Microsensors & Nanosensors

Week 10: Displacement Sensors and Accelerometers

Dr. Ravindra Kumar Jha

Assistant Professor
Department of Electronics and Electrical Engineering
IIT Guwahati
1
 Position and Displacement Sensors

• Position refers to the identification of an object's

coordinates—

• either linear or angular—

• relative to a chosen reference point or frame.

2
 Position and Displacement Sensors

• Displacement refers to

• the change in position of an object

• involving movement over a specific distance

• or through a certain angle

3
 Position and Displacement Sensors

• Or, displacement is determined by comparing

• an object’s current position to

• its previous position

• rather than to an external reference point.

4
 Position and Displacement Sensors:
Applications

➢ Robotics: joint feedback for precision control

➢ Automotive: throttle, pedal, suspension travel
➢ Industrial automation: CNC stage feedback, hydraulic cylinders
➢ Aerospace: flight control surfaces
➢ Medical: catheter tracking, prosthetic limbs

5
 Position and Displacement Sensors: Types

• Potentiometric
• Capacitive
• Eddy Current
• Magnetostrictive
• Optical
• Ultrasonic
• Hall Effect
• LVDT (linear variable differential transformer) and
• RVDT (rotary variable differential transformer)
6
 Simplest Potentiometric Sensors

• Resistance is directly proportional to the

length of the wire.

• Therefore, by using an object to control E v

the wire’s length—as in a D
potentiometer— d

• displacement can be measured

• Active sensor
7
 Potentiometric Sensors

• A moving object is mechanically linked

to the potentiometer wiper
E v

• and its motion results in a change in D

d
resistance

8
 Potentiometric Sensors

• In most practical circuits

• resistance is typically measured

indirectly E v

D
d
• This is by observing the voltage drop

9
 Potentiometric Sensors

• The voltage at the wiper of a linear

potentiometer is directly proportional to
the displacement d
E v
𝑑
𝑣=𝐸 D
𝐷
d
Where
• D is the full-scale displacement.
• E is the voltage across the pot.

10
 Potentiometric Sensors

• This assumes that the interface circuit does not introduce any significant
electrical loading.

• If a substantial load is present

• the linear relationship between the wiper position and the output voltage will
be disrupted.

11
 Potentiometric Sensors

• Further, the output signal depends on the excitation voltage applied across
the sensor.

• If this voltage is not kept constant

• it can introduce measurement errors.

12
 Potentiometric Sensors

• This issue can be addressed by

• using a ratiometric A/D converter within a microcontroller,

• which cancels out the effect of voltage fluctuations.

13
 Potentiometric Sensors

• A potentiometric sensor functions as a ratiometric device

• in terms of resistance.

• Therefore, the resistance of the potentiometer does not affect the output,

• provided the resistive element is uniform along its entire length.

14
 Potentiometric Sensors

• In other words, only the ratio of resistance is important

• not the resistance value.

• This means that the stability of the potentiometer

• does not affect measurement accuracy.

15
 Potentiometric Sensors

• In low-power applications high-impedance potentiometers are preferred;

• however, the loading effect must always be taken into account,

• thus a voltage follower may be required.

• Typically, the potentiometer’s wiper is electrically isolated from the sensing shaft.

16
 Potentiometric Sensors : Available in different
types

➢Linear Potentiometer - Measures straight-line displacement.

➢Rotary Potentiometer - Measures angular or rotational movement.

➢Multi-turn Potentiometers - Higher resolution for longer ranges.

17
 Potentiometric Sensors : Advantages

❖Simple and inexpensive

❖Analog output - easy to interpret

❖High resolution and linearity

❖Works in low-speed applications

18
 Potentiometric Sensors : Limitations

• Contact-based – subject to mechanical wear

• Susceptible to dirt and contamination

• Limited lifespan due to friction

• Not suitable for high-speed dynamic measurements

19
Capacitive Displacement Sensors

20
 Capacitive Displacement Sensors

• Capacitive position sensors operate by either

Capacitance C =
• altering the geometry (distance between capacitor plates) εA/d (where A =
area, d = gap, ε
= permittivity).
• or by detecting changes in capacitance

• caused by nearby conductive or dielectric materials.

21
 Type of Capacitive Displacement Sensors

➢ Parallel Plate Capacitive Sensors – displacement changes distance

➢ Interdigitated Capacitive Sensors – for lateral motion detection

➢ Cylindrical or Coaxial Capacitive Sensors – non-flat geometries

➢ MEMS-Based Capacitive Sensors – micro-scale displacement sensing

22
 Capacitive Displacement Sensors

• When the capacitance changes, Capacitance

C = εA/d
(where A = area,
• it can be converted into a variable d = gap, ε =
electrical signal. permittivity).

23
 Capacitive Displacement Sensors

• a capacitive sensor can be configured as

• monopolar (with a single capacitor),

• differential (with two capacitors),
• or as part of a capacitive bridge using four capacitors.

24
 Capacitive Displacement Sensors

• When using two or four capacitors,

• one or two of them can be fixed or variable

• operating in opposite phase to the others.

25
 Capacitive Displacement Sensors

• For example, consider three equally spaced plates where each has area A

+𝑉0 sin 𝜔𝑡
x0
~
C1

V=0
C2 x0

−𝑉0 sin 𝜔𝑡

• Here the plates form two capacitors C1 and C2.

26
 Capacitive Displacement Sensors

• The upper and lower plates are supplied

+𝑉0 sin 𝜔𝑡
with ~
C1 x0

V=0
• sinewave signals C2 x0

−𝑉0 sin 𝜔𝑡

• that are 180 degrees out of phase with

each other.

27
 Capacitive Displacement Sensors

• Both capacitors are nearly equal to each

+𝑉0 sin 𝜔𝑡
other C1 x0 ~

V=0
• and thus the central plate has almost no C2 x0

voltage with respect to ground. −𝑉0 sin 𝜔𝑡

• we can say that the charges on C1 and

C2 cancel each other.

28
 Capacitive Displacement Sensors

+𝑉0 sin 𝜔𝑡
C1 x0 ~

• Now, let us assume that the central V=0

C2 x0
plate moves
−𝑉0 sin 𝜔𝑡

• downward by distance x ~
C1
x0+x

V≠0
C2 x0-x

29
 Capacitive Displacement Sensors

+𝑉0 sin 𝜔𝑡
~
• This causes changes in the C1 x0

respective capacitance values: V=0

C2 x0

𝜀𝐴 −𝑉0 sin 𝜔𝑡
𝐶1 =
𝑥0 + 𝑥
𝜀𝐴 C1
~
𝐶2 = x0+x
𝑥0 − 𝑥 V≠0
C2 x0-x

30
 Capacitive Displacement Sensors

• The signal on the central plate ~

C1
x0+x
increases
V≠0
C2 x0-x

• proportionally with the displacement.

31
 Capacitive Displacement Sensors

• The phase of the signal indicates the

direction of the central plate’s ~
C1
x0+x
movement
V≠0
C2 x0-x

• —either upward or downward.

32
 Capacitive Displacement Sensors

• The amplitude of the output signals is

𝑥 ∆𝐶0
𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡 = 𝑉0 − +
𝑥0 + 𝑥 𝐶0

• As long as x << x0, the output voltage may be considered a linear

function of displacement.

33
 Capacitive Displacement Sensors
• The amplitude of the output signals is

𝑥 ∆𝐶0
𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡 = 𝑉0 − +
𝑥0 + 𝑥 𝐶0

• In this equation, the second term represents an initial mismatch

• in capacitance and

• is the main source of the output offset. 34

 Capacitive Displacement Sensors

• The offset is also caused by

• the fringing effects at the peripheral portions of the plates

• and by the so-called electrostatic force.

35
 Capacitive Displacement Sensors

• The force arises from

• the attraction and repulsion of electric charges applied to the sensor plates,

• which then behave like springs.

36
 Capacitive Displacement Sensors

• The instantaneous value of the force is

1 𝐶𝑉 2
𝐹=−
2 𝑥0 + 𝑥

37
 Capacitive Displacement Sensors

Stiff
Suspension
• In this design, two individual
plates are
Sensing Reference
Plate, Cs Plate, Cref
• created using MEMS
technology. Flexible
Suspension

Anchor
points

38
 Capacitive Displacement Sensors

Stiff
Suspension

• The plates are macromachined Sensing Reference

Plate, Cs Plate, Cref
from silicon.

Flexible
Suspension

Anchor
points

39
 Capacitive Displacement Sensors

Stiff
Suspension

• One plate serves for a Sensing Reference

Plate, Cs Plate, Cref
displacement measurement,

Flexible
Suspension
• And other for reference.

Anchor
points

40
 Capacitive Displacement Sensors

Stiff
• Both plates have nearly identical Suspension

surface areas;

Sensing Reference
Plate, Cs Plate, Cref
• However

Flexible
Suspension
• the measurement plate is
supported by Anchor
points

• four flexible suspensions

41
 Capacitive Displacement Sensors

Stiff
Suspension

• the reference plate is secured Sensing Reference

Plate, Cs Plate, Cref

• using rigid suspensions Flexible

Suspension

Anchor
points

42
 Capacitive Displacement Sensors: Some
features

• High resolution (sub-micron to nanometer)

• Non-contact and wear-free operation

• Fast response time and high bandwidth

• Very sensitive to small displacements

• Requires clean and stable environment for best performance

43
 Capacitive Displacement Sensors: Limitations

• Limited range

• Sensitive to humidity, dust, and contaminants.

• Requires careful shielding to prevent EMI/RFI.

• Relatively complex signal processing electronics.

44
Eddy Current Displacement Sensors

45
 Eddy Current Displacement Sensors

• Eddy current sensors are mainly employed

• to measure the displacement and position of electrically conductive

targets.

• They can be used with

• both ferromagnetic and non-ferromagnetic materials.

46
 Eddy Current Displacement Sensors

• Their high resistance to oil, dirt, dust, moisture, and magnetic

interference

• makes them ideal for use

• in harsh industrial environments.

47
 Eddy Current Displacement Sensors

• The eddy current method operates using high-frequency magnetic fields,

• which are generated by

• passing a high-frequency alternating current through

• a coil within the sensor head

48
 Eddy Current Displacement Sensors

• When a metallic target enters this magnetic field

• electromagnetic induction causes magnetic flux to flow across its surface,

• Which generates eddy currents perpendicular to it.

49
 Eddy Current Displacement Sensors

• These eddy currents alter the sensor’s impedance

• And it detects this change in impedance

• to measure the distance to the target.

50
 Eddy Current Displacement Sensors

• Eddy currents arise in two situations:

1st situation
When a conductor is subjected to a varying magnetic field caused by
relative motion between the conductor and the magnetic field source

2nd situation
When the intensity of the magnetic field itself changes over time.
51
 Eddy Current Displacement Sensors

• These effects generate a circulating flow of electrons

• within the conductor which known as eddy currents.

52
 Eddy Current Displacement Sensors

• According to Lenz’s law,

• these circulating currents produces

• induced magnetic fields

• that oppose the changes in the original magnetic field,

• resulting in repulsive or drag forces between the conductor and the magnet.
53
 Eddy Current Displacement Sensors

• The stronger the applied magnetic field

• Or, the greater the electrical conductivity of the conductor

• Or, the faster the field that the conductor is exposed to changes,

• greater the currents that are developed, and greater the opposing field.

54
 Eddy Current Displacement Sensors

• To detect the proximity of nonmagnetic yet conductive materials

• eddy current effects are utilized in a dual-coil sensor.

55
 Eddy Current Displacement Sensors

• One coil serves as a reference

• while the other senses the magnetic Conductive

Object
currents induced in the conductive
object. x

Reference Sensing
Coil Coil

56
 Eddy Current Displacement Sensors

• The eddy currents generate a magnetic

field

Conductive
• that opposes the field of the sensing Object

coil
x

Reference Sensing
• creating an imbalance relative to the Coil Coil

reference coil.

57
 Eddy Current Displacement Sensors

• The closer the object is to the coil

Conductive
• the greater the change in magnetic Object

impedance.
x

Reference Sensing
Coil Coil

58
 Eddy Current Displacement Sensors

• The depth at which eddy currents are

generated within the object is determined
by:
Conductive
Object
1
𝛿= x
𝜋𝑓𝜇𝜎
Reference Sensing
Coil Coil
Where 𝜇 is the magnetic permeability, f is the frequency
and 𝜎 is the target conductivity

59
 Eddy Current Displacement Sensors

• For effective operation, the object's thickness should exceed the depth at
which eddy currents are generated.

• Therefore, eddy current sensors are not suitable for detecting thin metallized
films or foil materials.

60
 Eddy Current Displacement Sensors

• In general, the relationship between coil impedance and the distance to the
object (x) is

• nonlinear and

• influenced by temperature.

61
 Eddy Current Displacement Sensors

• Eddy current sensors typically operate within

• a frequency range of 50 kHz to 10 MHz.

62
 Eddy Current Displacement Sensors

• Two configurations of the eddy

Shield
current sensor are shown:

➢ shielded and

➢ unshielded.

63
 Eddy Current Displacement Sensors

In the shielded version Shield

• a metal guard surrounds

• the ferrite core and coil assembly

64
 Eddy Current Displacement Sensors

• The shield

Shield

• concentrates and

• directs the electromagnetic field

• toward the front of the sensor.

65
 Eddy Current Displacement Sensors

• This enables the sensor

Shield

• to be mounted

• or even embedded within a metal

structure

• without affecting its detection range.

66
 Eddy Current Displacement Sensors

• The unshielded sensor can detect

Shield
objects from

• both its sides

• and front.

67
 Eddy Current Displacement Sensors

• Consequently, it typically has a slightly

greater detection range Shield

• than a shielded sensor of the same

diameter.

68
 Eddy Current Displacement Sensors

• However, for proper operation,

unshielded sensors require Shield

• a nonmetallic surrounding
environment.

69
 Eddy Current Displacement Sensors:
Advantages

• Non-contact and wear-free operation.

• Insensitive to dust, oil, or other contaminants.

• Operates in high temperatures and vacuum.

• High precision and fast response time.

• Works well with conductive targets in motion.

70
 Eddy Current Displacement Sensors:
Limitations

• Only works with conductive targets (non-ferrous or

ferrous metals).

• Measurement range is relatively short.

• Sensitive to temperature and material variations.

• Requires complex signal conditioning circuitry.

• Calibration is material-specific.

71
 Hall Effect Displacement Sensors

• Hall effect sensors are likely the most commonly used

type of magnetic sensors

• When a current flows through a thin conductive strip

• and a magnetic field is applied perpendicular to the

strip

• a voltage (Hall voltage) is generated across the

strip. 72
 Hall Effect Displacement Sensors

• The magnitude of this voltage is directly

related to the strength of the magnetic
field,

• And the strength of the magnetic field

varies with displacement.

73
 Hall Effect Displacement Sensors

•Displacement of a magnetic source (like a magnet or

ferromagnetic target) changes the magnetic flux density
at the sensor.

•The sensor outputs a corresponding voltage signal

proportional to that displacement.

74
 Hall Effect Displacement Sensors

• They come in two main types: Analog and Bi-level.

(a) +E (b) +E

Regulator Regulator
-VH -VH
X +VH + Out X
+VH
Out
+
-
-

Ground Ground

Fig: Circuit diagrams of Hall effect sensor (a) a linear and (b) threshold mode

75
 Hall Effect Displacement Sensors
+E

Regulator

-VH
X +VH + Out
• Analog sensors typically include -

amplifiers to simplify interfacing with Ground

peripheral circuits. Output (V)

Null voltage

gauss
0
-200 200
76
 Hall Effect Displacement Sensors
+E

Regulator

-VH
X +VH + Out
• However, their response to magnetic -

field is not perfectly linear Ground

Output (V)

Null voltage
• So, calibration is necessary for
accurate measurements

gauss
0
-200 200
77
 Hall Effect Displacement Sensors
+E

• A bi-level sensor, Regulator

-VH +VH
X + Out

• in addition to an amplifier -

Ground
Output (V)
• includes a Schmitt trigger with
built-in hysteresis at the
threshold level

gauss
200 400 78
 Hall Effect Displacement Sensors
+E

• The output signal as a function Regulator

of magnetic field density is -VH

X
+VH
Out
+
shown here. -

Ground
Output (V)

gauss
200 400 79
 Hall Effect Displacement Sensors
+E

Regulator
• The signal is two-level
-VH +VH
X + Out
-

• and has clearly pronounced

Ground
hysteresis with respect to the Output (V)

magnetic field.

gauss
200 400 80
 Hall Effect Displacement Sensors
+E

• When the applied magnetic Regulator

flux density surpasses a -VH

X
+VH
+ Out

defined threshold -

Ground
Output (V)
• the trigger produces a sharp
transition from OFF to ON.

gauss
200 400 81
 Hall Effect Displacement Sensors

• Hysteresis prevents unwanted oscillations by creating a dead band zone,

during which no action occurs after the threshold is crossed.

• Hall sensors are typically manufactured as monolithic silicon chips and

enclosed in compact epoxy or ceramic packages.

82
 Hall Effect Displacement Sensors : Advantage

•Non-contact sensing

•Durable

•High accuracy & repeatability

•Compact

• low power

•Wide operating temperature range

83
Hall Effect Displacement Sensors: Disadvantage

•Affected by external magnetic fields

•Limited range (depending on magnet strength)

•Requires precise alignment for linearity

84
 Magnetoresistive Displacement Sensors

➢ Magnetoresistive displacement sensors detect linear or

angular displacement by measuring

➢ changes in resistance due to a magnetic field.

➢ These sensors rely on the magnetoresistive effect

85
 Magnetoresistive Displacement Sensors

• Magnetoresistance refers to the property of a material, whether

metal or semiconductor, where its electrical resistance alters in
response to an applied magnetic field.

86
 Magnetoresistive Displacement Sensors

• A magnetoresistor is used to detect the presence, strength, and direction of a

magnetic field.

• It is typically made from semiconductor materials such as indium antimonide

or indium arsenide.

87
 Magneto-resistive Displacement Sensors

∆𝑅
• The resistance of a magnetoresistor ∆𝑅𝑚
increases proportionally with the
strength of the magnetic field.

• This change in resistance is a result 𝐻

𝐻0
of the magnetoresistive effect.
Fig: The characteristic curve of the
magneto resistor

88
 Magneto-resistive Displacement Sensors

∆𝑅
• The sensitivity of a magnetoresistor is ∆𝑅𝑚

influenced by

• the strength of the applied magnetic

field. 𝐻
𝐻0
Fig: The characteristic curve of the magneto resistor

89
 Magneto-resistive Displacement Sensors:
Principle

•The sensor contains a magnetoresistive element

•When exposed to a magnetic field, its resistance changes based on the direction
and strength of the magnetic field.

•As a magnet (or magnetic scale) moves relative to the sensor, the magnetic flux
through the sensor changes

90
 Magneto-resistive Displacement Sensors:
Principle

• This causes a measurable change in resistance

•This change is converted into an electrical signal proportional to displacement.

91
 Magnetoresistive Displacement Sensors

Type of Magnetoresistance

➢ GMR (Giant Magnetoresistance )

➢ AMR (Anisotropic Magnetoresistance )

➢ TMR (Tunnel Magnetoresistance)

➢ CMR (Colossal Magnetoresistance)

➢ EMR (Extraordinary Magnetoresistance)

92
 Magnetoresistive Displacement Sensors

Anisotropic Magnetoresistance

• AMR is a phenomenon where the electrical resistance of a ferromagnetic

material changes

• depending on the angle between the direction of the electric current and the
magnetization of the material

93
 Magneto-resistive Displacement Sensors

GMR (Giant Magnetoresistance )

• In this phenomenon, the resistance

of the magnetoresistor decreases
+ +
when the magnetization is aligned in - -

a parallel direction.

The resistance is small when the The resistance is large when the
magnetization is align in parallel magnetization is align in nonparallel

94
 Magneto-resistive Displacement Sensors

GMR (Giant Magnetoresistance)

• Conversely, the resistance

significantly increases when the + +
- -
magnetization is aligned
antiparallel.
The resistance is small when the The resistance is large when the
magnetization is align in parallel magnetization is align in nonparallel

95
 Magneto-resistive Displacement Sensors

Extraordinary Magnetoresistance

• In this effect, the resistance of the metal is high when there is no

magnetic field

• and low when a magnetic field is present.

96
 Magneto-resistive Displacement Sensors

Tunnel Magnetoresistance
Ferromagnetic
Electrodes

• The current flows from one ferromagnetic Insulator

electrode through the insulating barrier.

Tunnelling Current Lower Tunnelling

• The magnitude of the tunnelling current Current

depends on the relative direction of Magnetic Field

Intensity
Magnetic Field
Intensity

magnetization in the electrodes.

97
 Magnetoresistive Displacement Sensors

Colossal Magnetoresistance

• CMR is a phenomenon where certain materials exhibit a dramatic decrease in

electrical resistance when exposed to a magnetic field

• Its not a quantum mechanical phenomenon

98
 Magnetoresistive Displacement Sensors

• These sensors operate similarly to Hall effect sensors.

• These require an external magnetic field to function.

• Therefore, when magnetoresistive sensors are used for detecting

proximity, position, or rotation, they must be paired with a magnetic
source.

99
 Magnetoresistive Displacement Sensors:
Advantages

•High sensitivity & resolution

•Wide measurement range

•Compact and lightweight

•Non-contact operation

•Good performance in harsh environments

100
 Magnetoresistive Displacement Sensors:
Limitations

•Sensitive to external magnetic interference

•May require temperature compensation
•Calibration is needed for precise applications

101
Optical Displacement Sensors

102
 Optical Displacement Sensors

An optical position sensor usually requires at least three essential

components:

• A light source

• A photodetector

• Light guidance devices, which may include lenses, mirrors, optical

fibers, etc.

103
 Optical Displacement Sensors

•Triangulation Sensors/Laser Displacement Sensors

•Confocal Displacement Sensors

•Time-of-Flight Sensors

•Laser Doppler Vibrometers

•Interferometric Sensors

104
 Optical Displacement Sensors

•Triangulation Sensors/Laser Displacement Sensors

• works by projecting a laser beam onto an object and

• detect the reflected light with CMOS lensor, at a specific angle.

• The angle of the reflected light, combined with the known geometry
of the sensor,

• measure the distance to the object

105
 Optical Displacement Sensors

• Confocal Displacement Sensors

• non-contact optical sensors that utilize chromatic confocal technology

to measure displacement

106
 Optical Displacement Sensors

•Time-of-Flight Sensors

• Time-of-flight (ToF) displacement sensors measure

displacement by emitting a light pulse

• and calculating the time it takes for the reflected light to

return.

107
 Optical Displacement Sensors

•Laser Doppler Vibrometers

• it utilizes the Doppler effect to measure displacement in

non contact mode

108
 Optical Displacement Sensors

•Interferometric Sensors

• devices that measure changes in distance by analyzing the

interference patterns of light waves

109
 Fabry-Perot Displacement Sensors

Output
• To measure small displacements Light

with high precision in harsh

Incident
environments Light

𝑣
• a Fabry–Perot optical cavity can ∆𝑣
be used.
L

110
 Fabry-Perot Displacement Sensors

• This cavity consists of two Output

Light
partially reflective mirrors facing
each other Incident
Light

• Which is separated by a 𝑣
∆𝑣
distance L.
L

111
 Fabry-Perot Displacement Sensors

• Light from a known source, Output

Light

• such as a laser Incident

Light

• is directed into the cavity. 𝑣

∆𝑣

112
 Fabry-Perot Displacement Sensors

• Inside the cavity Output

Light

• the photons reflect Incident

Light

repeatedly between the two

mirrors 𝑣
∆𝑣

L
• creating interference as
they interact

113
 Fabry-Perot Displacement Sensors

Output
Light

• At certain photon frequencies

Incident
Light

• light can exit the Fabry-Perot

𝑣
cavity. ∆𝑣

114
 Fabry-Perot Displacement Sensors

• The interferometer functions Output

Light

as a frequency filter
Incident
Light

• its transmission frequencies

is closely linked 𝑣
∆𝑣

L
• to the cavity’s length

115
 Fabry-Perot Displacement Sensors

Output
Light

• As the cavity length changes

Incident
Light

• the frequencies at which it

transmits light changes 𝑣
∆𝑣
accordingly.
L

116
 Fabry-Perot Displacement Sensors

Output
Light
• If one of the mirrors is made
movable Incident
Light

• it becomes possible to detect very 𝑣

∆𝑣
small changes in the cavity length
L

117
 Fabry-Perot Displacement Sensors

• This is done by
Output
Light

• monitoring shifts in the optical

Incident
transmission frequency. Light

𝑣
∆𝑣

118
 Fabry-Perot Displacement Sensors

• The narrow bands of Output

Light
transmitted light are spaced

Incident
Light
• at frequency intervals that
are inversely proportional to 𝑣
∆𝑣
the length of the cavity.
L

𝑐
∆𝑣 =
2𝐿
119
 Fabry-Perot Displacement Sensors

Output
Light
• For practical cavities with
the mirror separation on the Incident
Light

order of 1 mm
𝑣
∆𝑣
• typical values of ∆𝑣 are
L
between 500 MHz and 1
GHz.

120
 Fabry-Perot Displacement Sensors

• By measuring the frequency shift of the transmitted light relative to a

reference source

• changes in the cavity dimensions can be detected with accuracy

comparable to the wavelength of light.

121
 Fabry-Perot Displacement Sensors

• Any factor that alters the cavity length,

• such as mirror movement, can be measured

• This includes strain, force, pressure, and temperature.

122
 Grating Sensors

• An optical displacement transducer Photo

Lens detector
can be constructed using

• two overlapping gratings

Pilot
beam
Moving
• that act as a modulator for light grading
Stationary
intensity. grading

123
 Grating Sensors

Photo
• The incoming pilot beam first strikes Lens detector
the stationary grating,

• which transmits approximately 50% Pilot

beam
of the light toward the second grating Moving
grading
Stationary
• Which is actually movable grating. grading

124
 Grating Sensors

Photo
Lens detector
• When the opaque regions of
the moving grating align
exactly with
Pilot
beam
Moving
• the transparent regions of the grading
stationary grating Stationary
grading

• the light is completely blocked

125
 Grating Sensors

• As a result, the intensity of the

Photo
transmitted light beam can be modulated Lens detector

• between 0% and 50% of the pilot beam.

Pilot
beam
100 Moving
grading
Light intensity

Stationary
50 grading

0
Displacement
Grating pitch
126
 Optical Displacement Sensors: Advantages

• High accuracy and resolution.

• Non-contact measurement.
• Can measure small displacements.
• Immune to electromagnetic interference.

127
 Optical Displacement Sensors: Limitations

• Sensitive to surface reflectivity.

• Performance affected by ambient light.

• Limited to optical line of sight.

• Not cost effective

128
 Acceleration Sensor/Accelerometer

• Position, velocity, and acceleration are interrelated –

• Velocity is the first derivative of position with respect to time, and
• Acceleration is the second derivative of position

Differentiate Differentiate

Displacement Velocity
(Distance relative to (Speed with Acceleration
starting point) direction)

Integrate Integrate
129
 Accelerometer

• However, in a noisy environment,

• differentiating signals can lead to significant errors

• even when complex and sophisticated advanced signal conditioning circuits

are used.

130
 Accelerometer

• Therefore, velocity and acceleration are not derived from the position detectors,

• rather measured by special sensors.

131
 Acceleration Approaches

Piezoelectric
Measure F
• Compression
• Bending Piezoresistive

Parallell plate
ma = F Comb

AC
Measure x Capacitive
F = kx DC

dx FP
dB

v=
dt
Optical Cantilever

Measure v Magnetic Fiber

Thermal
Inductive
132
 Acceleration Sensor or Accelerometer

• Acceleration sensors can be analyzed based on a variety of criteria, such as

• operating range
• frequency range
• linearity, sensitivity
• cross-axis sensitivity.

133
 Acceleration Sensor or Accelerometer

• Sensitivity: Ratio of an electrical output to the mechanical input

∆𝐸
𝑆𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑡𝑦 =
∆𝑎 × 𝐸0
Where, ∆𝐸 = Change in electrical signal (capacitance, resistance or current)
∆𝑎 = Change in acceleration (i.e. working range)
𝐸0 = Original value of electrical signal without application of external
acceleration

134
 Acceleration Sensor or Accelerometer

• Depending on the sensing mechanism, common units of accelerometer

sensitivity are

• mv/g, kΩ/g, pF/g, etc.

Where g is the acceleration due to gravity or 9.8 m/s2 .

135
 Acceleration Sensor or Accelerometer

• The sensitivity is generally measured at a single reference frequency of a

sine-wave shape.

• In some countries it is 100 Hz,

• while in other countries it is 160 Hz

136
 Acceleration Sensor or Accelerometer

• Fig shows the frequency

response of an accelerometer.

dB
𝑓𝑛 = natural frequency;
𝑓𝑟𝑒𝑓 = reference frequency

137
 Acceleration Sensor or Accelerometer

Cross Axis Sensitivity:

• It measures output on one axis

• when acceleration is applied to another axis

138
 Acceleration Sensor or Accelerometer

Cross Axis Sensitivity:

• it is defined as the sensitivity of the plane perpendicular to the sensing

direction in relation to the sensitivity in the primary sensing direction.

139
 Acceleration Sensor or Accelerometer

• Cross axis sensitivity is typically specified as a percentage as –

𝑆𝑝
𝐶𝑟𝑜𝑠𝑠 − 𝐴𝑥𝑖𝑠 𝑆𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑆𝑐 = × 100%
𝑆𝑠
Where,
𝑆𝑝 = Sensitivity of the axis perpendicular to the sensing axis
𝑆𝑠 = Sensitivity of the main sensing axis

140
 Acceleration Sensor or Accelerometer

Frequency Response:

• The frequency response describes the output signal of the sensor across
a range of operating frequencies.

141
 Acceleration Sensor or Accelerometer

Frequency Response:

• It is defined relative to a reference frequency, at which the sensor’s

sensitivity is specified.

142
 Acceleration Sensor or Accelerometer

Zero Stimulus Output:

• The zero-stimulus output (for capacitive and piezoresistive sensors) is

defined

• when the sensor’s sensitive (active) axis is perpendicular to Earth’s gravity.

143
 Acceleration Sensor or Accelerometer

Zero Stimulus Output:

• In sensors with a DC component in their output signal

• the effect of gravity must be eliminated before the output

• as no mechanical input is determined.

144
 Acceleration Sensor or Accelerometer

• An accelerometer requires a special relatively massive component,

• whose movement lags behind that of the accelerometer’s housing,

• which is coupled to the object under study

145
 Acceleration Sensor or Accelerometer

• A displacement transducer can be used to generate an electrical signal as

function of the acceleration

➢ This massive component is usually called either a seismic, inertial, or

proof mass.

146
 Types of Accelerometer
• Capacitive

• Piezoelectric

• Piezoresistive

• Thermal

• Optical

• Hall Effect Based 147

 Microsensors & Nanosensors

Week 10: Displacement Sensors and Accelerometers

Lecture-4

Dr. Ravindra Kumar Jha

Assistant Professor
Department of Electronics and Electrical Engineering
IIT Guwahati
148
 Capacitive Accelerometer

• A capacitive acceleration sensor essentially contains at least two components –

➢ The first is a “stationary” plate which is connected to the housing

and
➢ The other is a plate attached to the inertial mass, which is free to move
inside the housing.

149
 Capacitive Accelerometer

• These plates form a capacitor whose value is a function of the distance ‘d’
between the plates

150
 Capacitive Accelerometer

• The capacitor value is modulated by the acceleration

• Maximum displacement, which is measured by the capacitive accelerometer,

is max at 15-20 microns.

• However, this a very small displacement requires compensation of drifts and

interferences techniques

151
 Capacitive Accelerometer

• One solution is to use a differential technique

• where an additional capacitor is formed in the same structure

152
 Capacitive Accelerometer

• The value of the second capacitor must be close to that of the first

• and it should be subjected to changes with a 180-phase shift.

• Then, acceleration can be represented by a difference in values between the

two capacitors.

153
 Capacitive Accelerometer

cap

d1
• Figure shows a cross-sectional diagram of a mass
capacitive accelerometer d2

Cross-sectional view base

• where an inertial mass is sandwiched between Si springs

the upper cap and the base.

mass

Top-view 154
 Capacitive Accelerometer

cap

d1

mass
d2

• The mass is supported by four silicon springs Cross-sectional view base

(top view). Si springs

mass

Top-view 155
 Capacitive Accelerometer

cap

d1
• The upper plate and the base are separated mass
d2
from it by respective distances d1 and d2
Cross-sectional view base

Si springs
• All three parts are micromachined from a
silicon wafer.

mass

Top-view 156
 Capacitive Accelerometer

cap

• Let, first parallel plate capacitor be ‘Cmc’, d1

mass
d2
• which is between the mass and the cap
Cross-sectional view base
electrodes,
Si springs

• which has a plate area S1.

mass

Top-view 157
 Capacitive Accelerometer

cap

d1

• d1 is the plate spacing, which is reduced by mass

d2
an amount ∆
Cross-sectional view base

Si springs
• When the mass moves toward the upper
plate.

mass

Top-view 158
 Capacitive Accelerometer

cap

d1
• A second capacitor ‘Cmb’, that have a mass
different plate area S2 d2

Cross-sectional view base

• forms between the mass and the base. Si springs

mass

Top-view 159
 Capacitive Accelerometer

cap

• When mass moves toward the upper plate d1

and away from the base, mass

d2

Cross-sectional view base

• the spacing d2 increases by ∆.
Si springs

mass

Top-view 160
 Capacitive Accelerometer

cap

d1

mass
• The value of ∆,
d2

Mechanical force acting on the mass Cross-sectional view base

∆=
Spring constant of the silicon springs
Si springs

𝐹𝑚
∆=
𝑘
mass

Top-view 161
 Capacitive Accelerometer

• Several design techniques have been used, such as –

• change in area

• parallel plate structure

• buried oxide layer, etc.

162
 Capacitive Accelerometer: Advantage

❖High sensitivity

❖Low power consumption

❖Compact and lightweight

❖Inexpensive MEMS fabrication

❖Suitable for integration with digital electronics

163
 Capacitive Accelerometer: Limitation

❖Limited frequency response

❖Affected by temperature changes

❖May require signal conditioning

164
 Capacitive Accelerometer: Applications

❖Airbag deployment

❖ Smartphones

❖Inertial navigation

❖ Vibration analysis

❖Motion tracking

❖ fall detection
165
 Piezoresistive Accelerometer

• The detection technique of this type of accelerometer relies on the change in

resistivity of a piezoresistive material

• Which is caused by mechanical strain due to acceleration forces.

166
 Piezoresistive Accelerometer

• As a sensing element

• A piezoresistive accelerometer incorporates

• a strain gauge that measures strain in the mass-supporting springs.

167
 Piezoresistive Accelerometer

• The strain can be directly related to

• the magnitude and

• rate of the mass displacement

• subsequently, with an acceleration

168
 Piezoresistive Accelerometer
Through hole

LID
• The microsensor is fabricated from
Inertial Hinge
Mass
Gauge
• three layers of silicon
Terminals

Support Core
Rim
Recess

Base

Adopted from [Link]

For teaching purposes 169
 Piezoresistive Accelerometer
Through hole
• The inner layer LID

Inertial Hinge
• or the core consists of Mass
Gauge

Terminals
• an inertial mass Support Core
Rim
Recess
• and the elastic hinge Base

Adopted from [Link]

For teaching purposes 170
 Piezoresistive Accelerometer

Through hole

• The mass is suspended inside an LID

etched rim on the hinge Inertial Hinge

Mass
Gauge

• with piezoresistive gauges positioned Terminals

Support Core
on either side.
Rim
Recess

Base

171
 Piezoresistive Accelerometer

Through hole

LID
• The gauges detect motion about the Hinge
Inertial
hinge. Mass
Gauge

Terminals

Support Core
Rim
Recess

Base

172
 Piezoresistive Accelerometer

Through hole
• The outer two layers are LID

Inertial Hinge
• – the base Mass
Gauge

Terminals
• and the lid Support Core
Rim
Recess

Base

173
 Piezoresistive Accelerometer

Through hole

LID

Inertial Hinge
Mass
➢ These protect the moving parts Gauge

from external contamination.

Terminals

Support Core
Rim
Recess

Base

174
 Piezoresistive Accelerometer

Through hole

LID
• When acceleration is applied along the
Inertial Hinge
sensitive axis Mass
Gauge

• the inertial mass moves around the Terminals

Support Core
hinge. Rim
Recess

Base

175
 Piezoresistive Accelerometer

Through hole

LID
• Recesses are made in base and lid to
Inertial Hinge
allow movement of inertial mass freely Mass
Gauge

Terminals

Support Core
Rim
Recess

Base

176
 Piezoresistive Accelerometer

Through hole

LID
• The gauges on both sides of the hinge
Inertial Hinge
allow detection of movement of the Mass
Gauge
mass
Terminals

Support Core
Rim
Recess

Base

177
 Piezoresistive Accelerometer

Through hole

LID
• Actually when acceleration is applied
Inertial Hinge
along sensitive axis, inertial mass Mass
Gauge
rotates around the hinge
Terminals

Support Core
• This will create compressive stress on Rim
Recess
one gauge and
Base

• tensile on the other.

178
 Piezoresistive Accelerometer

Through hole
• Since gauges are very short,
LID

Inertial Hinge
• Even a small displacement Mass
Gauge
produces large resistance
Terminals
changes.
Support Core
Rim
Recess

Base

179
 Piezoresistive Accelerometer

Through hole
• To trim the zero balance of the
LID
piezoresistive bridge
Inertial Hinge
Mass
Gauge
• There are five trimming resistors
Terminals
positioned on the same crystal (not
Support Core
shown in the figure). Rim
Recess

Base

180
Piezoresistive Accelerometer: Advantages

❑High sensitivity
❑Operates in wide temperature ranges
❑Suitable for low to medium frequency
applications
❑Moderate power consumption

181
 Piezoresistive Accelerometer: Limitations

✓ Sensitivity to temperature-induced drift

✓ Requires calibration

✓ Higher power consumption than capacitive

types

182
 Piezoelectric Accelerometer

• The piezoelectric effect has a natural application in sensing vibration and

acceleration

• The effect is a direct conversion of mechanical energy into electrical energy in a

crystalline material composed of electrical dipoles.

183
 Piezoelectric Accelerometer

• These sensors operate from frequency as low as 2 Hz and up to about 5 kHz.

• They posses good off-axis noise rejection,

• high linearity, and

• a wide operating temperature range

184
 Piezoelectric Accelerometer

• While quartz crystals are occasionally

used as sensing elements, the most
popular are –
ceramic piezoelectric materials,
such as
• barium titanate,
• lead zirconite titanate (PZT),
• lead metaniobite. Adopted from [Link]
For teaching purposes 185
 Piezoelectric Accelerometer

• A crystal is sandwiched between

• the case and the seismic mass

• that exerts on it the force

proportional to the acceleration

186
 Piezoelectric Accelerometer

• In miniature sensors, a silicon

structure is usually used.

187
 Piezoelectric Accelerometer

• Since silicon does not possess

piezoelectric properties

• A thin film of lead titanate can be

deposited on a micromachined
silicon cantilever

• to fabricate an integral miniature

sensor.
188
 Piezoelectric Accelerometer: Advantages

• Highly reliable
• Compact and lightweight
• Excellent for high-frequency and shock measurements
• Long operational life

189
 Piezoelectric Accelerometer: Limitations

• Ineffective for static or low-frequency measurements

• Sensitive to base strain and thermal effects
• Requires charge amplifier in some cases

190
Thermal Accelerometer

191
 Thermal Accelerometers

• Thermal accelerometers are MEMS-based sensors.

• Measure acceleration by monitoring the change in heat flow within a

sealed cavity

192
 Thermal Accelerometers

Mostly two types

• Heated Plate Accelerometers (HPA)

• Heated Gas Accelerometers (HGA)

193
 Heated Plate Accelerometer

𝑇0 Heat Sink

• Transfer of heat in a gas by the

𝑀1
𝑇1 𝑞1
molecules of medium occurs by
Heated plate
both

𝑀2 Thermal 𝑞2
conductivity gas
• conduction and

𝑇0 Heat Sink
• convection
Fig: A cross section of the heated part of thermal
accelerometer
194
 Heated Plate Accelerometer

• However, if we choose proper

𝑇0 Heat Sink
condition i.e. –
𝑀1
𝑇1 𝑞1
• proper orientation of the
Heated plate
plates,
• low gas pressure, and 𝑀2 Thermal 𝑞2
conductivity gas
• very narrow gaseous gaps
𝑇0 Heat Sink

➢ the convection can be neglected, Fig: A cross section of the heated part of thermal
accelerometer
and it will appear as conduction 195
 Heated Plate Accelerometer

𝑇0 Heat Sink
• A thermal accelerometer, as any
other accelerometer 𝑀1
𝑇1 𝑞1

Heated plate
• contains a seismic mass.

𝑀2 Thermal 𝑞2
conductivity gas

𝑇0 Heat Sink

Fig: A cross section of the heated part of thermal

accelerometer
196
 Heated Plate Accelerometer

𝑇0 Heat Sink
• This mass is suspended by a thin
cantilever 𝑀1
𝑇1 𝑞1

Heated plate
• and positioned in close proximity
with a heat sink 𝑀2 Thermal 𝑞2
conductivity gas

• or between two heat sinks Heat Sink

𝑇0

Fig: A cross section of the heated part of thermal

accelerometer
197
 Heated Plate Accelerometer

𝑇0 Heat Sink
• The mass and the cantilever
structure are fabricated using 𝑀1
𝑇1 𝑞1

Heated plate
• a micromachined technology.

𝑀2 Thermal 𝑞2
conductivity gas

𝑇0 Heat Sink

Fig: A cross section of the heated part of thermal

accelerometer
198
 Heated Plate Accelerometer

𝑇0 Heat Sink

• The space between these 𝑀1

𝑇1 𝑞1
components is filled with
Heated plate

• a thermally conductive gas. 𝑀2 Thermal 𝑞2

conductivity gas

𝑇0 Heat Sink

Fig: A cross section of the heated part of thermal

accelerometer
199
 Heated Plate Accelerometer

• The mass is heated by a surface- 𝑇0 Heat Sink

deposited or imbedded heater

𝑀1
𝑇1 𝑞1

Heated plate
• to a defined temperature (𝑇1 )

𝑀2 Thermal 𝑞2
conductivity gas

𝑇0 Heat Sink

Fig: A cross section of the heated part of thermal

accelerometer
200
 Heated Plate Accelerometer

• Under the no-acceleration conditions 𝑇0 Heat Sink

𝑀1
𝑇1 𝑞1
• a thermal equilibrium is established
Heated plate

• between the mass and the heat Thermal 𝑞2

𝑀2
conductivity gas
sinks –

𝑇0 Heat Sink

Fig: A cross section of the heated part of thermal

accelerometer
201
 Heated Plate Accelerometer

𝑇0 Heat Sink

• The amount of heat 𝑞1 and 𝑞2 𝑀1

𝑇1 𝑞1
conducted to the heat sinks through
Heated plate
gas from the mass

𝑀2 Thermal 𝑞2
conductivity gas
• is a function of distances 𝑀1 and 𝑀2

𝑇0 Heat Sink

Fig: A cross section of the heated part of thermal

accelerometer
202
 Heated Plate Accelerometer

• The temperature at any point in 𝑇0 Heat Sink

the cantilever beam supporting

𝑀1
𝑇1 𝑞1
the seismic mass depends on –
Heated plate

• its distance from the support Thermal 𝑞2

𝑀2
conductivity gas
(x) and

𝑇0 Heat Sink
• the gaps at the heat sinks.
Fig: A cross section of the heated part of thermal
accelerometer
203
 Heated Plate Accelerometer

• It can be found from 2nd order differential

𝑇0 Heat Sink
equation –
𝑑2 𝑇 2𝑇 = 0
− 𝜆
𝑑𝑥 2 𝑀1
𝑇1 𝑞1

𝐾𝑔 (𝑀1 + 𝑀2 ) Heated plate

𝜆=
𝐾𝑠𝑖 𝐷𝑀1 𝑀2
𝑀2 Thermal 𝑞2
conductivity gas

Where, 𝐾𝑔 = Thermal conductivity of gas Heat Sink

𝑇0
𝐾𝑠𝑖 = Thermal conductivity of silicon
Fig: A cross section of the heated part of thermal
𝐷 = Thickness of a cantilever beam accelerometer
204
 Heated Plate Accelerometer

Boundary conditions:

𝑑𝑇(𝐿) 𝑃
• 𝑇 0 =0 = 𝜆2 𝑇 =0
𝑑𝑥 𝑊𝐷𝐾𝑠𝑖

𝑃 𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝜆𝑥)
• 𝑇 𝑥 =
𝑊𝐷𝐾𝑠𝑖 𝜆 cosh(𝜆𝐿)

Where, 𝑊 and L are width and length of the beam, and 𝑃 is the thermal
power

205
 Heated Plate Accelerometer

• To measure that temperature, a temperature sensor can be fabricated by

depositing temperature sensing material on the beam.

• It can be done by integrating silicon diodes into the beam,

• or by forming serially connected thermocouples (a thermopile) on the beam

surface.

206
 Heated Plate Accelerometer

• the measured beam temperature in form of an electrical signal

• is a measure of acceleration.

207
 Heated Plate Accelerometer

• The sensitivity of these thermal accelerometer (about 1% of change in

the output signal per g)

• is somewhat smaller than that of the capacitive or piezoelectric types.

208
 Heated Plate Accelerometer

• However, it is much less susceptible to such interferences as ambient

temperature or electromagnetic and electrostatic noise.

209
 Heated Plate Accelerometer: Advantage

•CMOS compatible
•Can detect low-g accelerations
•Can operate in high-vibration environments and harsh environments
•Robust and compact design
•High shock tolerance
•Long operational life

210
Heated Gas Accelerometer (HGA)

211
Thank You

212
 Thermal Accelerometers

Mostly two types

• Heated Plate Accelerometers (HPA)

• Heated Gas Accelerometers (HGA)

213
 Thermal Accelerometers

Heated Plate Accelerometers (HPA) 𝑇0 Heat Sink

𝑀1
𝑇1 𝑞1

• Proof mass is Heated plate

suspended by a thin
𝑀2 Thermal 𝑞2
cantilever conductivity gas

𝑇0 Heat Sink

214
 Heated Gas Accelerometer (HGA)

Type of Heated Plate Accelerometers (HGA)

•Open-loop: No feedback; relies on thermal convection shift only.

•Closed-loop: Feedback system maintains bubble position, offering higher

accuracy.

•1-axis / 2-axis / 3-axis designs depending on number of heater-sensor arrays.

215
 Heated Gas Accelerometer (HGA)

• This uses gas as a seismic mass.

• Usually air, CO₂, or argon (low thermal conductivity gases)

216
 Heated Gas Accelerometer (HGA)

• It is fabricated on a micromachined CMOS chip and is a complete biaxial motion

measurement system.

• The principle of operation of the device is based on heat transfer by forced

convection

217
 Heated Gas Accelerometer

Heat Transfer –
➢ Conduction
➢ Convection
➢ Radiation

• Convection can be natural (caused by gravity) or forced (by applying an artificial

external force, such as produced by a blower).

• In HGA, such force is produced by acceleration

218
 Heated Gas Accelerometer

• The sensor measures the internal changes in heat transfer of the trapped gas.

• It is equivalent to traditional inertial mass accelerometers

• The inertial mass in the sensor is gas that is thermally non-homogeneous.

219
 Heated Gas Accelerometer

• The gaseous inertial mass provides some advantages compared to the

traditional solid inertial mass.

• The most important advantage is a shock survival up to 50,000g leading to

significantly lower failure rates

220
 Heated Gas Accelerometer

Figure shows the cross-sectional

(a) (b)
view of the HGA sensor along x Gas cavity
TP Junctions

axis
heater

Trench
(a) heated gas is symmetrical Si Substrate 𝒂

around the heater (can be resistive

heaters)
∆𝑇
𝑇1 = 𝑇2 𝑇1 < 𝑇2

Adopted from [Link] For teaching purposes

221
 Heated Gas Accelerometer

Figure shows the cross-sectional

(a) (b)
view of the HGA sensor along x Gas cavity
TP Junctions

axis
heater

Trench
(b) Acceleration causes heated gas Si Substrate 𝒂

to shift to the right

resulting in temperature gradient ∆𝑇

𝑇1 = 𝑇2 𝑇1 < 𝑇2

222
 Heated Gas Accelerometer

(a) (b)
TP Junctions
Gas cavity
• The sensor contains a
micromachined plate heater

adjacent to a sealed cavity Trench

Si Substrate 𝒂
filled with gas.

• The plate has an etched

∆𝑇
cavity (trench).
𝑇1 = 𝑇2 𝑇1 < 𝑇2

223
 Heated Gas Accelerometer

(a) (b)
TP Junctions
Gas cavity
• A single heat source
heater

Trench
Si Substrate 𝒂
• Which is centered in the silicon

chip

∆𝑇
𝑇1 = 𝑇2 𝑇1 < 𝑇2
• is suspended across the trench
224
 Heated Gas Accelerometer

(b)
• Four temperature sensors (a)
TP Junctions
Gas cavity

• Mostly aluminum/polysilicon heater

thermopiles (TP) are placed Trench

Si Substrate 𝒂
symmetrically around the
heater.

∆𝑇
𝑇1 = 𝑇2 𝑇1 < 𝑇2

225
 Heated Gas Accelerometer

• The TPs are located

(a) (b)
equidistantly on TP Junctions
Gas cavity

heater
• all four sides of the heat
Trench
source (dual axis). Si Substrate 𝒂

∆𝑇
𝑇1 = 𝑇2 𝑇1 < 𝑇2

226
 Heated Gas Accelerometer

A TP measures only a temperature (b)

(a)
TP Junctions
gradient Gas cavity

heater
➢ the left portion is the location of
Trench
“cold” junctions and Si Substrate 𝒂

➢ the right portion is for the “hot”

junctions ∆𝑇
𝑇1 = 𝑇2 𝑇1 < 𝑇2

227
 Heated Gas Accelerometer

(a) (b)
TP Junctions
• The purpose of using a Gas cavity

thermopile instead of a heater

thermocouple Trench
Si Substrate 𝒂

• is to increase the electrical

output signal.
∆𝑇
𝑇1 = 𝑇2 𝑇1 < 𝑇2

228
 Heated Gas Accelerometer

(a) (b)
TP Junctions
Gas cavity

Two pairs of the junctions is for heater

measuring Trench
Si Substrate 𝒂

a thermal gradient along two

axes i.e. x and y axis.
∆𝑇
𝑇1 = 𝑇2 𝑇1 < 𝑇2

229
 Heated Gas Accelerometer

(a) (b)
• Under zero acceleration TP Junctions
Gas cavity

heater
• a temperature distribution across
the gas cavity is symmetrical Trench
𝒂
Si Substrate

about the heat source.

∆𝑇
𝑇1 = 𝑇2 𝑇1 < 𝑇2

230
 Heated Gas Accelerometer

(a) (b)
TP Junctions
Gas cavity

• Thus, the temperature is the

heater

same at all four TP junctions

Trench
Si Substrate 𝒂

• causing each pair to output zero

voltage
∆𝑇
𝑇1 = 𝑇2 𝑇1 < 𝑇2

231
 Heated Gas Accelerometer

(a) (b)
TP Junctions
Gas cavity
• The heater is warmed to a
temperature that is well above heater

ambient Trench
Si Substrate 𝒂

• and typically is near 200℃.

∆𝑇
𝑇1 = 𝑇2 𝑇1 < 𝑇2

232
 Heated Gas Accelerometer

(a) (b)
TP Junctions
• Figure shows two thermopile Gas cavity

junctions (TP) for sensing a heater

temperature gradient Trench

Si Substrate 𝒂

• along a single axis

∆𝑇
𝑇1 = 𝑇2 𝑇1 < 𝑇2

233
 Heated Gas Accelerometer

(a) (b)
TP Junctions
Gas cavity
• Gas is heated so that it is
hottest near the heater heater

Trench
Si Substrate 𝒂
• and rapidly cools down toward
the left and right temperature
sensors (thermopile junctions)
∆𝑇
𝑇1 = 𝑇2 𝑇1 < 𝑇2

234
 Heated Gas Accelerometer

(a) (b)
TP Junctions
Gas cavity

• When no force acts on gas heater

Trench
Si Substrate 𝒂
• temperature has a symmetrical
cone-like distribution around
the heater.
∆𝑇
𝑇1 = 𝑇2 𝑇1 < 𝑇2

235
 Heated Gas Accelerometer

(a) (b)
• Where, temperatures T1 at the TP Junctions
Gas cavity
left TP
heater

• is equal to temperature T2 of the Trench

Si Substrate 𝒂
right TP.

∆𝑇
𝑇1 = 𝑇2 𝑇1 < 𝑇2

236
 Heated Gas Accelerometer

(a) (b)
TP Junctions
Gas cavity

• Acceleration in any direction will

heater
disturb the temperature profile
Trench
Si Substrate 𝒂

• This is due to a convection heat

transfer.
∆𝑇
𝑇1 = 𝑇2 𝑇1 < 𝑇2

237
 Heated Gas Accelerometer

(a) (b)
TP Junctions
Gas cavity

❑ This causes the temperature

heater

profile to be asymmetrical
Trench
Si Substrate 𝒂

❑ Figure (b) shows acceleration ‘a’

in a direction of the arrow.
∆𝑇
𝑇1 = 𝑇2 𝑇1 < 𝑇2

238
 Heated Gas Accelerometer

(a) (b)
TP Junctions
Gas cavity
o Under the acceleration force,
warm gaseous molecules heater

shift toward the right TP Trench

Si Substrate 𝒂

o and transfer a portion of their

thermal energy to it.
∆𝑇
𝑇1 = 𝑇2 𝑇1 < 𝑇2

239
 Heated Gas Accelerometer

(a) (b)
TP Junctions
Gas cavity
• The temperature, and hence
heater
voltage output of the opposite
Trench
TP junctions will then be Si Substrate 𝒂
different so that

• 𝑇1 < 𝑇2 ∆𝑇
𝑇1 = 𝑇2 𝑇1 < 𝑇2

240
 Heated Gas Accelerometer

• The differential temperature (a) (b)

TP Junctions
∆𝑇 and Gas cavity

heater

• thus voltage at the thermopile

Trench
outputs becomes directly Si Substrate 𝒂

proportional to the
acceleration.
∆𝑇
𝑇1 = 𝑇2 𝑇1 < 𝑇2

241
 Heated Gas Accelerometer

There are two identical

(a) (b)
acceleration signal paths on the TP Junctions
Gas cavity

device:
heater

Trench
• one to measure Si Substrate 𝒂

acceleration in the x axis

&
∆𝑇

• one to measure 𝑇1 = 𝑇2 𝑇1 < 𝑇2

acceleration in the y axis 242

 Heated Gas Accelerometer

(a) (b)
TP Junctions
Gas cavity
• The HGA is capable of
measuring accelerations with heater

a full-scale range from Trench

Si Substrate 𝒂

• below 1.0g to above 100g

∆𝑇
𝑇1 = 𝑇2 𝑇1 < 𝑇2

243
 Heated Gas Accelerometer

It can measure both (a) (b)

TP Junctions
Gas cavity

• the dynamic acceleration heater

(e.g., vibration) and

Trench
Si Substrate 𝒂

• static acceleration (e.g.,

gravity).
∆𝑇
𝑇1 = 𝑇2 𝑇1 < 𝑇2

244
 Heated Gas Accelerometer

The analog output voltages from (a) (b)

TP Junctions
Gas cavity
the chip are available in
heater

Trench
➢ Absolute Si Substrate 𝒂

➢ and ratiometric modes

∆𝑇
𝑇1 = 𝑇2 𝑇1 < 𝑇2

245
 Heated Gas Accelerometer

(a) (b)
TP Junctions
• The absolute output voltage is Gas cavity

independent of the supply heater

voltage,
Trench
Si Substrate 𝒂

• while the ratiometric output

voltage is proportional to the
supply voltage ∆𝑇
𝑇1 = 𝑇2 𝑇1 < 𝑇2

246
 Heated Gas Accelerometer

(a) (b)
TP Junctions
Gas cavity
• The typical noise floor is
below 1 mg/Hz, heater

Trench
Si Substrate 𝒂
• allowing sub-milli-g
signals to be measured
at very low frequencies.
∆𝑇
𝑇1 = 𝑇2 𝑇1 < 𝑇2

247
 Heated Gas Accelerometer

• NOTE: For the HGA

sensor, the output
sensitivity changes with
ambient temperature.

• A typical sensitivity
change for an HGA
Fig. Thermal accelerometer (HGA) sensitivity to ambient temperature
device is shown in Fig.
248
 Heated Gas Accelerometer

• To compensate for the

change, an imbedded
temperature sensor is
provided as a compensating
temperature sensor

• It is mostly RTD or silicon

junction temperature sensor.
Fig. Thermal accelerometer (HGA) sensitivity to ambient temperature

249
 Heated Gas Accelerometer: Advantages

✓ No moving parts → High durability and reliability.

✓ Low cost and easy integration with CMOS

✓ High shock resistance

✓ Operable in high-vibration environments

250
 Heated Gas Accelerometer: Limitations

✓ Slower response time compared to piezoelectric

or capacitive accelerometers.

✓ Sensitive to temperature and environmental

changes.

✓ Limited bandwidth.

✓ Higher power consumption due to continuous

heating. 251
 Heated Gas Accelerometer

✓ High durability and reliability as no tangible

moving part

✓ Low cost and easy integration with CMOS

✓ High shock resistance

✓ Operable in high-vibration environments

252
Tunneling Accelerometer

253
 Tunneling Accelerometer

•A tunneling accelerometer is a type of nano/micro-electromechanical system

(NEMS/MEMS) that uses quantum tunneling current

•Extremely sensitive to minute displacements due to the exponential dependence of

tunneling current on gap size.

254
 Tunneling Accelerometer

❖ A proof mass is suspended over a sharp conductive tip.

❖ The distance between the mass and tip changes with acceleration.

❖ Quantum tunneling current between the tip and the mass varies exponentially with

displacement.

❖ This current is measured and related to acceleration

255
 Tunneling Accelerometer

• Electron tunneling can only Prof Mass electrode Hinge

be observed

• when the gap between a pair

of clean metal electrodes is
Tunneling Tip Deflection electrode
nearly the order of 10 Nitride Cantilever Squeezed – film dumping holes

Angstrom.

Adopted from [Link] For teaching purposes

256
 Tunneling Accelerometer

• When there is an Prof Mass electrode Hinge

acceleration, proof mass

moves, due to which nitride
cantilever deflect

Tunneling Tip Deflection electrode

Nitride Cantilever Squeezed – film dumping holes

257
 Tunneling Accelerometer

• This deflection changes the Prof Mass electrode Hinge

gap between the tunneling tip

and deflection electrode

Tunneling Tip Deflection electrode

Nitride Cantilever Squeezed – film dumping holes

258
 Tunneling Accelerometer

• Tunneling current which is Prof Mass electrode Hinge

sensitive to this gap,

changes proportionally to the
acceleration

Tunneling Tip Deflection electrode

Nitride Cantilever Squeezed – film dumping holes

259
 Tunneling Accelerometer

• Note that the operation of Prof Mass electrode Hinge

tunneling accelerometers
requires

• a feedback control circuit to

Tunneling Tip Deflection electrode
maintain a constant tunneling Nitride Cantilever Squeezed – film dumping holes

gap between

• the tip and counter-electrode.

260
 Tunneling Accelerometer

• The relationship between the tunneling gap

and the tunneling current is given by – Prof Mass electrode Hinge

𝐼𝑡 ∞𝑉𝑏 𝑒 −𝛼𝐼 𝜙𝑥𝑡𝑔

Where, 𝑉𝑏 = Tunneling bias across the

tunneling gap
𝛼𝐼 = constant, 𝛼𝐼 = 1.025(𝐴−1 𝑒𝑉 −0.5 ) Tunneling
Squeezed – film
Deflection
Nitride Tip electrode
Cantilever dumping holes
𝜙 = effective height of the tunneling barrier or
effective work function
𝐼𝑡 = tunneling current
𝑥𝑡𝑔 =shortest tunneling gap between tunneling
tip and proof mass electrode 261
 Tunneling Accelerometer: Advantages

• Ultra-high sensitivity (sub-nanometer displacement

detection).
• Ideal for low-frequency and low-noise applications.
• Miniaturizable using MEMS/NEMS technology.
• Low power consumption.

262
 Tunneling Accelerometer: Limitations

• Fabrication complexity (requires nanoscale precision).

• Sensitive to temperature and environmental fluctuations.

• Fragile tip-mass configuration.

• Limited dynamic range compared to capacitive

accelerometers.

263
Thank You

264