CHAPTER ONE

THE CONCEPT OF GOD AND HIS EXISTENCE

1.0 Introduction

The question of God's existence has been debated for centuries by philosophers,

theologians, and ordinary people alike. While there are many arguments for and against the

existence of God, there is no one definitive answer that has been agreed upon by all. Some

believe in a personal God who intervenes in the world, while others believe in a more abstract

concept of a higher power. Still others believe that the very idea of God is unprovable, and

therefore not worth considering. Consequently, as opposed to religious deities who are

anthropomorphic, philosophers sought a new conception of God and eliminated

anthropomorphism from religion's god since it raises issues of critical thinking and implications. 1

The nature and existence of God have been explored in the fields of religion and

metaphysics in particular. However, despite the many different perspectives, the question of

God's existence continues to thrive and resonate among philosophers. With the complex and

multifaceted concept of God, this chapter seeks to exposure the concept of God paying attention

to the philosophical and theological imprints and the position of some philosophers in speaking

about God

1.1 The Concept of God

The concept of God is somewhat viewed in a complex way in philosophy of religion,

which has been debated thus far by many philosophers. And so, in a bid to understand or

comprehend the concept of God, there emanates varieties of questions which shows how man

can be intrigued in knowing the true nature of God. Questions like; what do we mean or refer to

when we talk about God? What is God like? What kind of being is it? However, it is important to
1
Joseph Omoregbe, Philosophy of Religion: A Philosophical Look at Religion (Ikeja: Jojas Press Limited, 2000): 46.

1
note that whether or not a person believes that God exists depends on what he means by the very

term God.2 Augustine considered the cosmos to be the result of a cause. In other words, every

result leads to and discloses its cause, and one may infer the reason from an effect. Since creation

points to and reveals its creator, one can go from creation to the creator. He also posits below

that;

If we reflect on beautiful things for example, we can be led

to the source of beauty from good things, we can be led to
the source of goodness. By reflecting on truths, the eternal
and immutable truths, we shall be led to the source of
truths, and the ground of being, namely, God. For there
must be a source of these eternal and immutable truths;
there must be a source of beauty which is imperfectly
reflected here in things that are beautiful; there must be a
source of goodness, a source of perfection; there must be a
perfect and eternal standard against which we implicitly
measure the degree of goodness, the degree of beauty, the
degree of perfection in things. This perfect and eternal
standard is God.3
This implication therein is that God is an invisible, unknowable reality that do not encompasses

everything and is always contributing to things but is not a part of them. Though we know what

the infinite can be in and of itself, some philosophers contend that the infinite can merge with the

finite. Hence, God is an invisible entity that encompasses everything, not a visible formative

force.4

Some philosophers of religion have contributed to the discourse on the idea of God by

deriving conclusions from the idea that God is a perfect being as well as from God's relationship

to the universe, that is, a notion known as "first-cause theology". The more fundamental

approach to this is called "perfect-being" theology, where its origins may be traced back to Plato

and Aristotle, the Stoics, and early Christian figures like Augustine and Boethius. According to

2
Omoregbe, Philosophy of Religion: A Philosophical Look at Religion, 25.
3
Joseph Omoregbe, Knowing Philosophy: A General Introduction (Ikeja: Jojas Printing Press Limited, 2005): 17.
4
Hywel D. Lewis, Philosophy of Religion (Great Britian: The English Universities Press Limited, 1965): 143.

2
Aristotle, God’s perfection would be compromised if he had any contact with the world or

anything defective. He held that God is an unchanging, everlasting, self-sufficient, self-thinking,

eternal entity who has no knowledge of or thought about the outside world. Since God is

unchangeable by nature, he felt that nothing eternal could have any kind of impact or influence

on him.5 This is vital to the ontological defence of God's existence propounded by Anselm and

Descartes. It is based on four fundamental intuitions: that perfection is the state of being perfect;

that perfection involves being whole; that perfection involves fairness; and that perfection

involves being distinctive. However, when weighed differently, we will see that these intuitions

produce our diverse understandings of God.6 The concept of a substance is something that

requires no other inputs in order to exist or be thought, which is where this definition of God

originates. Therefore, the theistic understanding of God was talked about until the contemporary

era as the All-Perfect Infinite Being in charge of all that exists. Following all this, we will

examine the ways of talking about God in both theological and philosophical aspect.

1.2. The Ways of Talking about God

An essential component of human spirituality, philosophy, and theology is talking about

and comprehending God. People have used a variety of discourse techniques to communicate

their ideas, experiences, and beliefs about God throughout history. These methods frequently

draw from anthropological, psychological, philosophical, theological, and cultural contexts,

which influence how we see the transcendence. In the course of this essay, two of such ways will

be examined- theological and philosophical notion on the idea of God. It should however, be

quickly pointed out that all these theories aim at giving explanations about God as the main

5
Omoregbe, Philosophy of Religion: A Philosophical Look at Religion, 48.
6
Leftow Brian, “God, Concepts of,” in The Routledge Encyclopedia of Philosophy, vol. 1, ed., Edmurd Craig
(Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1998): i.

3
thrust of religion. And, we will now examine the most common ways that the knowledge of God

is gotten.

A. Theological explanation of God, in the light of Faith

The theological notion of God is one of the different theories propounded on God. The

proponents of this notion are mainly Christians; therefore, it is referred to as the Christian God.

The Christian God of any other religion as stated in the introduction can be said to be

anthropomorphic being or deity and has common features that is by the Trinitarian nature and the

fatherhood of Jesus Christ. In this Trinitarian nature, the first feature of being a triune God means

that it is constituted by a trinity of persons, that is, Father, Son and Holy Spirit which in their

various capacities are united as one.7

Although the term does not appear in the scripture, the reality of the Triune God is

unmistakably present in Christ’s reference to the father and the Holy Spirit. This therefore

exposes the fact that in the theological notion of God, He is seen as comprising three persons in

one-doctrine of the Holy Trinity. We can see this in (Jn. 15:26) “When the counsellor comes,

whom I shall send to you from the father, the spirit of truth who proceeds from the father, He will

bear witness to me”. As a result, this passage of the Bible shows clearly the doctrines of the three

persons in one God. The central conviction of historical mainstream of Christianity is that Christ

is describing not merely the eternal relation of God but the very inner of the Triune God. 8 The

theological notion of God, which is deeply rooted in the Christian God and more especially in

the Triune God, is viewed from the aspect of faith not with reasoning. For if with reason faculty,

much will be questioned and unresolved. However, it suffices to say that the theological theory is

one of the ways God has been explained.

7
Omoregbe, Philosophy of Religion: A Philosophical Look at Religion, 35-36.
8
Michael Glazier, “God” in The Modern Catholic Encyclopedia, ed., Hellwig, Monika (Collegeville: Liturgical
Press, 1994): 348.

4
 B. Philosophical explanation of God, in the light of Reason

The belief that God is Jesus Christ's father is the second primary characteristic that sets

the Christian God apart. This demonstrates the anthropomorphic character of the Christian

deity rather undoubtedly. It may be questioned how a spiritual being like God could give

birth to a child and subsequently have a son. It goes without saying that Christianity is not

unique in its conception of God as a father. It may be found in many different faiths and the

mythologies of diverse cultures across the world, such as the Traditional African Religion in

which Olokun (in Edo), Orisa-nla (in Yoruba), and Ala (in Igbo) are considered to be the sons

of a deity.9

But the philosophical discussions on God investigate the mysterious facets of the human

experience, addressing questions of existence, morality, and the nature of reality, ultimately

unveiling a higher, transcendent reality. God is frequently seen as the ultimate source of

meaning, purpose, and order. Philosophically, a check into the doctrine of the Triune God one

may run into self-contradiction. This implies that logically speaking, three cannot be one.

Hence, the Christian God is a God of faith not of philosophical analysis.

Based on the writings of philosophers such as Plato and Aristotle, classical theism asserts

that God is the ultimate, necessary entity and the source of all contingent entities. For Plato,

the Forms are abstract, timeless, and immutable notions that exist outside of the physical

world. He had a complicated conception of God. After all, these Forms are regarded as the

highest point of existence, conventional conceptions of God are not necessarily compatible

with them. The greatest and most fundamental Form, linked to reality, truth, and knowledge,

is introduced as the Form of the Good in some conversations. Plato's notion of the divine is

transcendental and focuses on the essence of the Forms, setting it apart from traditional
9
Omoregbe, Philosophy of Religion: A Philosophical Look at Religion, 37.

5
 religious beliefs. Examining dialogues and surroundings closely is necessary when

interpreting Plato's philosophy. Another influential ancient Greek philosopher is Aristotle

who proposed that the existence and order of the world can only be explained by an

"Unmoved Mover" as the ultimate cause. He maintained that although everything in the

physical universe is flexible, pure actuality devoid of potentiality is the initial cause. In

contrast to personal deities, Aristotle's conception places a strong emphasis on teleology,

reason, and order in the Universe.10 Thomas Aquinas also established his own ways to know

God in philosophy: as a term or title that corresponds to the inductive (a posteriori) and

deductive (a priori) approaches of reasoning, which will be further exposed in the subsequent

pages of this work.

1.2.1 Thomas Aquinas on A Priori and A Posteriori methods

Stemming from the above, it was revealed by Thomas Aquinas in order to prove God’s

existence, that there are two ways in which God may be considered in philosophy: as a name or

title that corresponds to the inductive (a posteriori) and deductive (a priori) processes of

reasoning. Aquinas' epistemology combines Aristotelian philosophy with Christian theology,

encouraging concordance between faith and reason by combining empirical observation and

revelation together.11 The terms 'a priori' and 'a posteriori' are employed to differentiate between

two approaches to epistemic reasoning, two categories of propositions, knowledge, and

arguments, and two processes of obtaining an idea or concept. They are empirical and unaffected

by experience.12

For him, he recognized the importance of revelation as a source of knowledge, referring

to God's direct revelation of basic facts such as the existence of God and moral precepts. These
10
Richard H. Popkin, and Avrum Stroll, Philosophy Made Simple (New York: Garden City Books, 1956): 82-83.
11
Michael J. Murray, and Michael C. Rea, An Introduction to the Philosophy of Religion, (Cambridge: Cambridge
University Press, 2008): 3-5.
12
Robert Audi, The Cambridge Dictionary of Philosophy, ed. (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1999): 35.

6
truths were seen by him as a priori knowledge, distinct from sensory experience and originating

from divine understanding.

On the other hand, in order to understand God's creation, Aquinas placed a strong

emphasis on reason and natural philosophy. This approach is consistent with a posteriori

knowledge, which is based on observation and sensory experience. However, he tries to support

these methods using five notable ways of reasoning out the truth that God exists, starting with his

theory of ‘motion’ that there is a mover, and ultimately a first mover which is itself unmoved.

And the second way is considering the ‘chains of effecting causes’ that things are produced by

their causes and the causes in turn were produced by their cause, and so on. 13 He made claims to

other notions which he used to further prove God’s existence. In view of all these above, in order

to grasp the natural world, reason and empirical observation are combined with divine revelation

for fundamental truths, according to Aquinas' epistemological perspective. Realizing that both

may lead to a more complete knowledge of reality, he sought to reconcile religion and reason.

1.2.2 Thomas Aquinas’ Two Ways of Talking about God

From the a forementioned, the theologian and philosopher of the scholastic world,

Thomas Aquinas emphasized the use of two distinct terms, namely; equivocation and analogy in

philosophical theology to comprehend and communicate the character of God, making these

ideas central to his thought. In the analogical way, he holds that in addition to proposing that the

term "good" be used to describe both God and creatures, God's goodness acting as the standard

and our goodness reflecting it. Aquinas contended that human language may be utilized to

explain some aspects of God's nature.

On the other hand, Aquinas emphasises the essential distinction between God and the

created world in the equivocal way, pointing out that terms like "God is wise" and "a person is
13
Thomas Aquinas, Summa Theologica, Part. 1, Q.2, a. 2-3.

7
wise" might indicate different things depending on which context they are used in. Aquinas

explained an inexhaustible transcendent God in human linguistic limitations by using

differences. The equivocal approach highlights the distinction between God and creation,

avoiding a reduction of God to a magnified version of created objects, while the analogical

approach upholds the qualities of God.

1.3 The Attributes of God

The characteristics or qualities that theological and philosophical traditions ascribe to the

divine being are known as the attributes of God. While various religious traditions emphasize

distinct traits and diverse understandings among theologians and philosophers, these attributes

are fundamental to the theological and philosophical examination of God's nature. It follows that,

this theistic concept of God is the concept of a purely spiritual being who is perfectly good,

omnipotent and omniscient. Hence, a good number of medieval philosophers1 like Augustine, St.

Anselm, and St. Thomas Aquinas have held that the concept of God also requires that He be

necessary, timeless, immutable, and simple, which will be without parts.14

1.3.1 Absolute Attribute

The nature of God is described by absolute qualities such that the characteristics demonstrate

God's immutability and have nothing to do with the created universe. God as immutable implies

that He has the qualities of; simplicity, eternity, immutability, and infinity in him. For according

to Aristotle, God is an absolutely perfect, self-subsisting, self-sufficient, self-thinking, eternal

and immutable being that can have nothing to do with anything outside him. 15 While on the other

hand, apart from the absolute attributes which are also known as communicable attribute that are

14
William I. Rowe, Philosophy of Religion: Selected Readings, ed. (New York: Middlebury College, 1968): 2.
15
Joseph Omoregbe, Metaphysics Without Tears, A Systematic and Historical Study, Nigeria: Jojas Press Limited,
1996): 59.

8
used to depict the nature of God, there are other attributed ideas which have been classified

under the relative terms for the nature of God.

1.3.2 Relative Attribute

Here, it further explains the characteristics that define God's connection with the created

universe such as omnipotence, omniscience, omnipresence, and goodness. These characteristics

highlight God's strength, complete knowledge, presence, and ultimate source of goodness.

According to Aquinas, God's absolute and relative qualities are just various ways for Him to

express Himself and His connection to the universe, not two distinct entities. His writings,

especially in the "Summa Theologica," are important in the fields of philosophy and theology.

His theology is firmly grounded in the Christian tradition and heavily inspired by Aristotle. Thus,

many attributes have been associated with God, but we shall be considering the omni-attributes.

1.4 The Omni-Attributes of God

Depending on the situation, names or concepts might be used in an equivocal or

unambiguous manner. Equivocal phrases have several meanings, whereas unambiguous terms,

like "man," "woman," and "child," have one meaning. A word or term is used by analogy when it

denotes excellence. For instance, the term "wise" describes God as wisdom, which is distinct

from the core of humanity. An equivalent phrase “omni” is one that expresses perfection to God

and creatures.16

The properties of God that are frequently characterized with the term "omni," signifying

an all-encompassing or limitless nature, are referred to as "omni-attributes". Three main

characteristics of God are his omnipotence, omniscience, and omnipresence. The following are

links to pertinent passages in Thomas Aquinas' "Summa Theologica" that address these qualities

respectively. This being so, the attributes of God can never be exhausted.
16
Aquinas, S.T, Part. 1, Q.13, a. 5.

9
 1.4.1 God as Omnipotent

Being omnipotent implies that God is sovereign over everything. Since God is

omnipotent, it means that he can do everything, Aquinas notes that even God is not able to create

things that are wholly impossible or contradictory. Consider something that is both precisely

square and spherical. The scope of God's might is limited to what is conceivable. While it is

impossible to make an item both square and round, it is evidently conceivable to do evil and self-

destruction. However, a lot of theologians contest that God's authority encompasses wickedness

and self-destruction. Samuel Clarke contends that such actions are incompatible with God's

nature, which includes his perfection and infinity. Therefore, God's omnipotence gives him the

ability to accomplish anything he pleases.

1.4.2 God as Omnipresent

Omnipresence implies that God is an all present being, that is, His effect is felt all around

the universe. According to Thomas Aquinas, "God is present to things in the same way that an

agent, that is, a doer, performer, or affecting cause is present in the action and the result that it

produces." Since God is limitless, God is present everywhere, both real and imagined. Any

location that could exclude God would have to put a finiteness on the infinite and a limit on the

limitless.17

1.4.3 God as Omniscient

This section explores the various aspects of God's knowledge, such as the nature of

divine foresight, vision, and insight, the simplicity of God's knowledge, and His knowledge of

things existent and possible. The omniscience suggests that God is all knowing. This implies that

there is nothing on the surface of the earth that is not known by him. This goes a long way in

revealing God’s surpassing greatness. In view of this, according to Aquinas, God's knowledge of
17
Aquinas, S.T, Part. 1, Q.8, a. 1-2.

10
himself is all-encompassing, completely embracing the entirety of the object known. Therefore,

we declare that God knows himself to the full degree of his unbounded knowability in our

limited and imperfect form of representation. God's essence and substance are also referred to as

God's intelligence or knowledge. The undivided essence and substance of God are the same as

intelligence, intellect's object, intelligible species (the representation through which an intellect is

aware of reality), and the understanding process. 18 It also follows that, all things acknowledge

God as the creator and order of the universe. Despite the fact that God cannot be physically felt,

he is recognized by the act of creating existence out of nothing.19

Therefore, the work of Thomas Aquinas is predicated on God's omnipotence,

omniscience, and omnipresence. These characteristics confirm the divine's presence,

omniscience, and boundless power. Aquinas highlights the simplicity and perfection of God by

articulating these qualities through philosophical argument. These characteristics highlight God's

transcendence and incomprehensibility, setting it apart from the created world. Aquinas

recognizes that human language and intellect cannot fully comprehend the mystery of God. His

investigation of these qualities demonstrates his dedication to establishing a balance between

religion and reason.

1.4 Summary

The concept of God and His existence has been seen from a variety of angles. For

centuries, philosophers have been debating the nature, existence, and significance of God.

Christian thinkers attempted to remove anthropomorphism from religion's deity, beginning with

the Neo-Platonists, but this effort produced a variety of opposing views, including theism,

atheism, and agnosticism. The concept of God is complicated and stems from different concerns

18
Aquinas, S.T, Part. 1, Q.14, a. 3-4.
19
Thomas Aquinas, The Truth of the Catholic: Faith from Summa Contra Gentiles Book 1, (New York: Doubleday &
Co., 1935): 46.

11
about what we imply or refer to when we discuss God. This chapter has been able to highlight

the fact that God's qualities are crucial to comprehending God's essence as a spiritual being with

omnipotence, omniscience, and omnipresence. The following chapter would expound more on

the arguments for God’s existence as propounded by philosophers like Thomas Aquinas, St.

Anselm of Canterbury, Alvin Plantinga and their contemporaries.

12