feeling of communitarian life style among the rural people.
3. To develop the feeling of responsibility, to create confidence, to create inspiration for
working by self-decision among the rural people and establishing local leadership and
institutions this can tackle the problems of that area.
Objectives:
1. To increase the agricultural production
2. Community and integrated development
3. The extension of the new scientific knowledge
4. Development of small and medium irrigation projects
5. Development of co-operative organizations
6. Construction of roads.
7. To increase the adult education and primary education
8. Facility for entertainment.

52
 9. Development and construction of primary health care centre and the public health
service.
10. To inspire the youth for the development programme.
The response of the villagers to Community Development Programme was tremendous, hence
the Government of India decided to expand the coverage of the programme to other parts of the
country. Limited resources, however, did not permit a rapid expansion of the Community
Development Projects, with somewhat less intensive approach than CD project a
programmenamed as National Extension Services (NES) was started in October 2nd 1953.
The Idea behind NES was to cover entire country by the year1960. Operational unit in both C.D
and NES was development block. Activities under NES programme were less intensive than
those of C.D. Basic idea of both CD and NES is same. Both are complementary, interwoven and
run concurrently. Each NES block covers 100 villages with 65,000 population. Each block is
headed by Block Development Officer (BDO) who is in turn assisted by Extension Officer with
10 Multipurpose Village Level Workers (MPVLW). NES was thought of as the agency and CD
is the method to bring about socio-economic transformation of the rural people.

53
 New Trends in Agriculture Extension: Institutional reforms
KrishiVigyan Kendra
The vigorous attempt was realized by the Education Commission (1964-66) to establish a
specialized institution to provide vocational education in agriculture and allied fields at the pre
and post matriculation levels to cater to the training needs of a large number of boys and girls
coming from rural areas. The recommendation of Education Commission was thoroughly
discussed during 1966-1972 associating the Ministry of Agriculture, Ministry of Education,
Planning Commission, ICAR and other institutions. Finally, the Indian Council of Agricultural
Research (ICAR) mooted the idea of establishing KrishiVigyan Kendra (Farm Science Centre) as
innovative institutions for imparting vocational training to the farmers and field level extension
functionaries. As a result of this, in 1973 a committee headed by Dr. Mohan Singh Mehta of
SevaMandir, Udaipur (Rajasthan) was constituted and based on its report in 1974 it was decided
to have KrishiVigyan Kendra (KVKs) as Farm Science Centers for speedy transfer of technology
to the farmer’s fields.
The first KVK was established in 1974 at Pondicherry under the administrative control of
the Tamilnadu Agricultural University, Coimbatore. In Gujarat 1 st KVK was established in Deesa
during 1976 which is working nowadays under the administrative control of the SDAU,
Sardarkrushinagar. At present total 695 KVKs (as on 24 th September 2018) including 30 KVKs
of Gujarat are established and functioning in the country.
The Mandate of the KVK’s is
The final revised mandate of KVK is Technology Assessment and Demonstration for
its Application and Capacity Development. (TADA-CD)
It includes:
1. Conducting on-farm testing to identify the location specificity of agricultural technologies
under various farming systems
2. Organizing frontline demonstrations to establish production potential of various crops and
enterprises on the farmers’ fields
3. Organizing training for capacity development of farmers and field extension personnel to
orient them in the frontier areas of technology development
4. Creating awareness about improved technologies to larger masses through appropriate
extension activities
5. Work as resource and knowledge center of agricultural technology for supporting initiatives
of public, private and voluntary sector for improving the agricultural economy of the district
6. Production and supply of good quality seeds and planting materials, livestock, poultry and
fisheries breed and products and various bio-products to the farming community

54
Objectives:
1. To demonstrate the latest agricultural technologies to the farmers as well as the extension
workers of the State Department of Agriculture / Non-Governmental organizations with a
view to reducing the time-leg between the technology generation and its adoption.
2. To test and verify the technologies in the socio-economic condition of the farmers and
identifying the production constraints.
3. To get first-hand scientific feedback from the fields and passing it to the research system
in order to keep the scientists abreast with the performance of the technologies and the
farming problems, so that they re-orient their research, education and training programme
accordingly.
4. To impart training to the farmers, farmwomen, rural youth and field level extension
functionaries by following the principles of “Teaching by doing” and “Learning by
doing”.
5. To provide training and communication support to the line department of the
State/NGOs.
6. To develop extension models to be adopted by general extension system for large scale
multiplications.
7. Organizing farm science clubs in rural areas for young farmers.
8. Developing and maintaining demonstration unitsonKVK farm in scientific lines.
Activities of KrishiVigyan Kendra:
Based on mandate, the following activities are performed by the KVKs.
1. On farm testing.
2. Front line demonstrations.
3. Vocational training of practicing farmers, farm women and rural youths.
4. In service training of extension functionaries.
5. Serve as knowledge center in the district.
6. Farm advisory other extension activities.
The above said activities are performed every year by the KrishiVigyan Kendra, through
specialist of six disciplines viz., Extension Education, Agronomy, Horticulture, Plant
Protection, Animal science, Agriculture Engineering (the specialist can be changed as
per location specific need), which are most relevant taking into consideration national
resources and infrastructure facilities of the district.
Features of KrishiVigyan Kendra:
1. Powerful technical support
2. Real experience as training
3. Need based training courses

55
4. Flexibility with farmers
5. Concept of integrated training
6. Real field-oriented course content
7. Specific area of operation
8. Informal training without certificate or diploma
9. Powerful institutional linkage
10. Practical training
11. Frequent follow up measures
12. Training interaction and reporting systems
13. Impact study of the trainings, demonstrations and all extension activities

Organization of KVK:
The project is sponsored by the ICAR and implemented by its Research Institutes, State
Agricultural Universities (SAUs), NGOs and State Department of Agriculture. In selecting host
institutions preference is given to institutions/agencies having agriculture base and experience of
rural development and training.
The KVK is headed by a Senior Scientist of the rank of an Associate Professor
designated as Programme Coordinator with sufficient field experience in the field of agricultural
extension or agronomy. The head is supported by scientists (Training Associate) in field of
Extension, Agronomy, Horticulture, Home science, Agricultural engineer, Animal science, Soil
science, Fisheries, Plant protection etc. (according to regional requirement). The head is also
supported with three technical staff designated as Training Assistant (Computer programmer,
Farm Manager, Training).
The Local Management Committee, which is now renamed as Scientific Advisory
Committee in each KVK, is an important instrument of management. This committee is devoted
to constantly review the progress of the KVK, provide guidance for organizing training
programmes and follow-up extension activities and redress, whereas possible. This is strong
mechanism for functional linkage with other sister organizations/institutions.
Chairman of SAC: Head of the host institute
Other Members of SAC: DEE, Director ATARI, Representative ICAR institute, Associate
Director of Research of the zone, District officers of the line departments, Representative of
NABARD and Lead bank, District information officer, 2 farmer’s representatives among which
one should be woman farmers.

56
The organizational structure of KVK:

Organizational Structure of KVK

57
Agricultural Technology Management Agency (ATMA)
ATMA is a society of key stakeholders involved in agricultural activities for sustainable
agricultural development in the district. It is a focal point for integrating Research and Extension
activities and decentralizing day-to-day management of the public Agricultural Technology
System. It is a registered society responsible for technology dissemination at the district level. As
a society, it would be able to receive and expend project funds, entering into contracts and
agreements and maintaining revolving accounts that can be used to collect fees and thereby
recovering operating cost.
Why ATMA?
The ATMA at district level would be increasingly responsible for all the technology
dissemination activities in the district. It would have linkage with all the line departments,
research organizations, non-governmental organizations and agencies associated with
agricultural development in the district. Research and Extension units within the project districts
such as Zonal Research Station or substations, KVKs and the key line Departments of
Agriculture, Animal Husbandry, Horticulture and Fisheries etc. would become constituent
members of ATMA. Each Research-Extension unit would retain its institutional identity and
affiliation but programmes and procedures concerning district-wise Research-Extension
activities would be determined by ATMA Governing Board to be implemented by its
Management Committee.

Location of the Office: The registered office of the ATMA shall be located at district
collectorate premises.

Objectives:
1. To identify location specific needs of farming community for farming system based
agricultural development;
2. To set up priorities for sustainable agricultural development with a Farming Systems
Approach;
3. To draw plans for production-based system activities to be undertaken by
farmers/ultimate users;
4. To execute plans through line departments, training institutions, NGOs, farmers
organizations and allied institutions;
5. To coordinate efforts being made by various line departments, NGOs, farmers
organizations and allied institutions to strengthen research extension-farmers linkages in
the district and to promote collaboration and coordination between various State funded
technical departments;
6. To facilitate the empowerment of farmers/producers through assistance for mobilization,
organization into associations, cooperatives etc. for their increased participation in
planning, marketing, technology dissemination and agro-processing.

58
 7. To facilitate market interventions for value addition to farm produce.
Organization:
Under ATMA, it is proposed to have a governing board which would be a policy making
body and provide guidance as well as review the progress and functioning of the ATMA. The
management committee would be responsible for planning and reviewing the day-to-day
activities.
ATMA Governing Board:
The registered office of the ATMA shall be located at district collectorate premises.
1. District Collector is the Chairman of governing board
2. Chief Executive Officer /Chief Development Officer (As Vice Chairman)
Members:
1. Joint Director/ Deputy Director 9. Lead Bank Officer of the District
(Agriculture) 10. Representative of the district industries
2. A Representative from ZRS/KVK centre
3. One farmer representative 11. Representative of agricultural
4. One livestock producer marketing Board
5. One horticulture farmer 12. Representative of input supply
6. Representative of woman farmer association
7. One SC/ST farmer representative 13. One fisheries/sericulture representative
8. A representative of NGOs 14. Project Director, ATMA-Member
Secretary cum Treasurer (Ex-officio)
ATMA Management Committee (AMC):
The management committee would be responsible for planning and execution of day-to-
day activities of ATMA.
Project Director, ATMA is the Chairman of the committee.
Members: District head of Department of agriculture, Horticulture, Animal Husbandry,
Fisheries, Sericulture, line departments that may important within a district, head of KVK and
one representative of NGOs, in charge of farmer organization.
SREP:ATMA management committee conducts PRA and prepares Strategic Research and
Extension Plan (SREP) for the district. SREP is a useful document provides the details of
problems and technological needs for agricultural development in a district. The basic aim of
SREP is to link the research and extension system with the farmers. It is a bottom up planning
process carried out at the district level to identify the technological and training need of the
farmers. It speaks out the extension and research priorities of the district based on grass root
analysis. It is very useful and comprehensive document to understand the whole agricultural
scenario of the district.

59
ROLE OF ATMA:
1. Take steps to ensure that problems, constraints and needs to the farming system-based
agriculture development are identified and diagnosed periodically.
2. Draw up plans for an integrated research-extension linkage approach for farming
systems-based agriculture development.
3. Ensure that line departments/institutions draw up integrated development plan based
upon resources available with them and incremental/supplementary resources mobilized
by the ATMA.
4. Forge or develop systematic linkages between national /state/ district institutions of
excellence in the field of agriculture and marketing.
5. Ensure capacity building of manpower engaged in overall agricultural development and
strengthen infrastructure support for the benefit of the farmer/producer.
6. Create suitable mechanism to ensure location specific adaptive, indigenous knowledge-
based research.
7. Ensure adequate linkages and frequent interaction between scientists, extension
functionaries’ technicians and farmers, in order to prepare an integrated plan to effectuate
their linkage, support each other, better understanding and appreciation of their problems,
means adopted to sort out problems and plans etc., and to develop a mechanism of
feedback;
8. Ensure capacity building of the ultimate users- the farmers in terms of physical, financial
and skill resources base by way of adequate financial support canalized through credit
institutions, private investments and training for skill up gradation.
9. Facilitate farmers’ organization to take lead-role on mobilizing support services and
resources.
10. Facilitate private investments for infrastructure development, private institutions have to
take lead in the delivery of goods and services to ultimate users (farmers).
11. Facilitate the processing and marketing activities of the agricultural, livestock, dairy,
poultry, silk and allied produce of the farmers with the help of private sector institutions.
12. Receive and expend project funds, maintain revolving accounts, enter into contracts and
agreements, receive donations and provide services and deliver goods to beneficiaries.
13. Accept grants of money, securities or property of any kind and undertake and accept the
management of any endowment, trust funds or donations not inconsistent with the
objectives of the ATMA, on such terms and conditions as may be fitted with the
objectives of the ATMA and be prescribed by the Government of India from time to time.
14. Generate resource in order to bring financial sustainability through charging for selected
services rendered to beneficiaries by ATMA.
15. Create administrative, technical, ministerial and other posts in the ATMA and make
appointments accordance with the rules and regulations of the State Government.

60
 16. Do all such other lawful acts and things either alone or in conjunction with other
organizations or persons, as the ATMA may consider necessary, incidental or conductive
to the attainment of the above objectives.
17. All such lawful acts and things whether incidental to objectives in force or not as may be
requisite in order to furtherance of the objectives of the ATMA.
18. Sell, lease, exchange and otherwise transfer of any portion and the properties of the
society (ATMA).

Farm school:
Among the recent innovative modifications in the ATMA structure the organization of Farm
Schools is the notable one. The teachers of the schools could be progressive/achiever/successful
farmers where students are the leaders of Commodity Interest Groups (CIGs), Farmers Interest
Groups (FIGs) of different village. The main activity of school is to operationalize “Front Line
Demonstrations” on integrated crop management includes filed preparation, seed treatment, IPM,
INM, etc. The schools also provide season long technical training to farmers. The knowledge and
skills of students and teachers could be sharpening through training, and exposure visits at
district/state/national level. The responsibility of students is to provide support to other farmers
in their respective or neighboring village. It serves as a mechanism for farmer-to-farmer
extension at every block.
Commodity Interest Groups (CIGs), Farmer Interest Groups (FIGs) and Food Security
Groups (FSGs)
These are operational at village level to serve as a nodal point for information and
technology dissemination among its members. The CIGs, FIGs are organization of farmers at
local level who are come together to form a group on the basis of their common interest. The
FSGs are specially created for women to encourage them to participate in activities (kitchen
gardening, small scale value addition) which can provide food security of the family as well as
community.

61
Organizational structure of ATMA

62
Agricultural Technology Information Centre (ATIC)

It is also known as SINGLE WINDOW SUPPORT SYSTEM

The foundation stone of agricultural revolution has been the accessibility of improved
varieties of crops, breeds of livestock including poultry and fisheries, horticultural plant materials
and improved management practices for improved productivity, sustainability and stability of
various crop and livestock enterprises. This has raised the hunt by farmers for future availability of
seed, planting materials and other materials, trouble-free accessibility to diagnostic services for soil
fertility and plant protection, availability of appropriate information through leaflets and pamphlets
and increased scope in sale of consultancy services.
Habitually the farmers are not aware as to whom and where to approach for field problems.
It is felt that the facilities of a single window approach will unable farmers to have the required
information for the solution to their problems related to the areas in which the concerned institute
is involved. With these views, the ICAR has taken decision to set up ATICs as a part of World
Bank funded National Agricultural Technology Project. In Gujarat, all SAUs are having such
centers.
Agricultural Technology Information Centre (ATIC) a single window support system
linking the various units of a research institutes with intermediary users and end users (farmers) in
decision making and problem-solving exercise.

The rationale for establishment of ATIC are

1. To provide diagnostic services for soil and water testing, plant and livestock health.

2. To supply research products such as seeds and other planning materials, poultry strains,
livestock breeds, fish seed, processed products, etc, emerging from the institution for
testing and adaptation by various clientele.

3. Providing information through published literature and communication materials as well as

audio—visual aids.

4. Providing an opportunity to the institutes/SAU/s to generate some resource through the sale
of their technologies.

The important criteria of Agricultural Technology Information are

1. Availability (or accessibility) of new technologies,

2. Relevance of new technologies;

3. Responsiveness of new technologies to the needs of different categories of farmers; and

4. Sustainability of such unit within the overall institutional system

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 By building on the past investment in infrastructures in these institutions considerable farm
worthy techniques/ technologies/ knowledge material has been developed in the institutions which
can provide the techniques, technologies, seeds and planting materials to the farmers and other
organizations for taking up the frontier technologies, to the field. This will facilitate in dealing
effectively with the complexity and diversity of information system and channels. Such
information will be useful for:
1. Farmers
2. Farmer-entrepreneurs
3. Extension workers and development agencies
4. NGOs and
5. Private sector organization

Objectives of the center:

1. To provide a single window delivery system for the products and species available from an
institution to the farmers and other interested groups as a process of innovativeness in
technology dissemination at the institute level.
2. To facilitate farmers to access the institutional resources available in terms of technology,
advice, technology products etc. for reducing technology dissemination losses.
3. To provide mechanism for feedback from the users to the institute. In addition to supporting
individual farmers groups, public and private agencies in supplying quality materials
technology, technologies knowledge etc. The information, services and supplies will
include:
 Soil and water sample testing facilities
 Plant clinic and diagnostic center
 Biofertilizers and bio-pesticide
 Bio control agents
 Seed and planting material, small implements
 Fertilizer quality testing
 Insecticide quality testing
 Tissue culture and plant material
 Farm literature: leaflets, pamphlets, journal / magazines, booklets, manuals etc.
 Audio and video on crops and other enterprises.
 Process products: Cereals, milk, meat, fish, vegetable, fruits, mushroom, honey etc.
 Cafeteria – (Tea/Coffee/Lassi/Cold drinks/Snakes etc.)
 Technology Park (Display/Exhibition)
 Veterinary- Animal clinical service for small as well as large animals
 Poultry and livestock breads, fish seed etc.
Thus, major objective of this system is to supply all the information on technologies,
techniques and knowledge and necessary inputs and materials including planting materials, seeds
advisory services, diagnostic services from the one place. It receives feedback from the farmers
regarding the services of the host institute.

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 The Functional Structure of ATIC

Functional structure of ATIC

Products Services Information

Seed Soil and water testing Exhibits
Plants Material Plant Clinic Audio video Aids
Livestock Species Veterinary Clinic Farm Literature on latest
Tools and Equipments Testing and calibration technology
Value added products of small equipments
Other agro products

Farmers and Other end users

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 New Trends in Agriculture Extension approaches
Extension has been, and still is, under attack from a wide spectrum of politicians and economists
over its cost and financing. As a result, Extension Systems have had to make changes, by restating
the system’s mission, developing a new vision for the future, and formulating plans for the
necessary transition to achieve the desired change.

1. Privatization of Agricultural Extension Service

Privatization: Process of funding and delivering the extension services by private individual or
organization is called Private Extension.

Concept: Privatization of extension refers to services rendered in rural area & allied aspects by
extension personnel working in private agencies or organization for which farmers are expected to
pay a fee & it can be viewed as supplementary or alternative to public extension services
(Sarvanan&Shivalinge 1980).

Privatization approaches

 Share cropping system

 Village extension contract system

 Public extension through private delivery

 Service for vouchers

Strengths of Private Extension System

 More demand — driven rather than supply – driven

 High quality of services in terms of satisfying information needs of clientele, trained

manpower, sustained finances and resource allocation

 Provides for an information mix and choices available to farmers

 Enhanced efficiency of staff

 Assure continuous supply and quality agricultural products

 More effective because farmer can select an adviser who is the best able to help

 Healthy competition among service provider will lead to better quality and lower costs for
service

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Weakness of Private Extension System

 Concentrate on area having favorable physical environment

 More face-to-face contacts (person oriented)

 Increased dependence of farmers and hence exploitation

 No education role

 Deprivation of small farmers

 Hamper the free flow of information

2. Cyber Extension or e-extension

Concepts
Cyber space: it is the imaginary or virtual space of computers connected with each other
on Networks, across the Globe.
Cyber extension: it means “using the power of online networks, computer
communications and digital interactive multimedia to facilitate dissemination of agriculture
technology.
Cyber Extension thus can be defined as the extension over cyber space.
Important tools of cyber extension
E-Mail, Telnet, File Transfer Protocol (FTP), Gopher, Archie and World Wide Web
(WWW)

Strengths of Cyber Extension

 Access to the astounding information and continuously available

 Information rich and instantaneously available of information

 Interactive communication

 The information is available from any point on the globe

 Communication is dynamic

 Cut steps from traditional process

 Save money, time and effort

 Multiplicity of purpose

Issues and Concerns of Cyber Extension

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  Lack of Reliable Telecom Infrastructure in Rural Areas

 Erratic or no Power Supply

 Lack of ICT Trained manpower (willing to serve) in Rural Areas

 Lack of content (locally relevant and in local languages)

 Lack of Information Services to Rural Clientele

 Low Purchasing power of the Rural communities

 Lack of Holistic Approaches

 Issues of Sustainability

Application of cyber extension

 Village information shops Dr. M.S. SwaminathanResearch Foundation, Chennai

 Information villagers MANAGE in Ranga Reddy District in Andhra

 Gyandoot net initiative of District Dhar, Madhya Pradesh.

 Warna wired village of National Informatics Center (NIC) in Kolhapur- Sangli Districts of
Maharashtra

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Some ICT initiatives in India:

Sr. Name of the project Particular

No.
Web Portals
1. aAQUA Online discussion, archived, multi-lingual and multimedia
based. ([Link]).
2. KISSAN Kerala Content processing and dissemination system. Online
information, video channel, Tele-advisory, SMS and GIS
based agro-services ([Link]).
3. TNAU AGRITECH Dynamic portal and e-linkage with research stations and
farm sciences centres for agro-advisory services
([Link]).
4. AGRISNET Agriculture Resources Information System Network
(AGRISNET) is a mission mode project funded by the
Ministry of Agriculture, Government of India to develop a
comprehensive online knowledge portal to disseminate
relevant information to farmers. Under this scheme most of
the State Governments established information rich
agricultural websites. For example. Sikkim AGRISNET,
Andhra Pradesh agriportal, Uttar Pradesh (UP) Agrisnet,
Knowledge Portal ([Link]
5. DACNET In DACNET, 46 web sites and 39 applications are
developed, which include web portals on complete
information on 9 crop directorates, extension services,
Integrated Nutrient Management, Marketing,
Mechanization and Technology, Economics and statistics
([Link])
6. e-Krishi Web based farm advisory services, market information
resource library and online expert advisory
([Link]).
7. ASHA Relevant and need based agricultural information for the
farmers of Assam state of the North-East India.
([Link]).
8. India Development Multilingual portal for agriculture and other rural
Gateway (InDG) portal information. Decentralized content management system by
225 institutional partners and others ([Link]).
9. Rice Knowledge Comprehensive information portal on Rice. Separate
Management Portal (RKMP) domains for farmers, extension personnel and researchers
and also e-leaning platform is unique feature of this portal
([Link]).
10. Agropedia Agriculture knowledge repository of universal meta models
and localized content for a variety of users with appropriate
interfaces. Built in collaborative mode in multiple
languages. Currently hosts nine thousand pages
([Link]) Web Portals for Market Information
69
 and Agri-Business Firms’ Portal to Farmers.
11. AGMARKNET Market information portal for 2000 markets and 300
commodities in India ([Link]).
12. ITC-e-Choupal An innovative trading and e-Commerce initiative in
agriculture. Reaches 4 million farmers by 6500 e-
Choupals spread over 40000 villages of rural India
([Link]).
13. EID Parry Indiagriline Information and knowledge solutions
through Cane Management System and also other
support services to farmers at seventy Namadhu Parry
Mayyam outlets (Our Parry Centres). SMS alerts for
farmers and cane field staff to plan their activity.
Centre establishment, operating and service charge is
recovered from the farmer from the sugarcane
payments.
14. [Link] User fee-based market information on Cotton, Sugar,
Oilseeds, Pulses, Spices, Rice, Wheat, Tea, Coffee.
15. Mahindra KisanMitra Farm Equipment Sector of the Mahindra Group hosted
Mahindra KisanMitra, a web portal for the Indian
farmers to access wealth of information which is
updated on a daily basis. Farmers can check daily
mandi prices, read weather updates, latest crop
advisories, and agri. Related news. The site also
provides information of other sections such as crop
information, loans, insurance, mandi database,
coldstorages/warehouses etc.
16. IFFCO Agri-Portal Information for farmers in local language.
Web portal and 100 farmers’ information kiosks in 16
States.
17. Agriwatch Portal The [Link] is the largest agribusiness portal in
India and enables access to a large amount of
agribusiness related information covering more than 15
sub sectors within the agricultural and food industry.
The daily, weekly and fortnightly Agriwatch trade
research reports are published
18. iKissan It is a Nagarjuna group initiative to provide agriculture
information; specific package ofpractices of crops,
animal husbandry, aromatic and medicinal plants,
agricultural machinery, allied agriculture, sprayers,
rural credit, insurance iKisan crop solutions to the
farmers. IKisan has developed easy-to-use diagnostic
packages for different crops which will be provided on
demand. Further, it also provides local agri news,
weather and market information to the farmers.

70
19. Village Knowledge Centres Founded by M. S. Swaminathan Research Foundation
(VKCs) (MSSRF). 101 VKCs were established in Tamil Nadu,
Pondicherry,Orissa, Andhra Pradesh and Kerala. VRCs
and VKCs are working with 315 partners for
implementation and location specific content
generation. Demand driven information and
knowledge with support services, social inclusion,
community ownership and partnership proved critical
for the success and sustainability of the initiative.
20. Village Resource Centres A collaborative initiative of Indian Space Research
(VRCs) Organization (ISRO) and M. S. Swaminathan Research
Foundation (MSSRF). 473 VRCs have been set up in
22 States / Union Territories in India. The VRCs are
connected to Knowledge/Expert Centres like
Agricultural Universities and Skill Development
Institutes (SDI).
21. Community Information Community information centres in North-East India e-
Infrastructure for accessing rural information needs of
Centres (CICs) farmers and others.
22. Lifelines India Connectivity by innovative mix of internet and
telephony. Reaches 200000 farmers in three states of
India
23. IFFCO Kisan Sanchar Voice messages in local languages. 10 Lakh active
Limited (IKSL) farmers benefiting from IKSL’s Value Added Services
and IKSL enrollment crosses 4 million and 40000
cooperative societies as IKSL retailers.
24. Fisher Friend QUALCOMM, MSSRF, Tata tele services and
Asutesystem technology jointly implemented mobile
based advisory services (instant access to helpful
information such as weather conditions, where they
can and cannot fish and market prices) to fishing
communities of costal Tamil Nadu since, 2007.
25. Reuters Market Light Micro-information Services designed specifically for
(RML) the farming community was launched by RML in
2009. Currently covers over 440 crops and varieties
with more than 1400 markets and 2800 weather
locations of 15000 villages in 13 States of India.
Timely and personalized information and individual
farmers have secured significant return on their
investment.
Hybrid Projects (Mix of ICTs and conventional extension methods)
26. e-Arik Internet, Offline CDs and farmer-to-farmer
communication and conventional extension methods.

71
27. e-Sagu Agro-advisory services by digital photographs and
coordinators for farmers. Jointly developed by Media Lab
Asia and IIT Hyderabad. Started in Telangana and Andhra
Pradesh.
28. Digital Green Farmer participatory video production for agricultural
extension. 1681 videos produced and 60313 farmers
involved.
29. Knowledge Share Information by touch screen kiosks, IVRS, bilingualweb
Centres portal and awareness created by screening films & CDs by
the Central Research Institute for Dry land Agriculture
(CRIDA), Hyderabad. Project covered 51 villages in eight
districts of Andhra Pradesh.

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3. Market-Led-Extension (MLE)

Concepts
Market: A congregation of prospective buyers & sellers with a common motive of trading a
particular commodity.
Extension: It is the spreading/reaching out to the mass
Market-led-extension: Agriculture & economics coupled with extension is the perfect blend for
reaching at the door steps of common man with the help of technology.

Dimensions of market-led extension

 Marketing mix: A planned mix of the controllable elements of a product’s marketing plan
commonly termed as 4Ps: product, price, place, and promotion. These four elements are
adjusted until the right combination is found that serves the needs of the product’s
customers, while generating optimum income.
 Marketing plan: A marketing plan is a comprehensive document that outlines a business
and marketing efforts for the coming year. It describes business activities involved in
accomplishing specific marketing objectives within a set time frame. A marketing plan also
includes a description of the current marketing position of a business, a discussion of the
target market and a description of the marketing mix that a business will use to achieve
their marketing goals.
 Market Intelligence: It is the information relevant to a company’s markets, gathered and
analyzed specifically for the purpose of accurate and confident decision making . Market
intelligence includes the process of gathering data from the company’s external
environment, whereas the business intelligence process is primarily based on internal
recorded events – such as sales, shipments and purchases.
 Market oriented production
 Use of Technology

Strengths of market-led extension

 SWOT analysis of the market

 Organization of Farmers’ Interest Groups (FIGs)
 Enhancing the interactive and communication skills of the farmers
 Establishing marketing and agro-processing linkages
 Advice on product planning
 Educating the farming community
 Direct marketing
 Acquiring complete market intelligence
 Publication of agricultural market information
 Production of video films of success stories

Challenges to market-led extension

 Gigantic size of extension system

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  Information technology  Diverse conditions

 Market intelligence

 Reforms in agricultural extension system

Government Initiatives
 Central warehousing Corporation-1965
 MSP by Commission for Agricultural Cost and Price (CACP)
 Food Corporation of India
 Then some others as: Cotton Corporation of India (CCI), Jute Corporation of India (JCI),
National Dairy Development Board (NDDB), Agriculture and Processed food Export
Development Authority (APEDA) etc.

74
4. Farmer—Led-Extension (FLE)

Farmer—led-extension is defined as “the provision of training by farmers to farmers, often

through the creation of a structure of farmer promoters and farmer trainers” (Scarborough et al.,
1997).

Philosophy and principles

 Farmers and local institutions (e.g. producer organisations or village leaders) should play a
key role in selecting farmer-trainers and monitoring and evaluating them. This helps make
the programmes more accountable to the community or groups that they serve.
 Farmer-trainers are ‘of the community’; they communicate in local languages and are more
sensitive to local cultures, mannerisms, farming practices, and farmers’ needs.

 Farmer-trainers should be selected on the basis of their skills and interest in sharing
information, not just on their farming expertise.

 Farmer-trainers need strong linkages with and support from development agents (whether
government, non-government organization (NGO), or private), the people who train and
backstop them. Farmer-trainers generally serve as a complement to existing extension
systems, rather than being a substitute for them.

 Facilitating organisations and local institutions need to be proactive in ensuring that women
as well as men become farmer-trainers.

 Simple and appropriate reference materials should be made available to the farmer
trainers.

Essential Elements of Farmer—led-extension

 The group

 The Field

 The Facilitator

 The curriculum

 Programme leader

 Financing

Special features of Farmer—led-extension

 All learning is field based & it is primary venue for learning

 FLE group learning constantly over the experimentation period

75
  FLE promotes healthy decisions & quality decisions

 Farmers conduct their own field studies with comparisons or treatments

 Facilitates Farmer-to-Farmer communication

 Field staff serve as facilitators

 FLE is a unique way to educate farmers

 It is an effective platform for sharing of experiences and collectively solving agriculture

related problems.

5. Expert system

Expert system is an intelligent computer program that uses knowledge and inferences procedures to
solve problems (Daniel Hunt, 1986).

Objectives of developing expert system

 To enhance the performance of agricultural extension personnel and farmer

 To make farming more efficient and profitable

 To reduce the time required in solving the problems

 To maintain the expert system by continuously upgrading the database

Advantages of expert system

 Solves critical problems by making logical deductions without taking much time

 It combines experimental and conventional knowledge with the reasoning skills of

specialists

 To enhance the performance of average worker to the level of an expert

Limitations of expert system

 Expensive computer program

 Mostly developed not in regional languages

 Requires AC, power and internet connection all the time

 Complex software requires computer skilled personnel

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Modules of expert system in agriculture
 COMAX: Integrated crop management in cotton

 SOYEX: Soybean oil extraction expert system

 PLANT/ds: Diagnosis of soybean diseases

 MAIZE: Maize expert system for field crop management

 SEMAGI: Weed control decision making in sunflowers

 Rice Crop Doctor: Developed byNational Institute of Agricultural Extension Management

(MANAGE)
Difference between conventional and expert system of extension ([Link].,2004)
Conventional Extension Expert System of Extension
 Universal approachability of same  Universal approachability of same
information is a problem information is possible
 Information is given whatever is  Information is chosen based on their needs
available without considering needs and and resources
resources
 No Cost benefit analysis  Cost benefit analysis
 Information flow depends on  Information through Cyber Cafe at any place
availability of agent at any time
 Require users to draw their own  Conclusion is drawn based on the decision
conclusion from facts given by the expert

Farmers' Producer Groups (FPGs)

Farmers' Producer Groups (FPGs),also known as Farmer Producer Organizations (FPOs), are
formed by farmers to collectively address challenges related to agricultural production, marketing,
and access to resources. They are legally recognized entities where producers, typically small and
marginal farmers, pool their resources, knowledge, and skills to improve their economic standing.
FPOs aim to enhance farm income through better price realization, increased bargaining power,
and access to better technologies and markets.
Key aspects of Farmers' Producer Groups:
1. Formation:Farmers voluntarily join together to form a legal entity, often a company or
cooperative.
2. Ownership and Governance:FPOs are owned and governed by their member farmers,
with each member having a voting right.
3. Objectives: The primary goal is to improve the economic well-being of farmers by
increasing their income and market access.
4. Activities:FPOs engage in various activities, including collective farming, input
procurement, product aggregation, value addition, marketing, and accessing government
schemes.
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 5. Benefits: FPOs offer advantages such as reduced transaction costs, improved bargaining
power, access to better technologies and resources, and enhanced market linkages.
6. Types of FPOs:FPOs can be registered as companies, cooperatives, or other legal forms,
depending on the specific needs and context.
In essence, FPOs empower small and marginal farmers by providing a platform to collectively
address the challenges they face and improve their livelihoods.

Attribution of Innovation
Attribution of innovation refers to how individuals and groups assign credit for new ideas,
products, or processes. It's a crucial aspect of understanding how innovations spread and are
adopted within a social system.
Five key characteristics of innovation, as identified by Everett Rogers in his Diffusion of
Innovations theory, are relative advantage, compatibility, complexity, trialability, and
observability. These characteristics influence how readily an innovation is adopted by individuals
or groups:
1. Relative Advantage: This refers to how much better the innovation is compared to existing
alternatives.
Example: The shift from typewriters to word processing software offered a significant
relative advantage due to features like easy editing, saving, and sharing, making it a faster
and more efficient way to create documents.
2. Compatibility: This describes how well the innovation aligns with existing values,
experiences, and needs of potential adopters.
Example: A new farming technique that requires specialized tools or knowledge that
farmers don't have may not be compatible with their existing practices and resources,
leading to slower adoption.

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3. Complexity: This refers to how difficult the innovation is to understand and use. Example:
Software with a complicated user interface or requiring extensive training is considered
more complex and may face slower adoption than simpler alternatives.
4. Trialability: This refers to the extent to which users can experiment with the innovation
before committing to it.
Example: Offering free trials or demonstrations of a product allows potential customers to
experience its benefits firsthand, increasing the likelihood of adoption.
5. Observability: This refers to how visible the results or benefits of the innovation are to
others.
Example: When a new energy-efficient appliance is adopted in a household, its impact on
utility bills is easily observable by others, potentially encouraging similar changes.

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 ExtensionAdministration
Administration is the guidance, leadership and control of the efforts of a group of persons
towards some common goals. Administration implies conscientious efforts directed towards
organizing and controlling human activities in order to achieve agreed or desired goals. It
involves, therefore, the organization, direction and control of persons and facilities in order to
accomplish specified ends.
Administration involves essential activities of the people charged with ordering, forwarding
and facilitating the efforts of individuals or groups brought together for desirable purposes. It
involves efforts such as decision-making, programming, communicating relevant
information, controlling and evaluating variousactions.
Administration is used during policy formulation for developing staff, understanding the
planning process, job description, training and evaluation processes.
The Concept of Extension Administration
Agricultural extension involves various activities directed to improve food production and
living standards of the people. Extension, therefore, requires direction and control of these
activities in order to achieve the desired goals. Extension administration depicts the effort of
the administrator to direct, guide and integrates the activities of members of his staff in order
to attain the goal of the extension service and help farmers realize their objectives. Thus,
extension administration refers to the art of directing, guiding and controlling human and
material resources in an extension system. It involves articulate joining of all aspects of
agriculture such as animal and crops husbandry, soil management, technology design and
supply services in order to increase food production and income levels of farmers.
Administration in extension is concerned mainly with bringing human beings together for the
purpose of executing extension functions.
The administrator at the upper hierarchy should permit all members of the extension agency
to participate in the efficient utilization of the available resources in order to achieve set
goals. Members of an extension service are categorized into directive or executive cadre. Any
staff in the directive cadre assumes responsibility for directing which indicates that there are
people to direct. Similarly, the executive staff (also known as organizing staff) has the
responsibility for organizing and executing issues, which indicates that there are people to
organize. For a meaningful extension administration, mutual co-existence among members of
an extension system isnecessary.
Extension administration recognizes the existence of people with diverse interests, aptitudes,
attitudes and social background. Therefore, extension is designed to serve farmers with
differences in orientation. Extension has the task of limiting various interests and
discouraging the uninteresting nature of farmers in order to salvage the whole agricultural
system and achieve overall improvement in national economy. Extension administrators
should focus efforts towards desired change. Change can be achieved through meaningful
inter and intra-organizational relationships among extension workers and other development
agencies.
Difference between Management and Administration
Management is a part of Administration. Management is an administrative technique in the
conduct of public affairs. The traditional framework within which a civil service exercises its
responsibilities is described as an administration.

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Administration lays emphasis on proper procedure, regulation and control. It employs ease of
communication to achieve an unambiguity – interpreting words and issues to ease the
operation of a system.
Administration takes place in the health sector, universities, army, church, agriculture,
industries, business and social organizations such as the Agricultural Extension Service.
Basis For
Management Administration
Comparison
Meaning An organized way of managing The process of administering an
people and things of a business organization by a group of people is
organization is called the known as the Administration.
Management.
Authority Middle and Lower Level Top level
Role Executive Decisive
Concerned with Policy Implementation Policy Formulation
Area of operation It works under administration. It has full control over the activities
of the organization.
Applicable to Profit making organizations, Government offices, military, clubs,
i.e. business organizations. business enterprises, hospitals,
religious and educational
organizations.
Decides Who will do the work? And What should be done? And When is
How will it be done? should be done?
Work Putting plans and policies into Formulation of plans, framing
actions. policies and setting objectives
Focus on Managing work Making best possible allocationof
limited resources.
Key person Manager Administrator
Represents Employees, who work for Owners, who get a return on the
remuneration capital invested by them.
Function Executive and Governing Legislative and Determinative

Principles of Good administration

1. Definite and clear-cut responsibilities should be assigned to each executive (functional
assignment of duties), to facilitate attainment of organizational objectives which should
have already been welldefined.
2. Responsibility should always be coupled with corresponding authority (proper
delegation of authority). This encouragesinitiative.
3. Each administrative unit (whether it is the organization as a whole, a division, a section
and sub section) should have a single responsible head (centralized executive
responsibility)
4. No executive or employee, occupying a single position in organization, should be
subject to definite orders from more than onesource
5. No order should be given direct to subordinate by passing their immediatesuperior.
6. For efficiency in co-ordination, activities closely related to each other should be grouped
[Link],provisionshouldbemadetoavoidfrictionandtoensure
the cooperation action of all interested parties and the proper co-ordination of related
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 activities aimed at attainment of a organization objectives.
7. The people under a supervisor should be limited to a number he can effectively-
supervise. (optimum span ofcontrol)
8. All administrators should understand and follow the art and science of human relations
in the management ofpeople.
9. Besides clearly defining the duties of those in key positions and delegating necessary
authority, it should be ensured that the several employs act in accordance with the plan
of organization. Facilities should be given for self-evolution as well as inspection and
evolution bysuperiors.
10. Criticism of sub-ordinates should, whenever possible, be made privately, and in no case
should be sub-ordinate be criticized in presence of employees of equal or lower rank.
Rewards must base on objectiveassessment.
11. No executive or employee should be required or expected to be an assistant to, or a critic
or, another of equal or higherrank
12. No dispute or difference between executives or employees as to authority or
responsibility should be considered too trivial for prompt and carefuladjudication.

Functions of administration
The functions of an administrator in the administrative process are:
A. Planning
B. Organizing
C. Staffing
D. Directing
E. Coordinating
F. Reporting
G. Budgeting
These are represented by the acronym POSDCoRB
A. Planning - Effective extension work results from planning. Any administrator that does
not plan ahead, with specific aims and objectives to be realized within a specific time, is
bound to inhibit performance. It is the function of the administrator to plan the programme
of extension and such a programme willinclude:
 The description ofsituation
 Problems or actions that need to be given attention
 Aims and objectives to beachieved
 Responsibilities of various officers,and
 Possible courses of action to achieve the stated objectives
Planning helpsto
 Avoid waste ofresources,
 Facilitate proper allocation and distribution of available resources,and
 Provide a guide to constructive action in thefield.
B. Organizing: Organizing refers to the arrangement of persons, ideas, materials and other
facilities necessary for the performance of functions. Work is assigned to individuals,
groups ordepartments.

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C. Staffing: This involves the recruitment, selection, development, utilization and
accommodation of human resources in theorganization.
D. Directing (Supervision): This involves direct face-to-face oversight of tasks
assigned to individuals or small groups in order to ensure correct and adequate
performance. It is the process of ensuring that policies, administrative procedures
and programmes are carried out properly. The supervisor is a person who is
responsible for overseeing the work of a given number of field officers in a given
area. The function of a supervisor is that of translating extension policies into action.
Optimum performance is obtained under a supervisedcondition.
E. Coordination: The organization’s activities must be coordinated and correlated.
Coordination is an essential element in administration and it involves adjustment of
the parts to each other. The administrator should coordinate the human efforts and
group staff activities in order to obtain the bestresults.
F. Reporting (Evaluation): This function involves appraisal of activities or
performance. From time to time, administrators must evaluate themselves, their staff
and the system. Evaluation offers the opportunity to determine how well the goals of
the extension service are being achieved and the overall performance of the
organization. Information and data are gathered from the various units, departments
and even individuals in the form of a report. Based on the report, adjustments could
be made.
G. Budgeting: Budgeting is a process of optimal allocation of available resources to
competing needs, so as to achieve set objectives. Some of the objectives areto:
 Plan the policy of anorganization
 Coordinate the activities of an organization so that each is part of the integralwhole
 Control each function so that the best possible result may be obtained,and
 Evaluate the activities of anorganization.
The budgeting process creates a formal planning framework and gets people involved in
deciding what is to be done in the future. It fosters coordination and communication,
and promotes efficiency in operating an organization. Budgeting makes people aware of
the cost of undertaking a specific activity or project. It aids in orienting organizational
operation towards the goals of the organization. Limited resources can be allocated to
provide the greatest degree of benefits.

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 Monitoring and Evaluation
Concept
Monitoring and Evaluation are the two management tools that help in keeping a control
on the business activities as well as raising the level of performance. Monitoring refers to
an organized process of overseeing and checking the activities undertaken in a project, to
ascertain whether it is capable of achieving the planned results or not. Conversely,
evaluation is a scientific process that gauges the success of the project or program in
meeting the objectives.

Definition of Monitoring
Monitoring is the systematic process of observing and recording on a regular basis, the
activities carried out in a project, to ensure that the activities are in line with the objectives
of the enterprise.

Monitoring takes into account optimum utilization of resources, to assist the managers in
rational decision making. It keeps a track on the progress and checks the quality of the
project or program against set criteria and checks adherence to established standards.

The information collected in monitoring process helps analyse each aspect of the project,
to gauge the efficiency and adjust inputs wherever essential. It keeps track of project
inputs and outputs such as:
 Activities;
 Reporting and documentation;
 Finances and budgets;
 Supplies and equipment.

Definition of Evaluation
Evaluation is defined as an objective and rigorous analysis of a continuing or completed
project, to determine its significance, effectiveness, impact and sustainability by
comparing the result with the set of standards. It is the process of passing value judgment
concerning the performance level or attainment of defined objectives.

In short, evaluation is a process that critically assesses tests and measures the design,
implementation and results of the project or program, in the light of objectives. It can be
conducted both qualitatively and quantitatively, to determine the difference between actual
and desired outcome.

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Difference between Monitoring and Evaluation
Indicators Monitoring Evaluation
Meaning Monitoring refers to a routine Evaluation is a sporadic activity that
process that examines the activities is used to draw conclusion regarding
and progress of the project and also the relevance and effectiveness of
identifies bottlenecks during the the project or program.
process.
Related to Observation Judgment
Occurs at Operational level Business level
Process Short term Long term
Focuses on Improving efficiency Improving effectiveness
Frequency Continuously throughout the life of a In the middle and at the end of a
project project
Main Action Keeping track of progress Assessment of progress
Main Project staffs, partners and External evaluators, facilitators,
participants stakeholders project staffs, donors and
stakeholders
Information Internal documents monthly/ Both internal and external documents
Sources quarterly reports, work plans, travel policy documents
logs, minutes
Undertaken Often done by internal staffs, project Often done by external evaluators,
By Managers, field officers and Project staff, or participatory
supervisors
Relation to Usually accepts design Usually free to challenge design
Design
Answer for Answers what activities were Answers why and how results were
implemented achieved. Contributes to building
theories and models for change
Information Evaluation Planning
provided for
Outcome Quantitative Qualitative and Quantitative

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 Transfer of Technology (ToT)

There is increasing use of the term transfer of technology (TOT) by extension

practitioners now a day. Can technologies be transferred mechanically in linear fashion? Do
the terms ‘extension’ and ‘TOT’ mean one and the same thing? TOT includes more than
mere dissemination of information. There are many conceptual model of TOT emphasizing
on different elements of process. Extension can play crucial role in preventing imbalances
caused due to input intensive of new agricultural technology among resource poor farmers. In
fact, extension can create awareness and equip both farmers and scientists to work together to
generate technologies appropriate to the local situation. It requires new methods and
perspectives to work in close touch with people. It is in this context that new concepts like
Farming System Research and Extension, Participatory Technology Development,
Participatory Rural Appraisal, Rapid Rural Appraisal, Indigenous technological Knowledge,
etc. are becoming more meaningful.
Technology refers to ways to making or doing thing. The term 'technology' derived
from the Greek word'tekhne' meaning 'art' or 'craft' and logia, meaning an 'area of study.
In past, technology often ran ahead of science. Things were often done without
precise knowledge of how or why they are done except that they were effective. Technology
is as the means by which material / things are being produced. It is the application of science
and technical advance to the production of materials to serve human needs. The technology is
a replaces of human energy by mechanical energy, using natural sources of energy.
The degree of acceptance of a technology depends on five criteria: (i) relative
advantage, (ii) compatibility, (iii) minimum complexity, (iv)trialability and (v) observability.
The concept of technology can be defined simply to mean the application of science
in the development, production, utilization or application of materials or things or methods of
undertaking a certain activity or work (Hashim, 1978).
Technology is scientific knowledge which is being utilized to solve various practical
problems experienced by mankind.
Samanta (1985) defined agricultural technology as a body of systematically organized
knowledge and materials applicable to local production problems to help to boost thepresent
level of productivity and or extend the existing range of production.
What is Transfer of Technology?
Transfer of technology can be defined as the movement of relevant agriculture
information from a research (source of technology) or an innovation system through
extension system (which acts as an interpreter, disseminator and facilitator) to the client
(consumers of technology) system, i.e., the target group of farmers who are expected adopt
and integrate the new technology into the existing farming systems and practiced (Samanta,
1985).
Extension vsToT
One of the goals of extension is to transfer technology and in the process the
extension agent is involved in education of farmers as well as arranging for the technical
inputs and services, and hence, many people consider extension and transfer of technology as
one and the same. However, Swanson and Claar (1984) argued that though extension is an

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essential and major part of technology transfer the terms are not synonymous. Transfer of
technology includes additional 'function of technical input services. On the other hand
extension is concerned mainly with education of farmers on management of resources and
decision-making skills, which may contribute to technology transfer. Hence, it is necessary to
understand that the focus of extension is on education of the farmers rather than supply of
technical inputs and services. Because of the misconception about the role of extension, many
institutions lay emphasis on supply of inputs and technical -services, which are included as
extension activities. However, extension agencies 'frequently engage in activities that are not
directly connected to extension education such as provision of inputs, supervising credit
repayment, enforcing 'government regulations, providing statistical information, organizing
cooperatives etc, (Arnon, 1989). Whether supplying of technical inputs and services is a part
of 'extension' or not is still a debatable issue.
Models of TOT
1) Top-down-Model (Conventional Model)
Salient features of Top-down Model
• Farmers were seen as passive recipient of technologies.
• There was little or no contact between farmers and scientists.
• Role of extension was to persuade farmers to adopt new technologies.
Such approach was evident in green revolution. In this model/approach client's
problems and views were not given due consideration for solving their problems. The T & V
syatem is one of the examples of top down ToT model.
2) Feedback Model
This model has become popular with the growth of FSR and incorporation of
on farm experimentation into agricultural research methodology.
Salient features:
• Researcher values identification of target group, his problems and reaction.
• Close interaction between research and extension system.
• Researches are carried out both on research farm as well as farmers fields.
• Team of researchers included extension personnel as well as social scientists
to have a holistic understanding of farmers' problems.
3) Farmers Participatory Models:
There is recent need trend to strengthen farmers‟ capacities for research and extension
for enhancing sustainable development in rural areas. The new model is based on several
observations about the research and extension initiatives in many areas of the world. By
virtue of keen interest, strong affiliation with vocation and experience, farmers have inherent
interest in experimentation with new way of farming. Their indigenous wisdom and
understanding of agroecological conditions are great resources for evolving appropriate
technologies. Thus new model had taken a stand that researches must begin and end with
farmers.
The characteristics of such approach are as given below:
1. Farmers are seen as active partner in research and extension.
2. Indigenous wisdom possessed by farmers are valued and considered.
3. Research is seen a joint endeavour involving farmers and researchers to solve
problems being faced by farmers.

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 4. Establishment of physical infrastructure and educational facilities for strengthening
local experimentation is an essential aspect of participatory model.
5. It emphasis on the need for scientists to become more sensitive to understand,
communicate and collaborate with farmers.
ATMA is an example of this type of ToT model.
4) Farmer-back-to-Farmer Model
An alternative to the above two models is the ‘Farmer-back-to- Farmer' model
(Rhodes and Booth, 1982). The underlying assumption of the model is that research must
begin and end with the farmer. It turns the top-down model completely on its head by starting
with the farmers. This means that farmer must be incorporated as fully active members of the
problem-solving team.

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 Capacity building of Extension Personnel

A. MANAGE (National institute of Agricultural Extension Management)

MANAGE was established in 1987, as the National Centre for Management of Agricultural
Extension at Hyderabad, by the Ministry of Agriculture & Farmers Welfare, Government of
India as an autonomous Institute, from which its acronym ‘MANAGE’ is derived. In
recognition of its importance and expansion of activities all over the country, its status was
elevated to that of a National Institute in 1992 and re-christened to its present name i.e.,
National Institute of Agricultural Extension Management. MANAGE is the Indian response
to challenges of agricultural extension in a rapidly growing and diverse agriculture sector.
The policies of liberalization and globalization of the economy and the level of agricultural
technology becoming more sophisticated and complex, called for major initiatives towards
reorientation and modernization of the agricultural extension system. Effective ways of
managing the extension system needed to be evolved and extension organizations enabled to
transform the existing set up through professional guidance and training of critical
manpower. MANAGE is the response to this imperative need.
National Institute of Agricultural Extension Management, known as MANAGE,
formerly National Centre for Management of Agricultural Extension at Hyderabad, is
an autonomous agricultural education institute located in Hyderabad, Telangana, India. The
aim of the institute is to instill managerial and technical skills to Extension Officers,
Managers, Scientists and Administrators in the agricultural economy, to enable them to
provide support and services to farmers and fishermen for practicing sustainable agriculture.
Professional Services
MANAGE offers its services in the following five streams viz.,

 Management Training
 Consultancy
 Management Education
 Research
 Information Services

Mandate

The mandate of MANAGE vests the institute with the responsibility to work in the following
directions:

 Developing linkages between prominent state, regional, national and international

institutions concerned with agricultural extension management
 Gaining insight into agricultural extension management systems and policies
 Forging collaborative linkages with national and international institutions for sharing
faculty resource
 Developing and promoting application of modern management tools for improving
the effectiveness of agricultural extension organizations

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 Organizing need-based training for senior and middle level agricultural extension
functionaries
 Conducting problem-oriented studies on agricultural extension management
 Serving as an international documentation center for collecting, storing, processing
and disseminating information on subjects related to agricultural management.

Areas of Training: MANAGE has established different centres for giving training to
extension functionary. The Centre wise areas are as under.

1. Centre for Agricultural Extension Policy, Reforms and

Processes Agri-Business Management

1 Farming Situation Based Extension

2 Farming Systems Approach
3 Re- Visiting of SREP

2. Centre For Agri-institution Capacity Building

1 WTO and its Implications on Indian Agriculture

Training of Master Trainers on Planning and Management of Integrated
2
Watershed Management Projects
3 Managerial Skills for Convergence in Agricultural Extension
4 Effective Communication for Extension Functionaries
5 Leadership for Innovation in Agriculture
6 Self-Management – Through Personal Profiling
7 Research Methods and Documentation for Extension Personnel
8 Work Ethics for Developmental Professionals

3. Center for Agricultural Markets, Supply Chain Management

and Extension Projects

1 Agricultural Marketing - The New Paradigms

2 Linking Farmers to Market
3 Supply Chain Management in Agriculture
4 Market-Led Extension
5 Project Planning and Management

4. Centre for Allied Extension and Water / Input Use Efficiency

1 Fisheries Extension-1

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 5. Centre for Knowledge Management, ICT and Mass Media

Application of Remote Sensing and Geographic Information Systems (GIS) in

1
Agricultural Development
2 Project Planning and Management using MS Project
3 Writing for Print Media and Electronic Media
4 Process Documentation for Agriculture and Rural Development
5 Agriculture Knowledge Management
6 Improving eGovernance in Agriculture

6. Center for Agripreneurship, Youth and Public Private

Partnership

1 Agri-clinic and Agribusiness centre

2 Public Private Partnership

7. Center for Women and Household Food and Nutritional

Security, Urban Agriculture & Edible Greening

1 Food & Nutritional Security of Women in Agriculture

2 Gender Mainstreaming in Agriculture & Allied Sectors
3 Participatory Extension Management
4 Leadership for Women in Agriculture
5 Climate Change and Agriculture

8. Center for Agrarian Studies, Disadvantaged Areas, NRM

Extension and Social Mobilization

1 Formation and Management of Producers' Groups (PGs) and Federations

i. Extension Education Institute

India is very rich in human resources. Before a few decades, we were very poor in their
proper utilization, which fact has great impact on our production and productivity. Being
agrarian country nearly 68 to 70 per cent of our population depend upon agriculture. Hence,
the resource in terms of extension functionaries and its judicious utilization requires keen
attention. The technical capacity and competency of extension functionaries should be
increased and updated as per the global needs. The implementation of WTO opens the
avenues for competition worldwide. In this competitive era, both our extension functionaries
and our ultimate user of agricultural technology i.e. our farmer should be updated and
upgraded in terms of technology. For up gradation of farmer’s capacity and compatibility, the

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existing pattern of KVKs is functioning very well. The Directorate of Extension, Ministry of
Agriculture, New Delhi is always maintaining pace with advancement of agriculture on
global level. With this intent, Government of India has established four Extension Education
Institutes in the four regions of India. i.e. EEI Jorhat, Asam for eastern region, EEI Anand,
Gujarat for western region, Nilokheri, Haryana for northern region and EEI Hyderabad for
southern region.
The Extension Education Institute, Anand is popularly known as EEI. It is an Apex Regional
Training Institute formed on September 17, 1962. The Extension Education Institute, Anand
cater the extension training needs of Western Zone States viz., Gujarat, Maharashtra, Madhya
Pradesh, Chhattisgarh, Rajasthan, Goa, and Union territories of Dadra Nagar haveli, Div and
Daman.
The Extension Education Institute (EEI), Anand is one of the four foremost institutes for
training of extension personnel in India. The institute was established on 17 th September,
1962 with initial financial assistance from "Ford Foundation" through Ministry of Food and
Agriculture, Government of India, New Delhi. The foundation stone of this institute was laid
by Dr. Douglas Ensminger, Ford Foundation Representative in India on Friday the 6 th
October, 1961. By now, it has completed around 57 years. It caters to the extension training
needs of extension functionaries in the states of Rajasthan, Gujarat, Madhya Pradesh,
Chhattisgarh, Maharashtra, Goa and Union Territories (UTs) of Diu-Daman and Dadra Nagar
Haveli, since its inception. This institute conducts various types of on-campus and peripatetic
training courses in the areas of interest of clientele states.
Mandate and Objectives
The main mandate of EEI, Anand is to train middle level extension functionaries of various
line departments to improve upon their job performance wherever they are working in
different capacities.
The crucial objective of Extension Education Institute, Anand is to prepare high quality
extension professionals who can serve in their concerned line departments / SAUs / Institutes
in a better way. The Specific Objectives of this institute are:
i. To provide learning experience that leads to an increasing understanding of the
extension education process and their application in the rural development programs
ii. To develop among trainees a thorough understanding of the basic principles of
learning, teaching and skill in the procedures and techniques of applying them both in
class room and field conditions
iii. To demonstrate effective extension education teaching procedures, methods and
techniques
iv. To develop and carry on a continuous research in the methods and procedures of
extension education
v. To prepare and publish useful basic material related to extension education process
vi. To acquaint trainees with the sources of useful information and material related to
their professional need and help them to develop skills in collecting, processing and
use of such information
Role of EEI:
The ATMA approach has been adopted across the country and some of the states of western
region have started single window system in which all land-based activities are carried out.
The technical manpower may be proficient in subject-matter knowledge of Agriculture,
Horticulture, Animal Husbandry & Veterinary Science, Fisheries Science, Sericulture or any
related fields; however, they are lacking the requisite skills of transmitting the research

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messages to the farming community effectively. Likewise, the master trainers of SAUs and
Extension Officers of NGOs / Corporate Sector also require the trainings. EEI has to play a
specific role for this purpose.
Training and Other Activities
The activities conducted by Extension Education Institute; Anand cover the following areas:
i. Scheduled on/off campus training courses
ii. Non-scheduled or additional consultative / collaborative training courses as per the
demand from clienteles.
iii. Follow up studies
iv. Research in extension education
v. Post-graduate teaching
vi. Farmers Training Programms

C. State Agricultural Management and Extension Training Institutes

Introduction
Under the World Bank aided National Agricultural Technology Project (NATP) the Innovation in
Technology Dissemination (ITD) component envisages major institutional and operation reforms to
generate demand for services, providing a cost sharing mechanism for agricultural operation in
agricultural technology, assessment, assignment and dissemination technological knowledge to
farmers. For operationalization of project, institutions like Agricultural Technology Management
Agencies (ATMAs) have been established in 28 districts, (4 in each State) covering AP,
Maharashtra, Bihar, Punjab, HP, Jharkhand and Orissa. In order to develop a competent structure for
providing demand driven consultancy services and capacity building of the stake holders in the
agricultural extension management, one SAMETI in each of the seven States has been established.
SAMETIs are to provide HRD/Training support to organize programmes for capacity building in
agricultural management and extension training for the stake holders of NATP.

What for SAMETIs?

SAMETIs are declared autonomous with greater flexibilities in structure and functioning and
responsible for organizing need-based training programmes for project functionaries from different
line departments as well as the farming community.

Mandate of the SAMETIs

1. To function as agricultural management and training institute at State level.

2. To provide consultancy in areas like project planning, appraisal and in agricultural
management and extension training.
3. To develop and promote the application of management tools for effective agricultural
extension services.
4. To organize need-based training programmes for middle level and grass-root level
agricultural extension functionaries.
5. To conduct problem-oriented studies in agricultural management, communication,
participatory methodologies, post-harvest technology and marketing.
6. To take up HRD/training activities including preparation of SREP for ATMAs.

Role of SAMETIs

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 1. To provide need-based consultancy services to ATMA
2. To develop and promote appropriate and specific management tools for improving the
effectiveness of agricultural extension services provided by line departments to farmers and
make use of available material and human resources.
3. To have close linkages with other institions like KVK, ZRS, SAUs, Mgt. Institutions,
MANAGE to use appropriate faculty resources.
4. To conduct studies on problems related to agricultural extension management,
communication and information technology, agricultural produce marketing, HRD
participatory methods.

Man-power in each SAMETI

1. Director
2. Faculty Member (Participatory Extension Management)
3. Faculty Member (Information Technology)
4. Faculty Member (HRD)
5. Supporting Staff
6. Computer Operator

MOU between SAMETIs & SAUs:

SAMETIs created in seven NATP States are provided a limited HRD capacity in management and I
areas. As such, a Memorandum of Understanding between SAMETIs and SAUs has been made.

Governing Council/Board:
Each SAMETI has its Governing Council/Board under the chairmanship of Agricultural Production
Commissioner/Chief Secretary of the concerned States.
Executive Council:
Each SAMETI has Executive Council.
Autonomy
Each of the SAMETI has been registered under the Society's Registration Act and work as
autonomous institute.

Organization structure of SAMETI

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 D. Krishi Vigyan Kendra
The above said activities are performed every year by the Krishi Vigyan Kendra, through
specialist of six disciplines viz., Extension Education, Agronomy, Horticulture, Plant
Protection, Animal science, Agriculture Engineering (the specialist can be changed as per
location specific need), which are most relevant taking into consideration national resources
and infrastructure facilities of the district.
Features of Krishi Vigyan Kendra:
1. Powerful technical support
2. Real experience as training
3. Need based training courses
4. Flexibility with farmers
5. Concept of integrated training
6. Real field-oriented course content
7. Specific area of operation
8. Informal training without certificate or diploma
9. Powerful institutional linkage
10. Practical training
11. Frequent follow up measures
12. Training interaction and reporting systems
13. Impact study of the trainings, demonstrations and all extension activities
Organization of KVK:
The project is sponsored by the ICAR and implemented by its Research Institutes,
State Agricultural Universities (SAUs), NGOs and State Department of Agriculture. In
selecting host institutions preference is given to institutions/agencies having agriculture base
and experience of rural development and training.
The KVK is headed by a Senior Scientist of the rank of an Associate Professor
designated as Programme Coordinator with sufficient field experience in the field of
agricultural extension or agronomy. The head is supported by scientists (Training Associate)

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in field of Extension, Agronomy, Horticulture, Home science, Agricultural engineer, Animal
science, Soil science, Fisheries, Plant protection etc. (according to regional requirement). The
head is also supported with three technical staff designated as Training Assistant (Computer
programmer, Farm Manager, Training).
The Local Management Committee, which is now renamed as Scientific Advisory
Committee in each KVK, is an important instrument of management. This committee is
devoted to constantly review the progress of the KVK, provide guidance for organizing
training programmes and follow-up extension activities and redress, whereas possible. This is
strong mechanism for functional linkage with other sister organizations/institutions.
Chairman of SAC: Head of the host institute
Other Members of SAC: DEE, Director ATARI, Representative ICAR institute, Associate
Director of Research of the zone, District officers of the line departments, Representative of
NABARD and Lead bank, District information officer, 2 farmer’s representatives among
which one should be woman farmers.

Manpower in KVK
At present, there are six SMSs (recommended to be re-designated as Scientists), each
one taking care of one subject matter area. The KVKs have to provide multidisciplinary and
broad-based technological interventions to enable farmers to manage their farm in a
sustainable and integrated manner, which demands enhanced manpower not only in terms of
number but also covering the most important subject matter areas relevant to the district.
With ever-growing nature and quantum of workload of each KVK, the existing six SMSs are
finding it difficult to cope up with their responsibilities. Therefore, as per new KVK guideline
of ICAR recommended that four additional posts of SMSs (Scientists) should be created in
each KVK, thus, increasing the number of SMSs to 10 and also recommended that the total
staff strength for each KVK should be 22 as against 16 at present.

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 Extension Teaching Methods
The extension-teaching methods are the tools and techniques used to create situations in
which communication can take place between the rural people and the extension workers.
They are the methods of extending new knowledge, attitude and skills to the rural people by
drawing their attention towards them, arousing their interest and helping them to have a
successful experience of the new practice.
1. Extension teaching method is anything used by a sender of a message to connect him
with audience.
2. It is a physical bridge between sender and receiver of the message.
3. IT is the avenue between a communicator and audience on which messages travel to
and fro.
4. Extension teaching method is transmission line used for carrying messages to their
destination.
5. Teaching method can be defined as a method through which the results of research
can be conveyed to the people.
6. Teaching method is the device used to create situation in which communication can
take place between the instructor and the learner.
A proper consideration of these methods and their selection for a particular type of
work is necessary.
Classification of Extension Teaching Methods
One way of classifying the extension methods is according to their nature of contact.
It is classification based on their use for contacting people individually, in groups or in mass.

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Based upon the nature of contact, they are divided into individual, group and mass-contact
methods.
 Individual contact methods: Extension methods under this category provide
opportunities for face-to-face or person-to-person contact between the rural people
and the extension workers. These methods are very effective in teaching new skills
and creating goodwill between farmers and the extension workers.
 Group contact method: Under this category, the rural people or farmers are
contacted in a group, which usually consists of 20 to 25 persons. These groups are
usually formed around a common interest. These methods also involve a face-to-face
contact with the people and provide an opportunity for the exchange of ideas, for
discussions on problems and technical recommendations and finally for deciding the
future course of action.
 Mass or community contact methods: An extension worker has to approach a large
number of people for disseminating new information and helping them to use it. This
can be done through mass-contact methods conveniently. These methods are more
useful for making people aware of the new agricultural technology quickly.
Important extension-teaching methods can be classified according to FORM and
STYLE OF USE. They are listed in the following chart.

Extension teaching methods according to style of use

Personal contact Group contact Mass contact
Farm visit Meeting Film
Home visit Group discussion Television, Radio
Personal Letter Panel discussion Exhibition
Office call Symposium Campaign
Farmer’s Call Workshop Charts
Farm and Home visit Forum Poster
Visit of Agril. Clinic Field trip Internet
Pager Slide show News paper
Fax Film strip show Video conferencing
E- mail Method - demonstration Leaflets, Folders
Telephone/Mobile Result -demonstration Booklets

Extension teaching methods according to form

Written Audio Visual Audio-Visual
Books Radio 2 D Non Non Projected
Folders Tape recorder Projected
Journals Telephone Picture Method -demonstration
Leaflets Song Photographs Drama
Booklets Lecture Posters Puppet show
E- Mail Meeting Charts Bhavai

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 News - paper Group - Projected
Personal - meeting Film
letter Panel - Video
3 D Non-
Circular - discussion Television
Projected
letter
Model
Specimens
2 D Projected
Film strip
Slides
Transparency
Importance of Extension Teaching Methods:
There are many roles of extension teaching methods in the process of extension
teaching, these roles or importance is as under;
1. To attract the attention of the people.
2. To open the mind of the villagers.
3. To demonstrate the new way of doing thing.
4. To produce desired results in terms of knowledge, skill and attitude.
5. To test out new innovation.
6. To see merits of the new innovations.
7. To make audience inquisitive.
8. To get village people started thinking and acting together.
9. To give correct concept.
10. To learn more.
11. To learn fast.
12. To provide experience not known to the audience.
13. To solve the problem of language.
14. To remember longer.
15. To arouse and sustain interest in teaching.
16. To change the attitude.
17. To reach more people at a time.
18. To provide variety in teaching.
19. To serve as a reminder.
20. To teach learners with experience.
21. To involve more numbers of the senses of learners.
22. Attention of the people can be attracted 87.00 percent by sight, 7.00 percent by
hearing, 3.50 percent by smell and1.50 percent by touch, thus to make use of senses
of learners, teaching methods are useful.
23. People can remember 20.00 percent of what they hear, 30.00 percent of what they see,
60.00 percent of what they hear and see and 80.00 percentof they see, hear and do.
Here also to involve more senses of learners, teaching methods are useful.
Important Extension Teaching Methods and Visuals
Individual contact methods:
1. Farm and home visit: It is face-to-face contact made by an extension worker with
the farmer or any members of farmers’ family at his farm or home with one or more
specific purposes.

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2. Office call: it is call made by an extension worker to the farmers at his office for any
purpose.
3. Personal letter: An individual letter written by extension worker to a farmer in
connection with extension work.
4. Circular letters: it is a letter produced and sent to concerned people periodically or on
specific occasions.
Group contact methods:
5. Method demonstration: it is a way to improve skill of the learners by practically
involving them in matter to be learned.
6. Result demonstration: it is a way to prove importance of new technology by comparing
it with old one in real situation.
7. Field trip: It is a method in which a group of interested farmers accompanied and guided
by an extension worker, goes on tour to see and gain first hand knowledge of improved
practices in their natural settings.
8. Tour: It is a method by which a group gets together for the purpose of seeing the results
of new practices.
9. General meeting: it is a meeting of heterogeneous participants where information is
passed for discussion or consideration for future action.
10. Group discussion: Group discussion is a planned and purposive interchange of ideas and
feelings under the supervision of discussion leader. OR A group of people organized for
the purpose of sharing information about specific topic and analyzing and evaluating that
information to get some general conclusions or agreement.
11. Lecture method: Lecture is a formal, unilateral, oral communication, logically organized
and presented accordingly to the level of learners.
12. Seminar: A seminar usually consists of expert who combines to explore a limited area of
inquiry. It does not make any policy declaration (recommendations) but make it
deliberation available to government and academic institutions and general public.
13. Conference: Conference seeks to bring together specialists, interested citizens, policy
makers, executives and learners to discuss an area of practical importance with policy
implementation. Small and large group discussion, steering committee and open plenary
sessions utilized for improving the work of conference.
14. Workshop: It is a special type of working conference of a week or more duration. There
are lectures, individual conferences and emphasis in working group. Work sessions
arranged under the guidance of consultants. Individual participant can work on a special
problem either individually or as member of groups. Mostly used for professional
improvement and in-service training. Elements of workshop are: (1) Lectures by staff
members (2) Group meeting with groups selected according to interest (3) Individual
consultation and study (4) Informal discussion at odd time (5) Inspirational or special
events (6) Library and other resources for study.
15. Symposium: Sort series of lectures usually by 2 to 5 speakers each with different
viewpoint. Audience encouraged to address questions and comments. It gives overall
picture of a complicated topic. The topic can be divided in to sub area or various facts,
each one is being taken up by an expert, the presentation is proceeded by the chairman
remarks followed by audience participation and concluded by symposium.

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16. Panel discussion: Four to six members sit in semi circle facing the audience. Members of
the panel under the direction of chairman discuss a controversial subject.
17. Debate: Team of usually 2 to 3 persons discuss controversial subject. Each speaker
speaks for an allotted time. After debate audience also invited to join the discussion.
18. Group interview: Leader interviews persons on a platform. Leader dominated panel
discussion. Excellent for getting information from experts.
19. Lecture forum or discussion forum: Speaker – audience technique where 2 or more
persons present talks. Subject is controversial. Speakers do not tear each other’s cases.
Followed by questions answers period.
20. Case study discussion: It attempts to give a holistic view of special phenomena along
with an analysis of the process, which is not only complex but also dynamic.
21. Syndicate study: It is specialized form of group discussion combined with individual
assignment, which is collected and to the group report is presented to general assembly of
all learners.
22. Role play method: This is real life of situation in which controlled environment of
training institutions with a view to enable the learner to perceive the importance of feeling
and attitude in administrative behaviour
Mass contact method:
23. Leaflet: It is a single sheet of printed matter, may be folded ones, which gives specific
information on a particular topic to become aware.
24. Folder: Folder is a printed sheet folded more than once with a detail idea.
25. Pamphlet: Pamphlet varies in size from 12 to 24 pages.
26. Bulletin: Bulletin is a bulkier publication with 24-48 or more pages.
27. Campaign: It is intensive teaching activity undertaken to attract the attention of a mass
towards particular problem for its possible solution through some actions. OR It is
intensive teaching activity undertaken at the proper time for a brief period focusing
attention in a concentrated form towards a particular problem in order to stimulate the
widest interest and actions in the community.
28. Radio: It is a medium for ass communication, a tool for giving information and
entertainment. It is a mass medium of communication and can reach a large number of
people at any given time involving the least expense. Extension workers use the radio for
communicating information on new methods and techniques, giving timely information
about the control of pests, market news, etc. For this purpose, talks, group discussions,
folk songs, dialogues and dramas are usually organized.
29. Television: It is an electronic audiovisual medium, which provides pictures with
synchronized sound.
30. Newspapers: It is a periodical with the service type or news type of information.
31. Exhibition: It is systematic display of models, specimens, charts, posters, photographs,
real objects and any informative materials in a sequence around a theme to create
awareness and interest in the community.
32. Visual aids: Visual aids are the tools of teaching used through the sense of sight. They
are supporting materials and they alone cannot create perfect learning. They should be
considered as tools that help to do a job in an improved way.

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33. Model: it is a replica of original object. There are four types of models; model which is
bigger than original object - model of heart, ears, model which is smaller than original
object – building’s model, crossed model - it shows internal parts of any thing - oil-engine
and working model: model of steam engine.
34. Specimen: it is representative part of original object e.g. live plant of any crop and insect.
35. Slide: It is a transparent picture or drawing or written material or figure mounted on the
film or glass, which is projected on screen by projector.
36. Film: It is series of pictures with synchronized (matched) sound system arranged on the
plastic role in such a way that when projected action pictures with sound can be enjoyed.
OR A series of action pictures that being projected with a synchronized sound system to
forms a story.
37. Film strip: It is series of still pictures, drawings, photographs or written materials
arranged on 35 mm plastic role in such a way that information can be given to the
audience step after step. A series of still pictures, drawings, photographs or written
materials arranged on a 35 mm film.
38. Overhead transparencies: The overhead transparency has become an effective and
commonly used visual aid for a variety of presentations. They can be used in large and
small meetings that are formal or informal. Transparencies can be constructed or write on
film or thermo-treated film.
39. Flash cards: flash cards are series of cards with illustration (pictures, figures, drawings)
on the front side and useful information on the back side, and they are used to present
information step by step to the group of the learners. OR It is series of illustrated cards
flashed before a group in proper sequence to tell a complete story.
40. Poster: it is mass produced pictorial slogan used to create awareness among audience for
single idea. A good poster creates awareness and curiosity among the people. It inspires
and takes people towards action. It consists of three main parts. The first usually
announces the purpose or the approach; the second sets out conditions and the third
recommends action. A poster should be bold enough to attract attention of the people and
should communicate only one idea at a time. It should have simple letters, which are clear
and forceful. The size of a poster should not be less than 50 x 75 cm. The ABC style of
poster making means, make it Attractive, Brief and Clear.
41. Photographs: They are a very simple visual aid used to show some action to catch the
feelings and emotions of the people. They can be arranged to tell a story. One photograph
can explain event of thousand words.
42. Flannel-graphs: Flannel graph is any kind of visual may be picture, photograph or a
letter with a piece of sandpaper or any adhesive material on the backside. They can be
made to adhere easily to a piece of thick flannel cloth, fixed on a board. They are used as
an aid for group methods like informal talks or lectures. OR It is a graphic material used
on flannel board for instructional purposes, where the material is glued with sand paper
on its backside.
43. Maps: It is flat representation of the any surface with the help of diagram sowing its
arrangement or components associated with each other. Certain presentations require the
use of maps, such as talks on travel, international affairs, weather, and the location of
various activities within a country.

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44. Charts: They are graphic and pictorial representations used to tabulate a large mass of
information or show a progression. They are visual symbols summarizing or comparing
or performing other helpful services in explaining subject matter. Charts are helpful to
communicate difficult and dull subject matter in interesting and effective ways in
extension work.
 Bar chart – are made of a series of bars based on a measured scale. They are used to
compare quantities at different times or under different circumstances. Bar charts are
applicable only to grouped data.
 Scatter chart: Scatter charts are widely used in science to present measurement on two
(or more) variables that are though to be related. The origin of the chart- the point at
which the x & y axes cross – should almost always be 0,0.
 Line charts – Line charts are similar in some ways to scatter chart, with the extra
constraint that the values of the variable have their own sequence. Moreover, those
values are from a continuous series, such as temperature, pressure or commodity prices.
 Pie charts – are in the shape of circles and used to show how several parts make up the
whole. They may show percentages, proportions, etc.
 Tabular charts – are used to bring together in compact form a mass of related data.
 Tree charts - are used for showing development or growth of a thing. The origin is a
single line or other representation of the trunk; the various developments are shown as
branches.
 Flow charts – are shown by lines and arrows to show organizational structure of any
institutions.
 Pictorial charts–Include picture and create a rapid association through the use of
graphic messages like cartoons or illustrations. Each visual symbol indicates quantities.
 Over-lay charts- Consist of a number of sheets, which can be placed one over the other
conveniently. On each individual sheet a part of the whole is drawn. This enables the
viewer to see not only the different parts, but also how they appear when one is placed
over the other. After the final over-lay is placed it shows the ultimate product. This
type of presentation is dramatic and effective.
 Pull charts – Consist of written messages on a large sheet. Messages are hidden by
piece of thick paper held in position. The messages can be shown to the viewer, one
after another, by pulling out the concealing strips. This provides suspense to the
viewer.
 Strip (Tease) charts – are similar to the pull charts. While presentation, messages,
words, pictures, etc., are kept secret by using strips of thin paper instead of thick paper.
The ends of thin paper strips are pinned or pasted to both ends of the message on the big
sheet. Whenever the message is to be exposed, one end of paper strip is stripped out.
This has the advantage of surprise of anticipation
 Flip charts - large pads of bound paper arranged on a stand, which carry a series of
ideas sequentially. During presentation, the teacher flips individual chart one by one.
This kind of chart exposes the audience to segments of the subject, in sequence and
holds attention remarkably well.
45. Puppets: Puppets are very popular especially for village situations. It is used to
communicate message with entertainment. Puppet shows can be effectively organized to

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 gather the rural people. For a puppet show, a short story, brief scenes and quick dialogues
are necessary. Such shows can teach a lesson about health, literacy, agriculture or home
making.
46. Blackboard / Chalkboard: The chalkboard is an extremely accessible and popular visual
aid. It is available in most public speaking and teaching environments. The chalkboard
allows unlimited flexibility and spontaneous modification. One problem is that it is too
often used as a substitute for greater creativity and preparation on the part of the speaker.
The speaker should not address the audience while writing on the board. Write neatly and
large enough for the entire audience to see. It is not in itself a visual material but a vehicle
for a variety of visual materials. It is cheapest, most versatile and most universally used
teaching aid.
47. Bulletin board: It is kind of visual board used for the purpose of making announcements
in simple language, displaying events of short duration and photographs of local
activities. It is also known as tack board.
48. Flannel board: It is kind of visual board on which one piece of rough textured material
may be wool or khadi flannel adheres or sticks. Flannel board is used to present flannel
graphs, which are backed with rough sand paper, which helps to stick on the flannel
board.

DIFFERENCES BETWEEN METHODS

FILM FILMSTRIP
1. It is series of pictures with matched Sound 1. It is series of still pictures, drawings,
system arranged on the plastic role in such a written materials arranged on 35 mm
way that if they can be projected action role in such a way that topic can be
pictures and sound can come out on the presented to the audience step by
screen. step.

2. According to form it is audiovisual. 2. According to form it is visual.

3. According to useit is mass contact method. 3. According to useit is group contact
method.
4. Pictures of film have motion. 4. Pictures of filmstrip have no motion.
5. It has more length. 5. It has less length compared to film.
6. More costly than filmstrip. 6. Less costly than film.
7. Sound track is there on film. 7. Sound track is not there on f. strip.
8. Have difference sizes; 8,16,35, 70 mm. 8. It is available only in 35 mm.
9. It is useful to create entertainment. 9. It is useful to present topic step by
step
10. Two senses like eyes and ears are involved 10. One sense like eye is involved while
while learning so it is more effective than learning so it is less effective than

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 filmstrip. film.

>SLIDES FILM STRIP

1. It is a transparent picture /drawing written 1. It is series of still pictures /drawings
material /figure mounted on the film or written materials arranged on 35 mm
glass which is projected on screen by role in such a way that topic can be
projector. presented to the audience step by
step.
2. They are in series but separate from each 2. It is series of slides but joint from
other. each other.
3. It can be prepared from the glass cellophane 3. It can be prepared from 35 mm film
paper or glass
4. Easy to prepare compared to filmstrip 4. Difficult to prepare compared to
because handmade slide can be prepared slides because like slide, handmade
filmstrip cannot be prepared.
5. Slide Projector is needed to use it 5. Filmstrip projector is needed to use
it.
6. There are chances of missing slides from the 6. This type of missing of a part of
set of the slide because each slide is filmstrip is nil because all parts or
separate from each. pictures are joint from each other

MODEL SPECIMEN
1. It is a replica of original object 1. It is representative part of original
object
2. There are Four types of Models; Model 2. Generally specimens are taken from
which is bigger than original object- Model the live objects like; Specimen of
of insect, Model which is smaller than plant of any crop, weeds, insects,
original object –model of building, Crossed flowers
Model: It shows internal parts of any thing-
Steam engine and Working Model: Model
of steam engine
3. One has to create duplicate in smaller or 3. One has to take some part from
bigger form of original thing. the original object.
FLASH CARDS FILM STRIP
1. Flash cards are set of series of cards with 1. It is series of still pictures /drawings
illustrations (pictures / figures / drawings) on /photographs or written materials
the front side and useful information on the arranged on 35 mm plastic role in such
backside used to present information step by a way that information can be given to
step against the group of the learners the audience step by step
2. According to form it is non-projected 2D 2. According to form it is projected

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 Visual for teaching visual for teaching.
3. Convenient size 25 cm x30 cm. 3. Available and convenient only on 35
mm film.
4. Flash cards are non transparent. 4. Filmstrip is transparent material.
5. Drawing papers are used to prepare it. 5. The 35 mm film is used to prepare it.
6. A set contains 10 to 12 cards. 6. It contains 20 to 25 still pictures.
7. Audience can see the picture directly with out 7. Audience can see the picture on screen
any projector. through filmstrip projector.
8. It can be used anywhere. 8. It can be used only where electricity
and dark rooms are available.
9. Easy to prepare. 9. Only expert can prepare it.
10. Cards are separate from each other 10. Pictures are not separate from
each other
11. On the backside of each card, 11. This type of facility is not there
information is written and hidden, for the use because it is transparent material;
of presenter while presentation, which is in written information can be given but is
fact not seen by audience. seen by both; presenter and audience.
METHOD DEMONSTRATION (MD) RESULT DEMONSTRATION (RD)
1. It is a way to improve skill of the learners 1. It is a way to prove importance of
by practically involving them in activity or new technology by comparing it
matter to be learned. with old one in real situation
2. Principle of “learningby doing”is used, 2. Principles of “seeing is believing”
while organizing it. and “learning by doing”are used
while organizing it.
3. Comparison is not done. 3. Comparison is done between two
technologies.
4. Comparatively it needs lesser time and 4. Comparatively it needs more time
money than RD. and money than MD.
5. It is used to improve skill of the learners. 5. It is used to change attitude,
knowledge and skill of the learners.
6. It can be also organized in classroom 6. It can be organized only in actual
condition or in actual fields. field condition.

>PERSONAL CONTACT METHODS MASS CONTACT METHODS

(PCMs) (MCMs)
1. Any methods by which contact of persons is 1. Any methods by which contact of
made individually to communicate any persons is made in a big mass to
thing are known as PCMs communicate any thing are known
as MCMs.
2. Farm and Home visit, office call, telephone, 2. TV, radio, newspaper, film, drama,
fax, letter are the examples of PCMs. puppet show etc. are the examples of
MCMs.
3. These methods are useful to teach Skill to 3. These methods are useful to create
the learners or to motivate them for certain awareness or to improve knowledge
action. of the learners.
4. Two-way communication is possible so, this 4. Two-way communication is not
is more effective than MCMs possible so this is less effective than

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 PCMs
5. More budget and time are needed to use 5. Comparatively less budget and time
these methods of teaching. are needed to use these methods of
teaching.
6. These methods are useful at the trial and 6. These methods are useful at the
final adoption stages of adoption process initial stage of adoption process.
7. Less number of persons can be contacted 7. More number of persons can be
through these methods in given time. contacted through these methods in
a given time.
8. There are more chances of establishing good 8. There are less chances of
relationship of ext. workers with the establishing good relationship of ext.
farmers. workers with the farmers.
9. There are some limitations for fast and 9. Fast and urgent communication is a
urgent communication. major function of MCMs.

ICT Application in TOT (New and Social Media)

Internet and World Wide Web have provided an opportunity for the agricultural extension
scientists to disseminate the technology, share the research findings and get the farmer
feedback in most economic manner. The internet services like WWW, e-mail and face book
may help to keep in pace with recent trend in the field. Extension professionals fully
equipped with the modern tools help to serve the farming community.
The Internet is a network of networks, the international linking of tens of thousands of
business, universities, and research organizations with millions of individual users. The
Internet is a global electronic community of over 50,000 interconnected computer networks,
which means more than 50 million people are linked together, computing on what has been
aptly termed as the "information super highway". Internet has added a new dimension to our
existence by placing within easy reach an overwhelming range of information. It gives each
of us the option to be a publisher of our information and views. The Internet offers a wealth
of business opportunities. More and more business firms are advertising their services to
customers on the Internet. The Internet is a source of up-to-date information and assistance
too, related to business, stock market, education, research, medical advances etc., Many
organisations also set up an "Internet". This is a network used on the Internet to communicate
and share information across the organization.
Purposes of Internet

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 1. Education: Can get additional Information by the students, teachers and scientists. It is
a mediumfor interactive and collaborative learning. Useful for distance education
2. Publishing: All newspapers and newsletters are available on internet.
3. Shopping: E-commerce is possible
4. Advertising: Useful for advertising the products with text, graphics and pictures and
videoclippings.
5. Financial services: Stock broking and research reports on stocks are available and can
bedownloaded. The transactions like tele credit card checking, tele banking, tele
insurance are taking place.
6. The business of governance: Public information useful for every citizen can be kept
on the net.
7. Government services can be made available and can provide fast, transparent services
through this. E.g., E –seva in AP
8. Career: Career opportunities can be known with the help of net
9. Internet communication: Provides access to all kinds of information available on the
latest technology in any field
10. E-mail: Is the primary communication tool on internet. One can send and receive
mails without anygeographical barriers. We can send e-mail through websites like
[Link], [Link] etc.
11. Lister: It allows group of people with common interest to send messages to each other
at no cost.
12. Usenet News group: A newsgroup is worldwide platform for exchanging ideas and
information by common minded people. The mail programme is loaded with windows
is Outlook Express. It helps use to send, receive and store e mails. World Wide Web
(www) is a network of information resources. The digital pages on www are called
web sites. The first page of website is called Home page.

Limitations of internet
1. Requirement of continuous power supply
2. Failure in network
3. Lack of knowledge for the people on use of internet
4. Selecting the required information in the net is difficult from the volumes of
information
5. Sometimes it misleads the individual for wrong selection of information
6. Internet services are not available in rural areas hence farmers need to travel to the
urban areas toutilize the facility

Kiosk is a small enclosed structure, often freestanding, open on one side or with a window,
used as a booth to access to information in agriculture and allied areas.

Video Conferencing
Videoconferencing is effective in delivering education to students in distributed locations. It
allows two or more locations to interact in a two-way transmission of audio and video as well
as other content through media such as Digital Versatile Disk (DVD), PowerPoint or the
Internet. Participants can hear and see each other, and can also see instructional materials that
are displayed by the lecturer.
Wireless fidelity (Wifi)
"WiFi" stands for "wireless fidelity". The initial proposal for the radio technology's public
use was put forth by Michael Marcus in the year 1980, and had to wait for 5 years. Later it
was made available in other countries. Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research

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Organization (CSIRO) a research body in Australia filed for the original patents of the 802.11
network technology used in Wi-Fi in the year 1996. Radio waves are used for the working
of Wi-Fi technology. The wireless adapter of the computer and the wireless router play an
important role in its working. The adapter receives data from the computer in digital form.
This data, after its conversion in radio waves is sent to the router by means of an antenna. The
router decodes the signal and sends it to the Internet. The process is reversed when
information is sent from the Internet to a computer.
Geographical Information System (GIS) is a system for capturing, storing, analyzing and
managing data and associated attributes, which are spatially referenced to the Earth. The
geographical information system is also called as a geographic information system or
geospatial information system. It is an information system capable of integrating, storing,
editing, analyzing, sharing, and displaying geographically referenced information. In a more
generic sense, GIS is a software tool that allows users to create interactive queries, analyze
the spatial information, edit data, maps, and present the results of all these operations. GIS
technology is becoming essential tool to combine various maps and remote sensing
information to generate various models, which are used in real time environment.
Geographical information system is the science utilizing the geographic concepts,
applications and systems.
Geographical Information System (GIS) is the most important and useful system for decision
making in Agricultural sector by the functionaries. GIS will help to ascertain the ground
level realities with the help of spatial data obtained from various resources. In GIS one can
integrate data from various sources such as Remote Sensing Data and Image with that of data
of land records and agricultural census. It would be more appropriate to use GIS applications
in agro-based enterprise to ascertain the scope of activities and monitoring of activities.
Remote sensing (RS) technology has rapidly expanded for the development of various
sectors including Agriculture. The remote sensing techniques will continue to be very
important factor in the improvement of present system of acquiring agricultural data. The
remote sensing provides various platforms for agricultural survey. Satellite imagery has
unique ability to provide the actual synoptic views of large area at a time, which is not
possible for conventional survey methods and also the process of data acquisition and
analysis are very fast through Geographic Information System as compared to the
conventional methods. The importance of remote sensing applications to agricultural sector
involve land use pattern, crop production, crop yield determination, and crop monitoring.
e-governance refers to the use of Information and Communication Technology (ICT),
particularly web-based applications, to provide access to and deliver information / service to
the public, business, other agencies and governmental entities faster, cheaper, easier and more
efficient. This in turn enhances relationships, enlarges the overall customer base and
improves core business operations through reexamination of internal processes.
Social Media
Facebook
Facebook (sometimes shortened to FB) is a social networking service and website started in
February 2004. It was built by Mark Zuckerberg. It is owned by Facebook, Inc. As of
September 2012, Facebook has over one billion active users. Users may make a
personal profile, add other users as friends, and send messages. Facebook users
must register before using the site. The name of the service comes from the name for the
book given to students at the start of the school year by some universities in the United
States. These books help students get to know each other better. Facebook allows any users
who are at least 13 years old to become users of the website.
Facebook was started by Mark Zuckerberg with his college roommates and fellow computer
science students . The website's membership was only for Harvard students at first. Later it

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included other colleges in the Boston area, the Ivy League, and Stanford University. It
eventually opened for students at other universities. After that, it opened to high school
students, and, finally, to anyone aged 13 and over.
Twitter
Twitter is an American online news and social networking service on which users post and
interact with messages known as "tweets". Tweets were originally restricted to
140 characters, but on November 7, 2017, this limit was doubled to 280 for all languages
except Chinese, Japanese, and Korean. Registered users can post, like, and retweet tweets,
but unregistered users can only read them. Users access Twitter through its website interface,
through Short Message Service (SMS) or its mobile-device application
software ("app"). Twitter, Inc. is based in San Francisco, California, and has more than 25
offices around the world.
Twitter was created in March 2006 by Jack Dorsey, Noah Glass, Biz Stone, and Evan
Williams and launched in July of that year. The service rapidly gained worldwide popularity.
In 2012, more than 100 million users posted 340 million tweets a day, and the service
handled an average of 1.6 billion search queries per [Link] 2013, it was one of the ten most-
visited websites and has been described as "the SMS of the Internet". As of 2018, Twitter had
more than 321 million monthly active users. Since 2015 Twitter has been a hotbed of debates
and news covering politics of the United States. During the 2016 U.S. presidential election,
Twitter was the largest source of breaking news on the day, with 40 million election-related
tweets sent by 10:00 p.m. (Eastern Time) that day.
YouTube
YouTube is an American video-sharing website headquartered in San Bruno, California.
Three former PayPal employees—Chad Hurley, Steve Chen, and Jawed Karim—created the
service in February 2005. Google bought the site in November 2006 for US$1.65 billion;
YouTube now operates as one of Google's subsidiaries.
YouTube allows users to upload, view, rate, share, add to playlists, report, comment
on videos, and subscribe to other users. It offers a wide variety of user-
generated and corporate media videos. Available content includes video clips, TV
show clips, music videos, short and documentary films, audio recordings, movie trailers, live
streams, and other content such as video blogging, short original videos, and educational
videos. Most of the content on YouTube is uploaded by individuals, but media corporations
including CBS, the BBC, Vevo, and Hulu offer some of their material via YouTube as part of
the YouTube partnership program. Unregistered users can only watch videos on the site,
while registered users are permitted to upload an unlimited number of videos and add
comments to videos. Videos deemed potentially inappropriate are available only to registered
users affirming themselves to be at least 18 years old.
Media mix strategies
A media mix is the combination of communication channels your business can use to meet its
marketing objectives. Typically, these include newspapers, radio, television, billboards,
websites, email, direct mail, the Internet and social media, such as Facebook or Twitter.
Combining these channels in a media mix enables you to communicate in the most effective
way with different types of customers and prospects at different stages of the purchase
decision, according to Entrepreneur.
Factors affecting in use / choice/ combination of medias
For an effective use of medias, it is not enough to know these medias and their techniques.
What is more important is the appropriate selection of a media or combination of medias for a
particular situation. In fact, when a farmer is exposed to a new idea several times by different
medias or a combination of medias, he is likely to accept it more quickly. There are many

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factors, which affect selection and use of medias. A proper understanding of their selection
for a particular type of work is necessary.
1. Audience:
Size of audience
Ability of the audience
Age of the audience
Level of modernization of the audience
Familiarity of the audience with methods
2. Communicator:
Ability to use various methods
Skill of communication
Knowledge of the communicator
Interest attitude and dedication of the communicator
3. Objectives of the communication
4. Subject matter
5. Stage of the extension work
6. Size of extension staff
7. Availability of communication media
8. Communicator’s familiarity
9. Stages of the adoption process
Awareness stage: Mass contacts
Interest stage: Personal contact methods of the teaching.
Evaluation stage: Result demonstration, personal contacts.
Trail stage: Personal contacts, visit of successful farmers.
Final adoption stage: Personal contact methods.
10. Availability of time
Social media is powerful. A recent study about how farmers use media found that
42% of farmers who use Facebook and Twitter are using it every day. Whether
sharing personal stories or using the sites as news sources, farmers are making their
presence known online. YouTube is the most popular social media platform for
agriculture professionals.

Agricultural Journalism
Journalism
Journalism is a form of communication based on asking and answering the questions who?
What? How? Where? and Why? Journalism is anything that contributes in some way in
gathering, selecting, processing of news and current affairs for the press, radio, television,
film, cable, internet, etc. Journalism is systematic process of gathering, writing, interpreting,
processing and disseminating public opinion, public information and public entertainment for
publication in newspapers, magazines and broadcast.

Journalism is defined as:

 A systematic and reliable gathering dissemination of information for public
consumption.
 Written form of journalism i.e. Printed matters, photojournalism and broadcast
journalism are some of the types of journalism.

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Agricultural Journalism
Agricultural journalism is otherwise known as Farm [Link] is a specialized
branch of journalism. It is journalism as applied to agriculture. It is a practice of journalism
applied for the extension of farm information.
Agricultural Journalism is the task of gathering, writing, editing and publishing or
disseminating agricultural information, scientific facts, technologies, events or news through
newspapers, magazines, radio and television or by any media of communication.

It is the timely reporting and editing with words and photography of agricultural news
and information for newspaper, magazine, radio and television.
Farm journalism is playing a great role in communication with farm people,
homemakers, etc. Newspaper stories, magazine article, leaflets, pamphlets, bulletins, circular
letters, wall newspapers and radio scripts are increasingly being written by the extension staff
and read or listened to. The written work is helping to make advisory work with farm people
more interesting.
Who is a Journalist?
A professional journalist is a person who works regularly for the scores of
newspapers, magazines, journals and house organs and those who write copy or edit script for
Radio and or Television.

Role of a Journalist
1. To inform the people
2. To influence the people
3. To entertain the people

Qualities of a Journalist
To play his role successfully, the journalist should possess the following qualities.

1. He should have various skills like

• Verbal skill
• Writing skill
• Reading skill
• Listening skill
• Skill of selecting proper message as per the need and interest
• Skill of giving treatment to the message
• Skill of using different channels
• Skill of understanding his audience
• Skill of collecting evidences of results
2. He should have knowledge about
• His major objectives
• His targeted audience
• His message to be conveyed
• Channel to be used
• Treatment of message to make it easy to understand and acceptable
• His own abilities and weakness as a journalist
3. He should have interest in
• Bringing change in targeted audience
• Bringing fruitful results through different media

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 • Using various media based on situations
4. He should prepare
• Complete sketch of message
• Plan of evaluating message
• Various information materials to give treatment to his message
5. He should have proper attending behaviour like
• Use of local language
• Use of simple words and small sentences
• What to avoid and what not to void
• Friendly language
• Enough confidence to handle all the elements of communication
6. He should have empathy to understand audience's point of view.
7. He should have positive attitude to incorporate above all qualities to create ideal
situation.

Importance of Journalism:
1. The aim of journalism is to bring a change in behaviour of people by educating them.
2. Journalism is a communication technology through written words which help in
effective communication.
3. To retain and remember for a long period one needs written. It is memory bank.
4. It has more credibility over spoken words.

Importance of Agricultural Journalism

1. Agricultural journalism satisfies the curiosity and desire for agriculture information of
farming community.
2. Provides information input to the farming community which is basic for agricultural
development
3. It increase both availability and transmission of agricultural information by using
mass media
4. Helps convey the agriculture messages in understandable manner
5. Helps to communicate the message at proper time and well before the season
6. Develops scientific attitude of farmers by publishing scientific reports pertaining to
agriculture
7. Develops confidence of farmers by publishing success stories of successful farmers
8. Uses journalistic techniques that encourage and motivate the farmers to follow tips
given by scientists or extension personnel.
9. Helps to increase rate of adoption of innovation by publishing follow up stories.

Role of Agricultural Journalism in Agricultural Development

1. Agricultural journalism plays pivotal role to create awareness about new development
in agriculture and overcome ignorance of the farming community.
2. Narrow down the gap exists between the level of research finding available at
agricultural research stations and the actual adoption of those by the farm people.
3. Provides continue flow of superior scientific technology from agricultural research
stations to the farming community through different media within the shortest
possible period.
4. Play important role in connecting three important systems viz., research, extension and

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 client system for participatory technology generation and dissemination.
5. Facilitating role in effective communication of new agricultural knowledge in such a
way that it results effective use and adoption.
6. Plays role in agricultural information feed forward and feedback mechanism.

Scope / Advantage of Agricultural Journalism

• Increases education level among the farming community
• Provides timely agricultural information to farmers and extension personnel
• Decreases disparities among the farmers
• Enhance food security and sufficiency
• Enhance socio-economic status of farmers
• Enhance empowerment of farmers
• Enhance employment generation
• Enhance development of the nation
Problems of Agriculture Journalism in India

There are many problems in agricultural journalism. These are mentionedas under.
1. Circulation is very low.
2. Political over emphasis and bias: It is high time to reduce political over emphasis and
increase educational information.
3. Ignorance of reporters about agriculture.
4. Distortion and suppression of news: If it does not suit government, political parties or
big agencies. Distortion may be because of ignorance alone.
5. Pressure from advertisers: Industrialist, land lord, government etc.
6. Urban biased: They share urban belief prejudices and blind spot. It is hard to bring news
from rural area as compared to urban area. Rural news is not sectional accord to them.
7. Lack of agricultural knowledge: The news given by agricultural university are published
as such without judging validity. But now certain news agencies are having agriculture
corresponding.
8. Lack of scientific writers: Agricultural universities and state departments can play the
role for encouraging scientific writers. However, scientists do not write popular articles
because of lack of time and little interest to spare time for such publication.
9. Reader’s interest not always served: 'Why' aspect of the news is not fully satisfied.
Contents of agriculture news are generally not relevant, specific and non-motivating.
Therefore, farmers do not show their interest in reading, watching news.
10. Economic factors: Publishing the newspaper and magazines is costly affair. They have
to depend on government, agencies, etc. Private newspaper in agriculture-government is
not coming up to promote them so they depend on private funding.
11. Lack of sources of news: Weather Department, Marketing Department, Agricultural
University are only sources.
12. Lack of linkages between different sources of news.
13. Lack of government support.
14. Written media has not been successful in rural area for two reason i.e., low literacy rate
and low purchasing power of rural people.

Types of Journalism
1. Spoken
2. Written

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 3. Pictorial
Types of Journalism:
1. Advocacy journalism
 Initiated by USA in early 19thcentury
 Advocacy journalism is a genre of journalism that intentionally and transparently
adopts a non-objective viewpoint, usually for some social or political purpose.
 Because it is intended to be factual, it is distinguished from propaganda.
 It is publicity oriented
 Here, journalists support any issue in the public form
2. Interpretative journalism or Reporting
 Interpretative or explanation-oriented reporting
 The farm reporters explain Why, How, What, etc.
 Here, farm reporter is not only writer of news but he is also orator
 He publishes news in such a way the readers are motivated and enthusiased to adopt
any new technology that he writes about
3. Development journalism in agriculture
 Separate school of thought which increases the sense of people
 It focuses on protection of farming community and their development
 It creates sense of improvement in the people for their own development
4. Convergence journalism
 A form of journalism which combines different forms of journalism such as print,
photographic and video into one piece or group of pieces.
 Convergence journalism can be found in the sites of CNN and many other news sites
5. Ambush journalism
 Refers to aggressive tactics practiced by journalists to suddenly confront and question
people who otherwise do not wish to speak to a journalist
 This particularly has been applied by television journalists.

Some other forms include:

1. Access journalism : journalists who self-censor and voluntarily cease speaking about
issues that might embarrass their hosts, guests, or powerful politicians or
businesspersons.
2. Broadcast journalism : written or spoken journalism for radio or television.
3. Citizen journalism: participatory journalism.
4. Data journalism : the practice of finding stories in numbers and using numbers to tell
stories. Data journalists may use data to support their reporting. They may also report
about uses and misuses of data. The US news organization ProPublica is known as a
pioneer of data journalism.
5. Drone journalism : use of drones to capture journalistic footage.[9]
6. Gonzo journalism : first championed by Hunter S. Thompson, gonzo journalism is a
"highly personal style of reporting".[10]
7. Interactive journalism : a type of online journalism that is presented on the web
8. Investigative journalism : in-depth reporting that uncovers social problems. Often
leads to major social problems being resolved.
9. Photojournalism :the practice of telling true stories through images

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 10. Sensor journalism : the use of sensors to support journalistic inquiry.
11. Tabloid journalism : writing that is light-hearted and entertaining. Considered less
legitimate than mainstream journalism.
12. Yellow journalism (or sensationalism) :writing which emphasizes exaggerated claims
or rumors.
13. Red journalism

Sources of Agricultural News

1. Result demonstrations
2. Research Stations
3. Research publications: Annual reports, highlights
4. Kisan melas
5. Farmers’ fields
6. Agricultural Universities / State Departments
7. Other extension activities like field days/training programmes, etc
8. Plan estimates related to agriculture and allied activities
9. Agriculture finance institutions
10. Agriculture input agencies
11. Agriculture Market committees
12. Electricity and irrigation sectors
13. Farmers committees and associations
14. NGOs etc.

News
News is a timely, concise, accurate report of an event; it is not the event itself.
Report of any event containing timely and unknown information is called news.

Agricultural News
Agricultural news is news about agriculture, allied fields and agriculturists.
People read what interest them and not necessarily what should interest them. Major
responsibility is cast on the extension personnel as an agricultural journalist to evoke
responsive reading from the readers by providing them the material of their interest. We can
reach farm people with our information, ideas, and thoughts through various media like the
newspapers, magazines, radio, television and the like.

News elements or
Laws which determine the worthiness of information or
Factors which determine the news value

1. Timeliness: The timelier information, the greater is the news value.

2. Nearness: The closer information seems to the reader, geographically and
psychologically, the greater is news value.
3. Consequence: The more the readers are affected by the information, the greater is its
news value.
4. Human interest: Information concerning human interest elements such as new
programmes, personal involvement, profitability, progress etc., has more news value.

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5. Prominence: Prominent people, places, things, events, carry more news value.
6. Editorial policy: The editorial policy of printing materials broadly determines the kinds
and amount of information it publishes.

Journalistic Writing
Based on the queries:
 The why of writing
 The whom of writing
 The what of writing
 The where of writing
 The when of writing
 The how of writing

Use ABC principle of good writing

 Accuracy Brevity (Brief) and clarity

 Accuracy means grammatical correctness
 Brevity means economy in word usage, pruning away useless words. Avoid repetition
and redundancy
 Clarity in writing means the ability to state our thoughts without any ambiguity

Writing News story, Feature articles and Success story News Story
The news items that appear in newspapers are also called news stories. A news story is
always based on facts. A news story is an organized representation of facts in an interesting
manner. It has found by observation and experience. Pictures, photographs and illustrations
combined with make the best news story.
A news story is normally written in inverted pyramid style, that is, the most important facts
come first followed by other facts in order of significance. The inverted pyramid style has
developed in journalism over the years.
Inverted pyramid style: The most widely used approach in news writing is the inverted
pyramid style. The information is given in the descending order of importance. Thus, It has
three parts: Lead - Introduction paragraph, Body - support and supplement to the lead.
Conclusion - Closing paragraph.
Lead: The first paragraph of the story is called intro or lead. The first paragraph of the story
which is the 'show window' should put the best of oneself. There are innumerable ways of
writing intro or lead. Based on the writer's judgment of the readers' needs and interests, he
should design the lead in an attractive manner to answer who, what when, where, how, and
why of the event. The opening statement of the lead is called feature. This must be skillfully
worded to work as a bait to catch readers. The strongest or the most appealing aspect of the
presentable matter may be put forth in the feature. A good lead grabs your readers’ attention
and refuses to let go. The lead establishes the direction of your writing will take.
Body: After the lead/intro is written, the body of the story will follow the logical order of the
inverted pyramid style. The story in order to be interesting should in the body contain the
supporting facts. A good news story usually consists of 200-300 words. The story may have
few or several paragraphs depending upon the matter available and the objective of the story
writer. But it should follow the lead. This will facilitate the editor as well as the reader to

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decide where to stop.
Conclusion: Journalist should give digest of facts, conclude the story logically. The story
should end with some encouraging and appealing words, phrases or sentences so as to sustain
their interest in the future messages.
Reporters using the inverted pyramid style of writing, normally summarize a story in the lead
and present the facts in descending order of importance. Consequently, they place the story's
most important details in the second paragraph. They continue to add details in decreasing
order of importance. Each paragraph presents additional information: names, descriptions,
quotations, conflicting viewpoints, explanations and background data.
The primary advantage of the inverted pyramid style is that if someone stops reading a story
after only one or two paragraphs, that person will learn the story's most important details.
Moreover, if a story is long editors can easily shorten it by deleting one or more paragraphs
from the bottom. However, this style also has several disadvantages. Just because the lead
summarizes facts that later paragraphs discuss in greater detail some of those facts may be
repeated. Second a story that follows the inverted pyramid style rarely contains any surprises;
the lead immediately reveals every major detail. Third, the style makes some stories more
complex and more difficult to write. Despite these problems, reporters use the inverted
pyramid style for most news stories.

Inverted pyramid structure

Six 'W's of Writing: The main purpose of writing is to communicate in such a manner that
you attract the attention of your readers, interest them in what you are going to say, make
them understand and remember, and finally help them take decision to act. Six Ws of writing
also popularly known as 5Ws and 1H. Your writing has to serve the following purposes or
fundaments or principles.

1. 'WHY' (The 'Why' of writing): It should make clear the purpose for which the writing
has been made before starting the writing. Is it something new, which the audience
must know? or is it to explain and give more information about something already
known? Why do you want to teach this?
2. 'WHO' (The 'Who' of writing): It must answer the targeted audience who are to read.
Writer should know more about them then just what he knows. Writers ideas must
touch the readers and secure his interest. His problems and desires be known to know
the 'WHO' is writing. Understanding the need of the audience is essential. Identify the
reader, his problems, interests, needs, environments and capabilities.
3. 'WHAT' (The 'What' of writing): Select the subject in which the readers are vitally
interested. Do not tell them all that is known about the subject like textbooks.

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 The message should:
• Be sound and useful meeting the needs of the farmers.
• Give one idea at a time with related logical thoughts.
• Contain all essential facts. Do not delete them for fear of length.
• Give new idea leaving aside what people already know.
4. 'WHERE' (The 'Where' of writing)
"Where" to get the message published that has been written containing different types of
information's written for different published media must be known.
• Results of research and demonstrations, stories of accomplishments and information
of immediate use are published through circular - letters, newspapers, radio and
newsletters.
• If the information does not lose its value after a short time, the same with some more
details a go as articles to weekly features of dailies, weeklies and monthly magazines.
• Where more details are desirable, the detailed information can be brought out through
leaflets, folders and bulletins or pamphlets.
• By writing properly, you can give out detailed accounts through reports and
resumes, which will be read avidly.
5. 'WHEN' (The 'When' of writing): The information has to be timely to be useful.
Therefore, it should be written far in advance of actual time or season of the use of
message. "Time" the writing.
6. 'WAY' (The 'How' of writing): After the selection of the relevant facts, they have to
be sifted and sort. Writing should be to the level of readers experience or
understanding. Layman may be given an appreciation of subject matter rather than
detailed explanation.

Effective Writing Technique

1. Plan before writing: First of all, collect the relevant material. Think before you write.
Prewriting makes it possible to avoid the duplication and elimination of the proper
writing material together with logical arrangement of the text to the readers.
2. Live writing: Appreciation of the subject is given through 'live' writing. Appeal to all
the sense of your readers. They not only like to 'see' your ideas, but get the feeling of
'hearing' them, 'smelling' them and 'touching' them too. It gives a sense of reality
humanness, enjoyment and education.
3. Write simple and clear: Give no room to the readers to miss or misunderstand any of
your ideas.
4. Be brief: People have little time and patience to through the long texts unless it is a
fiction or story.
5. Be specific: Generalization is always vague and does not help the reader make
decisions.
6. Do not be 'Half Hearted’: Avoid making, halting recommendations. Do not use words
'May', 'Might' etc.
7. Address the reader: A direct approach to the reader creates friendliness.
8. Illustrate: Use appropriate pictures. It possesses significant effect on readers.
9. Be accurate: Collect the accurate information and also state them correctly. Avoid
partially correct information. Do not omit important ideas. Avoid partially correct
placing emphasis.
10. Sound convincing: Quote sources and authorities for people believe them.
11. Do not 'Talk Down’: Do not preach. No one likes a superior attitude. We are to only
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 give information.
12. Be practical: People want the information, which they can put to practice. They do not
have academic interests.
13. Avoid exaggeration: State the facts without being carried away by them yourself. It
makes the readers suspicious.
14. Personalize the message: Introduce the human element into the message write in first
and second person only.
15. Check the draft: The text must be checked thoroughly for its completeness,
conciseness, correctness, effectiveness and logical order.
16. Develop a good style: Style is the crux of all writing each has one's own style of
writing. It comes through reading the successful writers; you also need to know a
good number of words, which comes only through good reading.

Diffusion and Adoption of Innovations

Definitions
Adoption: Adoption is a decision to continue full use of an innovation.
Adoption Process: Adoption process is the mental process through which an individual
passes from first hearing about an innovation to its final adoption.
Adopter: is a person who has continued full use of an innovation.
Innovation: An innovation is an idea, object or practice perceived as new by the individual.
Diffusion: Diffusion is the process by which an innovation spreads.
Diffusion Process: Diffusion process is the spread of a new idea from its source of invention
to its ultimate users.
Overtime: It is the time required to adopt from its origin. There is always a time log between
the introduction of an innovation and its adoption by individuals and communities.
Rejection: A decision not to adopt an innovation. Involve a decision on the part of the farmer
not to adopt an innovation.
Discontinuance: A decision about an innovation may be rejected at any stage in the adoption
process. A decision to stop using practice previously adopted is called discontinue.
Involve a decision to cease the use of an innovation after previously adoption it.
Innovativeness: The degree of which an individual is relatively earlier in adopting new ideas
than the other member of his social system.
Decision Making: The process by which an evaluation of the meaning and consequences of
alternative lines of conduct is made.
Change Agent: A professional person who attempts to influence adoption decisions in a
direction that he feels is desirable.
Perception: is the way in which an individual responds to any sense or impression which he
detects.
MEANING
One of the major goals of extension is to get new and profitable technologies adopted
by the rural community. An understanding of the adoption and diffusion processes shall help

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the extension agents to accelerate them. This chapter has been developed mainly on the basis
of definition and concepts by Rogers (1963, 1983), and Rogers and Shoemaker (1971).
ADOPTION is a decision to make full use of an innovation as the best course of
action available. DIFFUSION is the process by which an innovation is communicated
through certain channels over time among the members of a social system. It is a special type
of communication, in that the messages are concerned with new ideas.
An innovation is an idea, practice or object that is perceived as new by an individual
or other unit of adoption. Perception is an activity through which an individual becomes
aware of objects around oneself and of events taking place. The technologies, practices
developed through research are innovations. These may be new varieties of crops and plants,
new breeds of livestock, new chemicals and medicines, new technique of doing things etc.
Farmers themselves may develop some new practices which are also innovations. Irrespective
of the time period the idea of practice was originally developed, when a person first becomes
aware of it, it is an innovation to that person.
Adoption is a sequence of thoughts and actions which an individual's goes through
before he finally adopts a new idea. The five stage model of adoption process viz.;

(i) Awareness, (iv) Trial,

(ii) Interest, (v) Adoption
(iii) Evaluation,

Why this course should be taught to students of agricultural extension?

Because → as a man of extension one has to transfer the technology in this TOT
process Adoption and Diffusion play important role. Without Diffusion and innovation we
cannot this course will give specific perception of adoption. Diffusion of an innovation will
give direction for effective extension.

STEPS OF ADOPTION PROCESS:

The North Central Rural Sociology Subcommittee for the study of diffusion of farm
Practices identified five stages of the adoption process, which received word wide attention.
Theses stages are:
1. Awareness Stage:
At this stage an individual comes to know of the existing of the new idea but lacks in
the detailed information about it.
2. Interest Stage:
At this stage an individual is interested in the new idea or practice and tries to
acquired (seeks) more information about it. He wants to know what new idea is /
technology, how it works and what are its potentialities.
3. Evaluation Stage:
The individual makes mental application of the new idea to his present and
anticipated future situation. At this stage the individual judges the worth of the
innovation. He makes an assessment whether the new idea is applicable to his own
situation, and if applied what would be the results.
4. Trial Stage:
The individual actually applied the new idea/practice on a small scale to
determine its utility / performance in his own situation. During the evaluation stage, if
he found that new innovation has some plus points for him or it is advantageous to
him, he takes a decision to try it on small scale to test the effectiveness of the
innovation.
5. Adoption Stage:

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 The individual uses the new idea continuously on a full scale. Trial may be
considered as the practical evaluation of an innovation. It provides evidence of the
advantages of the innovation. Being satisfied with the trial considering the pro also
cons of the, situation the individual takes a final decision to make the full use of the
innovation in terms of time and extent.

ADOPTERS CATEGORIES AND THEIR CHARACTERISTICS:

All individuals in a social system do not adopt an innovation at the same time.
Research indicates that the diffusion of new idea/practice usually requires several year. In the
first year, a few farmers adopt it; then in a short span of time, a large number try it; and
finally the remainder accepts it. On the basis of time required for adoption of new practices
farmers are classified into different adopter categories.
I. INNOVATORS:
The first to adopt a new practice are innovators. They are generally very few (2.5 per
cent) in number. The innovators may sometimes act as technology modifiers. The
innovators are venturesome, generally highly educated and have high social status and more
prestige in the community. They have some risk bearing capacity and more favorable
attitudes towards scientific values.
The innovators are oriented to develop good contracts with the research and high level
of extension functionaries. They have good contacts with cosmopolite sources of information.

II. EARLY ADOPTERS:

Early adopters are locality and are more integrated part of the community. They do
not test untried ideas, but quickest to use tried ideas in their own situation they have more
opinion leadership. They are good source of advice and information for neighbours in the
community. Early adopters have slightly higher education, are a little younger in age, have
large size enterprise and high income, more participation in formal organizations. Their social
status is high and they have many informal contacts within the community. They have more
contacts with extension workers.
III. EARLY MAJORITY:
These farmers adopt new idea/innovation a little earlier than the average farmers of
the community. They are neither very early nor relatively late to adopt an innovation. They
are deliberately and conscious take longer time to make decision to adopt, in comparison to
the innovators and early adopters. They do not hold leadership position in adoption, but
actively participate in extension programme like training, demonstration field day and study
tour etc.,
In most respect they are typical type of average farmers, their education, farming
experience and contacts with extension workers re only slightly higher than that of the
average farmers. They are active localities and associate mainly with the people of their own
community.
IV. LATE MAJORITY:
These farmers are cautious/watchful and skeptical/doubtful and adopt new ideas just
after the average members of the community. They adopt mainly because people have
already adopted the innovation and getting the benefit out of it.
They have low level of education, low level of participation in social organizations
and depend mostly on locality sources of information.
V. LAGGARDS:
Laggards are the last to adopt new ideas. They resist/refuse accepting new
ideas/innovations until everyone else in the community has adopted them. Farmers in this

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category are generally. Oldest in age; they have least or no education, very few social
contacts and low participation in formal organization. They believe in agricultural magic and
have traditional attitudes. They regard extension workers with negative attitudes and
suspicion.

ADOPTER CATEGORIZATION ON THE BASIS OF RELATIVE TIME OF

ADOPTION OF INNOVATIONS

Early Late
Majority Majority
Early
Adopters Laggards
Innovators
2.5% 13.5% 34% 34% 16%

Diffusion: definition and elements of diffusion

1. Diffusion is the process by which innovations spread to the members of a social
system, from its original source. It is special type of communication.

2. Diffusion process is occurs between individuals of the social system, while adoption
is an individual matter
Elements of Diffusion:
1. Innovation: this is new and latest developed technology for the welfare of mass,
innovation is a new – way to doing some things, in regards to agriculture extension
education. Innovation is that idea which is accepted as a new idea by the farmers. In other
word it can be said it is an idea practice, or object that is perceived as new by an individual or
other unit of adoption. The relative speed with which a new idea is adopted depends to some
extent upon, characteristics of the new idea \ innovation some important attributes or qualities
of innovation considered by people are identified and they help explaining the differences in
adoption rates. These characteristics are.
Relative advantage: It is the degree to which an innovation is perceived as being better than
the idea to which it replaced. No cost and low cost practices/ technology are generally
adopted more rapidly and easily than high cost technology. Practice/ technology producing
quick return is more rapidly adopted. Potential adopters need to see an advantage for
adopting the innovation.
Compatibility: It is the degree to which an innovation is perceived as consistent/reliable with
the existing social values, past experience and need of the social system. Compatibility of
innovation is essential for its adoption. When new practice/idea is consistent/in agreement
with their social and cultural values and beliefs will he accepted more rapidly. Compatibility
has at least two dimensions: First is Situational compatibility; when a new crop variety suits
to the agro – climatic condition of the farmers. It indicates situational compatibility. Whereas

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another is Cultural compatibility; when a new breed of livestock advocated to the farmers is
in agreement with their beliefs and values. It is cultural compatibility.
Complexity: it is the degree to which an innovation is perceived as relatively difficult to
understand and use. New idea/practices that are relatively simple to understand and use will
be accepted more quickly than the more complex idea /practices. So that innovation should,
as far as possible, as less complex for the farmers to understand and use. Complex
technologies, because of their complicated and intricate nature, require regular training and
communication support to its users/clientele, for their adoption and continuous use. Thus,
innovations need to fit in with potential adopters’ current practices and values.
Trialability / Divisibility: It is the degree to which an innovation may be experimented on a
limited basis. A practice/technology that can be tried on a limited basis will be generally
adopted more rapidly. Adoption of new seeds and fertilizers are more, compared to farm
machinery, simply because seeds and fertilizers may be purchased in small units and tried.
The potential adopters want the availability of “testing” before adopting.
Observability: Potential adopters want to see observable results of an innovation.
Observabilty or Visibility is the degree to which the results of an innovation are visible. The
more visible the new practice and its results, the more rapid its adoption is. The visible
impact of an innovation facilitates its communication and diffusion in the social system. For
example the effect of nitrogenous fertilizers on plant growth and crop yield is very obvious in
the eyes of the farmers. Understanding the beneficial effect of fertilizers its rates of adoption
is generally high.
2. Communication: The second important element for the diffusion process is
communication process. It includes whole communication process. It is human interaction in
which one person communicates new idea to another person. It means it the process in which
participants create and share information with one another in order to reach a mutual
understanding.
3. The Social System: The process by which alteration occurs in the structure and function of
a social environment or system. The social environment in which cast, leadership, customs,
tradition and social values are dominant and the population of individual who are functionally
differentiated and engaged in collective problem solving behaviour.
Rogers (1995) defines a social system as “a set of interrelated units that are engaged in joint
problem – solving to accomplish a common goal”. In another word, the members of a social
system may be individuals, informal groups, or organizations who work toward a common
goal. He further stated that the culture within the social system and the individuals who make
up the social systems could affect the diffusion of new ideas.
According to Lefebvre and Lefebvre (1996), when a technological innovation is introduced
into an organizational system, some individuals within the organization are more open to
adaptation than others.
The Overtime: The time, which is taken in communicating, the new from origin place to
adoption and on other hand there are so many doubts in the adopter’s mind, which will take
time to convince. Therefore, consideration of time is important, this require extra work for
the communicator. Thus, over time relates to the speed with which an innovation is adopted
by potential adopters. This concept is referring to the the rate of adoption within the diffusion
process. According to Rogers (1995), the rate of adoption is positively related to perceived
relative advantage, compatibility, trialability and observability and is negatively related to
perceived complexity of innovation.

4. DIFFERENCE BETWEEN ADOPTION AND DIFFUSION PROCESS:

Adoption Process Diffusion Process
1 Adoption is a decision to continue full 1) Diffusion is the process by which an

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) use of innovation. innovation spreads.
2 Adoption is an individual matter. 2) Diffusion occurs amongpersons.
)
3 Adoption process is the mental process 3) Diffusion process is the spread of a new
) through which an individual passes idea from its source of invention to its
from hearing about an innovation to its ultimate users or adopters. (Scientist to
final adoption. farmers)
4 Adoption process deals with adoption 4) Diffusion process deals with the spread
) of a new idea by one individual. of new idea in a social system.
5 The adoption process is one type of 5) Diffusion process is a part of (sub-se)
) decision making process. communication process.
6 There are five stages in adoption 6) There are four stages in diffusion
) process; (a) Awareness, (b) Interest process; (a) Innovation,
(c) Evaluation, (d) Trial and (b) Communication, (c) Social System
(e) Adoption and (d) Overtime
7 The time an individual takes to pass 7) The time an innovation takes to be
) from the awareness to the adoption adopted by all the members of social
stage is called "adoption period". system after its introduction is called
"diffusion period".
8 The adoption period is the length of 8) The diffusion period is measured from
) time required for an individual to pass the date first individual is aware of the
through the adoption process from innovation until it has reached complete
awareness to adoption. adoption in a given social system.

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