Ship Types

Learning Outcomes

Upon the successful completion of this module, you should be able to:

 Explain why ships are important in transportation.

 Explain the basics of a general cargo vessel.

 Describe the intact stability criteria for a general cargo vessel.

 Analyze the ventilation requirement of cargo during transit.

 Describe the cargo carrying capacity of a general cargo vessel.

 Outline the factors to be considered prior to loading general cargo.

General Cargo

Why Ships?

Logistics is all about using the right type of resources for the right results. Ships have undergone significant specialization
in the 20th century, with each type having unique features suited for the carriage of different types of commerce. A
basic understanding of ship types is a pre-requisite to entering the growing field of maritime logistics.

Introduction to General Cargo

General cargo ships are the oldest type of cargo ships. The basic concept of these ships being the carriage of all type
of general cargoes together. The cargo loaded in such ships varies in shape and size. Hence segregation of cargoes
and their proper lashing is of paramount importance in such ships.
The cargoes include vehicles, machinery, bagged goods, steel, food products, forest products, containers, etc. These
ships are often equipped with their own cargo handling equipment. The hatch covers are designed to bear heavy
loads.
Pallets are wooden tray like structures supported by bearers. When loaded, the whole load can be moved by
mechanical means, such as a forklift. Pallets are available in certain standard sizes, where 40" × 48" is the most common
among them. The use of pallets eliminates package handling and reduces labour usage, but it does not overcome
crushing damage, the stowage factor is increased due to loss of space and there can be a reduction in stability.

A detailed view of the General Cargo ship and its equipment and parts that you must familiarize
General Cargo Ship Hold

The General Cargo Ship holds where you carry cargo needs to be studied carefully. Look at the arrangement of the
various decks within the hold space. Look at the ways the cargo is separated and held in position. It is important that
cargo is not shifted during the sea voyage. Any collection of water or other liquid from the cargo hold bilge or wells
must be pumped out and kept under scrutiny during shipment

Basics of General Cargo

General cargo ships carry various forms of cargo. The capacity of a cargo hold is expressed differently for different
types of cargo. Some are measured by weight, some by volume.
General cargo ships are the oldest form of cargo ships which used to carry various forms of cargoes at the same time
but in smaller parcels. Goods carried individually, unitized or palletized in boxes, barrels, bales, crates, packages or
bundles, are called general cargoes. Such cargo is generally carried in non-specialized compartments. These ships
have their own arrangements for loading and discharging of cargo. You will generally find a lot of combinations of
derricks, cranes, purchases etc on the decks of these ships to facilitate the operations.

here are two basic standards for measuring cargo and determining the freight payable. There are some cargoes which
have largely broken stowage (like heavy machinery) while some have a very small stowage factor (like cotton), freight
cannot be charged on the same basis.
Thus for some cargoes freight is charged on a volumetric basis while on some by weight. Hence, cargoes are divided as
measurement cargo and deadweight cargo..

Carriage, Stowage, Loading and Discharging

Carriage and Stowage

Once the cargo is loaded onboard, it becomes the responsibility of the carrier, to carry the cargo and discharge it
safely. In order to ensure safe delivery, the cargo has to be stowed appropriately to avoid any damage during the
course of the voyage. Preparation for a good stowage has to be done in advance of loading the vessel. Carriage of
cargo must be in accordance with the stability criteria at all stages during the voyage.
Stowage is an important aspect of cargo carriage. The principal factors considered for proper cargo stowage are the
safety of the ship and all on board, the safety of cargo and port rotation.

To ensure the safety of the ship you must:

 Stow the cargo, keeping in mind the stability characteristics of the vessel
 Avoid excessive bending or shearing stresses while loading
 Keep in mind the weather conditions during the loaded voyage
 Follow the load line or any special port requirements
 Position the cargo properly for easy securing of the hatch covers, doors to spaces, and others
 Keep in mind the stacking height of the cargo for clear visibility during navigation and watch-keeping
 In conjunction with junior cargo officers, the Chief Officer should ensure that all cargo is stowed correctly and
secured in the stowed position against all expected ship movement when at sea
  When hazardous parcels, live stock, or valuables are loaded, documentation on such cargoes shall be obtained
and administered by the Chief Officer
 To prevent cargo handlers or stevedores from falling in the space between the bulkheads and the stowed
cargo, precautions such as suitable rails, grids or nets should be erected, especially where vessels have been
built with corrugated bulkheads

Cargo Loss or Damages

For cargo safety, precautions must be exercised to avoid damage to cargo as illustrated below:

Pilferage

Valuable cargos should be protected against pilferage by:

- Stowing valuable cargoes in lockers if available
- Blocking valuable cargos with less vulnerable/heavy cargos
- Loading during daylight hours
- Sufficiently illuminating if night work is unavoidable
- Monitoring continuously by the officer/watchman closing/locking hatch accesses during breaks

Damage by Handling

When loading/discharging cargo, various equipment are involved (derricks, winches, stevedores' hooks, etc), which
cause damages to cargo, and some of which come to the notice only at a later stage.
Appropriate gears, proper monitoring and maintaining the good condition of the handling equipment will restrict or
reduce these damages.

Damage by Vermin

Vermins such as rats, cockroaches and silverfish cause damage to certain cargos. To avoid cargo damage, the hold
should be vermin free before loading.

Damages due to Moisture

Such damages are caused by:

- Liquid containers
- Wet goods
- Cargo sweat and hold sweat
- Leakages from bilges, etc
These can be avoided by proper segregation, battoning and maintenance of equipment.

Damages due to Tainting

Certain cargos are liable to be tainted when:

- Stowed adjacent to goods giving nauseous fumes or strong smells
- Fumes or bad odour are introduced into the hold from an air duct over disinfecting the hold and bilges occurs
- Fumes from engine room or leaky oil tank occurs
To minimise the damage, holds and bilges should:
- Be thoroughly cleaned and sweetened
- Not be over disinfected
- Properly segrate fine or edible goods

Short Landing and Over Carriage

Short landing means discharging the cargo before arriving at the port of destination. Over carrying means carrying the
cargo beyond the port of destination.
In the above cases, it is the responsibility of the ship o tranship the cargo to its destination.

To avoid these:
- Cargo for different port should be properly separated
- Cargo should be properly tallied by two independent personnel
- On completion, hold has to be checked for cargo left-over

Use of proper lashing and dunnage, is also essential for cargo safety. Due regard is to be given for handling at the ports
of call to facilitate fast turn around (cargo first-in, last-out basis). This is achieved by proper labelling of the cargo for the
intended ports.
Loading and Discharging

General cargo ships are designed to carry different types of cargo. Each individual cargo requires a different type of
preparation prior to loading. The planned procedures for the handling of the cargo should be agreed with the terminal
in advance of loading or unloading. IMO Code of Practice for the Safe Loading and Unloading of Bulk Carriers should
be followed in the case of dry bulk cargo, excluding grain. IMO Ship/Shore Safety Check List should be used. For grain,
there is more detailed guidance in the International Code for the Safe Carriage of Grain in Bulk.
Prior to loading, the ship's cargo holds have to be prepared for the carriage of cargo. Upon arriving at the load port,
the cargo holds are generally inspected for safe carriage and shipment.
Loading, stowage and securing of cargo other than bulk cargo is to be carried out in accordance with the ship's
approved Cargo Securing Manual. Extra caution is required onboard general cargo ships handling various
commodities. One must also be guided by the practice of good seamanship.

 Cargo hold inspection

You will assist in the inspection of the cargo holds to determine if the compartment is ready to receive, carry
and deliver cargo safely in the same condition as received onboard. The procedure is not the same all the
time, since the requirement for loading, carriage and delivery varies for different cargoes. However, a
"Checklist" can be used as a guideline on the precautions and procedures required in this regard.

Cargo Loading

General requirements and points to consider for loading:

 Cargo to be distributed evenly to avoid stresses

 Adequate stability shall be ensured at every stage of the voyage
 Ensure optimum use of cargo gear for loading/discharging
 Do not load heavy cargo on top of light cargo
 Stow and secure the cargo for all weather conditions
 Segregate incompatible cargoes
 Secure valuable cargoes against pilferage
 Adhere to load line/local regulations

Care in Transit

Once the cargo is loaded onboard, it becomes the carrier’s obligation to ensure its safe discharge.

 Determine the ventilation requirement of cargo during transit

 Classify the cargo based on their hygroscopic nature

During transit, avoid damage by protecting the cargo from exposure to seawater and weather, and also damage
caused by improper lashing. Certain cargoes require ventilation during shipment and certain cargoes do not.
Due care has to be taken so that the cargo does not get damaged during the voyage. For this, it is important to know
the characteristics of the cargo, based on which the necessary precautions can be taken during transit.

Ventilation is critical since:

 Cargoes of raw nature, suffer damage if exposed to extreme weather fluctuation

 Overheating of cargo can lead to severe deterioration
 Sweat (condensation) can arise while transiting from warm to cold, or cold to warm, climates which damage
the cargo
 Some cargoes lose commercial value due to tainting
 Some cargoes get damaged (at the cooler parts within the parcel) due to moisture migration which later forms
cargo sweat
Categories of Cargo

Based on their nature, cargoes are broadly divided into two categories, as depicted in the flowchart below

Hygrometry is the measure of moisture in the air. The knowledge of the relationship between the dew point temperature
of the atmosphere and the moisture content is essential to understand the sweat and its consequences.

Requirements for Ventilation

Follow this simple thumb rule in deciding whether ventilation is required:

Change Hygroscopic cargoes Non-hygroscopic cargoes

Not a critical situation. Ventilation is

not essential.
On opening hatches at destination, No ventilation.
immediate condensation may form Cargo sweat occurs on the surface
on the surface but will dry off when of the stow if relatively warmer
Cold to warm cargo is discharged moisture laden air is admitted

This is a highly critical situation. At

the early stage, ventilation should
be as vigorous as possible. But
eventually the outside dew point
will be too low. Great care is Ship sweat is inevitable, but the
required as arranging satisfactory cargo remains unaffected, unless
ventilation is difficult in such condensation drips back on to the
Warm to cold voyages. cargo stow.

Factors Considered for Ventilation

This thumb rule is only suggestive. When you carry different types of cargo, ventilation should be decided in
accordance with the situation. For effective ventilation, the following need to be considered:

 External air temperature and dew point

 Hold temperature and dew point

 Seawater temperature

 Temperature of cargo mass

Ventilation is basically of two types:

 Natural ventilation

 Mechanical or forced draught ventilation

Ventilation assisted by fans is known as mechanical or forced draught ventilation, whilst ventilation which occurs as a
result of the natural movement of air is called natural ventilation. It may be possible to vary the speed of the fans,
selecting full speed or half speed or a larger range of options.
A general idea of the circulation of air is important for ventilation. Warm air rises and the cold air falls to take its place.
This principle is used for the positioning of the ‘in-takes’ and ‘out-takes’ in the ventilation system.

Tanker Vessels

Oil, Chemical and Gas Tankers

Various liquid cargoes are transported by sea on tankers. There are two basic types of oil tankers. One is the crude oil
tanker which carries mostly a single grade of crude oil. Some of the ULCC's (ultra-large crude carriers) can be up to
500,000 Deadweight.
The other type of tanker, as mentioned earlier, is the product carriers which can carry different grades of cargo at the
same time. They are generally smaller than the crude oil tankers. Most of these liquids are stable at ambient
temperature. LPG and LNG are two major types, which are exceptions. LNG is cooled to – 263°C to be maintained in
liquid form.

Categorization of Oil Tankers

In addition to classifying vessels as crude tankers and product tankers, they can be further sub-categorized. While most
tankers are built to bring oil from one port to another, there are replenishment oilers which ferry fuel to vessels at sea in
order to refuel them. Then there are the mother ships which stay only in deeper waters and brink bulk oil from oil wells at
deep sea to outer deep water limits of ports.
The lightering vessels load oil from the mother ships and discharge to shore refineries. Sometimes sea-bound tankers are
used as floating storage units when they become too old or uneconomical to operate.
There are certain terms exclusively used to describe oil tankers for their categorization:

Single Hull

Hull construction means that the ship has only one skin between the seawater and the loaded oil inside the vessel. These
types are no longer in production and existing ones are being banned in most countries.

Double Hull

Double-hull construction means that the ship has two hulls, one inside the other like a double skin. It is a mandatory
design feature on newly built oil tankers. This offers an extra layer of protection if the tanker is damaged in an accident
that might otherwise result in catastrophic oil spills.

OBO

An OBO or ore-bulk-oil carriers have been made with the idea of bringing something on the return leg of their trips so
that they can make money both ways. Hence bulk iron ore is carried on return trips, in the same compartment which
had oil previously.

LR1 - Large Range 1

Tankers have a DWT between 45,000 to 80,000 tonnes.

LR2 - Large Range 2

Tankers have a DWT between 80,000 and 159,999 tonnes

VLCC -Very Large Crude Carriers

Carry between 160,000 and 319,999 DWT. Oil carriers of this size and above are known as supertankers

ULCC - Ultra Large Crude Carriers

These are the largest oceangoing vessels - their deadweight tonnage is 320,000 tonnes and above. These are
mammoth giants and are comparable in length to the height of some of the world's tallest buildings.
Tanker Types

The images below show the comparison between various tankers terms based on their sizes.

Coastal Tanker and Aframax

Suez-Max and ULCC

VLCC
Scales of Classification

They are categorized in two different scales for classification. They are the Average Freight Rate Assessment (AFRA)
system and, another method called the flexible market scale. The two scales differ slightly in weight limits for some size
categories of ships.
Refined agricultural products like vegetable oil, soya bean oil, palm oil, as well as crude oil, most of the chemicals and
refined petroleum products like diesel oil, kerosene oil and jet fuel are some of the common types of liquid cargo.
There are certain hazards involved in the transportation of petroleum cargoes, which is volatile and produces gaseous
fumes, which, when mixed with the right proportion of oxygen, become highly flammable. Hence, the transportation of
this cargo is carried out in a controlled atmosphere within the tanks

Gas Carriers

Fully Pressurized Ships

Semi Pressurised Ships

Fully Refrigerated
Moss Type Tank

Membrane Type Tank

Bulk and Combination Carriers

Variety of Bulks Carriers

There are a large variety of bulk carriers at present. They range from small 100 metres long to massive 350,000 tonnes
capacity. Modern-day bulk carriers are characterised by a single screw type vessel with a high block coefficient. It
should have low water flow resistance which will enhance its power. Further, the flow of water towards the rudder and
propeller should be sufficient, considering the body shape.
A solid bulk cargo means the goods which are solids in particle or granular form, with or without moisture. They are
generally homogeneous in composition and loaded directly into a vessel's cargo spaces without bagging or
packaging. Coal, sulphur, ores, fertilisers and grains are some of the cargoes carried in bulk.
Combination Carriers

Combination carrier ships are also known as Oil-Bulk-Ore (OBO) ships. They are designed to carry liquid as well as solid
bulk cargoes. This arrangement is convenient for ships carrying liquid bulk cargo and finds only solid bulk cargo at the
destination for the return voyage. It is more expensive to build but if cargo available at both ends, could be profitable
as they reduce the number of ballast voyages.
The hold construction is more similar to that of a bulk carrier. These are single-deck ship with upper and lower hopper
tanks to suit grain loading and strengthened to carry ore cargoes. They also have pipe lines, pumps and inert gas system
to facilitate the loading oil cargoes.

Breakbulk or Multipurpose Ships

Features of Multipurpose Ships

 Multipurpose ships are appropriately named. They are designed and built to carry a variety of cargoes and are
therefore extremely adaptable and flexible.
As they are designed to carry all the types of cargoes associated with an infrastructure project, multipurpose
ships have the capability to handle cargo as diverse as roll-on/roll-off cargo, containers, bulk liquid and dry bulk
parcels. The ability to carry a diversity of cargoes aboard a single ship gives the carrier access to multiple
opportunities for revenue
 Due to the demand for flexibility, a multipurpose ship has its own heavy-lift gear and is designed with handy
cargo spaces below deck enabling it to carry bulk liquid, dry bulk parcels or ro-ro cargoes. Multipurpose ships
are designed with wide and long open hatchways often leading to a tween deck with access to a lower hold,
which have a strengthened and flat bottom (also called a tank top). These ships also have the ability to handle
some containers on deck

 A principal feature of a multipurpose ship is its cargo-handling gear, which allows the ship to load and unload
cargoes regardless of whether a shore-side crane is available or not. This feature enables the ships to call at
small ports where infrastructure development is needed

 Cargo lashing points are also a feature of multipurpose ships. These are padeyes or D-rings to which cargo is
secured to prevent it from shifting during transit. These are located both on deck and inside the holds and
tween decks

 Generally, a multipurpose ship is capable of achieving a high service speed (18 - 19 knots) and does not have
the excessive depth or air height that would preclude calling at some minor ports where the valuable cargo
might have to be picked up or delivered

 Multipurpose ships generally range in size from around 6000 dwt up to 30,000 dwt. The smaller sizes may operate
profitably as purely project cargo carriers, but operators of the larger size ships need other breakbulk cargo,
such as forest products in order to operate properly.
Criteria for Selecting a Suitable Carrier

The graphic lists the criteria for selecting a suitable carrier.

Types of Multipurpose Ships

Not all multipurpose ships are the same. In fact, there is a large variety of ships that fall into the category of multipurpose
ships. These include

 heavy lift carriers,

 tween deckers,
 combination ro-ro/container ships.

Characteristic Features of the Heavy Lift Carrier

The cargo lifting equipment on the heavy-lift carrier is in the form of cranes mounted on pedestals situated on the port
side of the ship’s deck. This positioning of equipment provides a greater reach to lift cargo, thus improving its flexibility in
accessing cargo off a wider dock area. Secondary cargo handling cranes are situated on the centerline forward and
abaft of the heavy-lift cranes. They serve the secondary hatches where comparatively lighter breakbulk cargo is
handled and stowed.

Characteristic Features of the Tweendecker

A tween deck ship or tween decker is designed to provide greater flexibility for cargo stowage. With a tween deck, the
centre of gravity of the cargo is raised. This enables the ship to be more stable during transit. Some tween decker ships
have side door openings, which enable weather-protected handling of sensitive products, like paper rolls. The ship can
carry containers but has been designed with the flexibility to accept a wide range of non-containerized cargoes.
The vessel has cargo holds, with large hatch openings. Flexibility is derived from the adjustable height and removable
nature of the tween decks. The tween deck covers can be locked into position at three levels or deployed as portable
grain bulkheads.

Characteristic Features of Combination Ro-Ro Container Ships

Some ships are designed as ro-ro/container ships. They carry only containers on deck and ro-ro cargo below deck. The
below deck cargo is loaded not through a hold, as with heavy lift ships, but via a ramp at the stern of the ship. These
ships are capable of carrying a wide variety of project and breakbulk cargoes. Any non containerized cargo that it
carries must be rolled onto the ship via the stern ramp, a different type of loading procedure.

All the multipurpose ship types have special features for the particular trade in which each ship is primarily engaged.
However, they differ in certain unique features such as the heavy-lift gear, mechanical side doors, and ro-ro ramps.
A ship operator has to make important decisions while ordering a new vessel, regarding the features to be fitted
onboard a new ship, as this determines if the ship would continue to be a valuable earning asset over its commercial
lifespan.

Lifting Cranes

Multipurpose ships are fitted with lifting cranes of varying capacities. These cranes differ in their types as well as loading
capacities. Types of cargo lifting cranes are mechanical, hydraulic, electrical, and electro-hydraulic. The capacities of
lifting cranes vary from 40 MT to 400 MT and over.
Heavy lift carriers are often fitted with higher capacity cranes owing to their cargo loading capacities. Cranes are often
used in twin or union modes, where two cranes are used to lift cargoes of weights higher than the individual capacities
of single cranes. For example, if each crane can lift 60 MT, then two cranes can be effectively combined to lift weights
up to 120 MT.
Different Lifting Capacities

The images show cranes of different lifting capacities and their usage.
The Selection Process

Breakbulk cargo refers to cargo that can only be transported on multipurpose ships and is generally not carried on other
ship types. Container shipping, despite its ubiquity around the world, is not suitable for certain types of cargoes.
Similarly, bulk carriers are not a good alternative. Bulk carriers are often chartered to a shipper/consignee whose
facilities are dedicated to bulk operations and are not to handle any other type of cargo. If the bulk carrier is gearless,
then shore side facilities are unlikely to be available for the handling of an extraneous cargo unit. If geared, the weight
lifting capacity may be limited and insufficient to lift heavy lift and project cargoes.
The solution lies in multipurpose ships, which are better suited and convenient for the carriage of breakbulk cargo.

Ro-Ro and Passenger Ships

Ro-Ro ships

Roll on Roll off ships is meant to carry vehicles of various types. Vehicles are driven into or from the ship through ramps
fitted at the bow, stern or on the sides. There are many decks available for parking the vehicles. From the main deck,
internal ramps leading to various decks facilitate the movements of vehicles inside the ship.
Spaces for dining, entertainment and other activities are available. For Ro-Ro ships engaged in long passages, have
accommodation for their passengers.

Passenger Ships

Passenger ships are characterized by their luxurious nature. From the outside view to interiors, the theme is to attract and
entertain the passengers. Most part of the ship is occupied by accommodation, restaurants and entertainment area.
Very little space is available for cargo.
Sub-divisions and remotely operated watertight doors have increased the damage stability of passenger ships. Materials
used in accommodation along with automatic fire detection and firefighting arrangements, fire safety is greatly
improved.
Resent disasters involving passenger ships has caused more stringent regulations covering the construction and
operation of passenger ships.

Did you know? The best known of the Viking ships is the Drakkar, the dragon-ship. The name came from the form of the
head of this ship which represented a dragon head. This ship was very large and was used only for war. They required
up to 60 rowers. It was very expensive to keep such a boat. It appeared around 1050 and King Olaf Tryggvasson is
known to have had the most numerous fleet.
Features of Ro-Ro Ships

Design of Ro-Ro Ships

Roll-on Roll-off (Ro-Ro) uses a non-container cargo handling system. Thee cargo units have wheels or tracks and the
means to be rolled either by own power or pushed or pulled by external motive power into a ship. A Ro-Ro ship is a ship
designed with extensive covered decks within the hull with ramps or elevators to stow these cargo units.
Specialization of Ro-Ro Ships

Ro-Ro ships have specialized with some ships designed as pure car-carriers and others designed to carry heavy rolling
units with deckhead height to accommodate large dimensioned cargo types and decks reinforced to carry extra
weight.
Certain Ro-Ro ships are assigned to military use capable of carrying an armoured brigade together with its wheeled or
tracked units and support vehicles.

Stern Ramps in Ro-Ro Ships

Ro-Ro ships have a stern ramp or supplementary side ramp for handling cargo. Stern ramps are wide mechanical road
links between the dock and the ship.
Decks within a Ro-Ro ship vary in height in accordance with the cargo to be carried. Car decks have minimal
deckhead height clearance just adequate to accommodate regular automobiles.
Areas used for project cargo and large cargo units have substantial overhead clearance that may even permit
stacking of non-wheeled cargo units on top of one another.
Securing Cargo in Ro-Ro Ships

All cargo must be completely secured to its wheels, either its own wheels or the platform of its loading wheeled unit.
Wheeled units are stowed such that they do not touch an adjacent unit to cause damage.
Ro-Ro ships have multiple recessed securing points arranged all over the interior decks to which cargo or the rolling units
are securely locked into and fastened.

Using Ro-Ro Ships

Some Ro-Ro ships that are engaged on ferry services between two ports have a bow door and ramp to enable rolling
units to be offloaded that have been driven into the ship by the stern ramp.
This ensures that rolling units always move in a forward direction with no necessity of turning around or reversing.
Ferries without a bow ramp may have a turntable located in the forward end of the rolling deck to turn vehicles for
discharge through the stern door.

A stern loading and bow unloading pattern of operation have the advantage that all rolling units entering the ship do
not need to be turned around and can be loaded in lines or lanes for ready movement at the discharge port.
In a multideck Ro-Ro ship, however, certain decks can be designated for each discharge port creating a horizontal
separation of cargo for different ports with some intermediate decks being served by an additional ramp to shore on
the side of the ship as well as the main ramp on the stern
Designing Multipurpose Ships with Ro-Ro Ramps

Often there are interior ramps that serve all the ship’s cargo decks like a multi-storey car park that permits the interior
circulation of rolling cargo units by loading up (or down) one interior ramp and exiting by another en route to the stern
ramp to the dock.
Some multipurpose ships are designed with a quarter Ro-Ro ramp which allows the ship alongside a regular cargo wharf
to work some rolling cargo through this ramp for stowage in one or two decks inside the hull adjacent to the cargo
hatches on the upper deck.

Container Ships

Introduction to Container Ships

These are single-deck ships without any hoper tanks. The hatch openings are wide to facilitate the loading of the
containers directly into the holds without the assistance of forklifts on the tank top. Many of them have cell guides fitted
inside the hold to reduce the number of stevedores and for quick loading. Hatch covers are strengthened to accept
containers on top.
Special arrangements are made for Reefer containers and water-cooled reefer containers. They are generally gearless,
except ships visiting smaller ports where shore crane is not available. Speed of Container vessels is in the range of 18 and
25. Container vessels are known for their punctuality and quick turnaround.
Shipping lines implemented various unitisation measures in order to reduce theft and discharge the same amount of
cargo, which was loaded at the load port. Pre-slinging of cargoes, palletisation, barge-carrying ships, ro-ro ships and
containerisation are all examples of unitisation.
You will find most of the goods are transported in containers today and the container ship is the heart of intermodal
transportation. Containerisation is a system of packing smaller parcels into one larger package for the ease of handling
during transportation. In the last few decades there has been a major shift from transporting individual items of cargo in
general cargo ships to transporting prepacked standardized containers suitable for carriage by road, rail and sea, in
specially designed container ships.
Information about Cargo Ships

Carrying Cargo on Container Ships

Container Securing Arrangements

Stacking Terminologies

Container Ships on Liner Trade

The ships used in the liner sector have changed radically from the traditional liner ships of the WWII era to the highly
sophisticated fully cellular container ships of today. The earlier container ships were all of the converted types. Over the
years, their size has increased tremendously. Generally, they are classed based on the number of 20ft containers (TEUs)
they can carry.
The current limitations imposed by the Panama Canal plays a key role in the size of the ships used. A Panamax ship is the
biggest ship that can safely transit through the canal whereas a post-Panamax is too big to do so.

There is an increasing tendency to build huge post-Panamax ships today. The biggest container ship today is Emma
Maersk which has a carrying capacity of anywhere from 11,500 to 13,000 TEUs. Reportedly, major shipyards have
blueprints to build container ships that can carry 15-18,000 TEUs.
The larger container ships that call only a limited number of load and discharge ports are referred to as mother ships.
Feeder ships are smaller ships that transship the containers to or from the larger ports to the smaller ports in the region.

Developing Specialized Containers

Development of specialized containers with a wide range of types, sizes and configurations permits containerization of
many cargoes. The main advantages of containerization are:

 Low handling cost

 Limited labour for handling

 Loss due to damages in transit/handling is reduced or eliminated

 Pilferage loss is eliminated

 Increases rate of loading and discharging in ports

 Dunnage requirement is eliminated

 Reduces losses due to broken stowage

Materials used for the construction of containers depend on the nature of the cargo to be carried and the way they
are handled. Some basic materials generally used are steel, aluminium, fibreglass, reinforced plastic, wood and GRP
(glass reinforced plastic). All these are susceptible to a degree of corrosion or damage due to certain chemicals.
Types of Containers

Various types of containers are constructed in line with the standards set by the International Standard Organization
(ISO) as illustrated in the graphic below:
Containers are designed for multi-modal transportation ie, by ships, trucks, railcar, barges and by air. The container ships
are categorized by their capacities as shown in the following illustration:
The use of intermodal containers for the transport of a great variety of cargo has become increasingly popular in recent
years. The popular intermodal container, adaptable to carriage by truck chassis, railcar, barge and ocean-going
vessels, is the most common form of containerization. The considerations governing preparation and stowage of the
cargo in these containers are applicable to other methods of cargo transport as well.

Categories of Container Ships

A container Ships can be categorized in different ways. Such as:

Based on Overall Size

Based on volumetric capacity (In older days, container ships were sized based on their volume)
Based on TEU of a container ship is the number of twenty-foot equivalent containers that can be carried

Based on Length, Beam, Depth, and Tonnage

-Panamax
- Post-Panamax
- Suezmax
- Post- Suezmax
- Malacamax

Based on Mode of Handling

BOX ship: This is the most common type of container ship design. The cargo handling is carried out by quayside cranes
that belong to the port. Such ships always ply between container ports that are equipped with cranes

- RORO ship: On roll-on / roll-off type of container ships, containers are rolled on and off the ships using heavy-lift vehicles
and forklift trucks. These type of ships, in some cases, carry both vehicles and containers in different decks

- LILO ship: Lift on / Lift off ships are equipped with their own cranes which are used to load the containers on and off
the ship. These ships ply between smaller container terminals that are not equipped with container handling crane
facilities

Based on Range of Service

Mother Ships: These are the larger ships, often above 10000 TEU capacity, they go between the major container
terminals. These ships cannot enter smaller ports due to their larger draft and overall size

Feeder Vessels: Feeder vessels operate between the major and minor container terminals, carrying containers to and
from the mother ships. Often, these vessels are LILO type, because smaller ports may not have quay-side cranes

Container Ship Design – The Hull Geometry

The first and the most prominent design aspect of any type of ship is the geometry of its hull. Before we understand why
hulls of container ships have attained their characteristic shape, we should first notice the geometry itself. A visual
comparison of the hull of a container ship with that of a bulk carrier or an oil tanker would clearly imply that a container
ship’s hull has a finer form than the other two. In other words, the forward and aft sections of a container ship are
streamlined, and not fuller like that of a bulk carrier or oil tanker. Why?
Information on Container Ship Design

 Paradigm change in container ship design

In the past, container ships were normally designed and built for relatively high speeds – larger container ships
normally for 25kn or more. Designers and owners paid full attention to what the performance would be at
contract conditions, which were normally design speed and design draft. The design condition determined key
features like the hull form, rudder and propeller design as well as the size of the main engine, including
capacities and the layout of auxiliary systems. Very little attention was usually paid to the ship’s performance at
“off-design” conditions at reduced speed and/or reduced draft.

 Challenges of operating at “off-design” conditions

However, in the present and expected future market conditions, container ships may operating at “off-design”
conditions, not least due to slow steaming and the varying utilization of the ships’ deadweight due to dynamics
in the trades.

Hull-Line Optimization

The purpose of hull-line optimization is to find a hull form with minimum resistance that requires the least propulsion for
future operating conditions. Finally, the owners in one known case by APL opted for a version giving an extra
improvement in propulsion efficiency despite a little less container intake. The main modifications have been to the
design of the bulbous bow and hull lines in the forward part of the ship.

But the truth remains; The Container ships are tightly time-bound ships. They have a very low turnaround time, that is, the
time they spend at a port for loading and unloading has to be minimum in order to be able to call the next port without
delay. It is due to this reason, container ships fall in the category of high-speed ships. In order to achieve a high speed,
the resistance of the hull needs to be minimized, which is obtained by a fine form hull.

Another notable geometrical characteristic of container ships is the high prismatic coefficient of the hull-form. That is,
the hull section for the most part of the length of the ship is almost rectangular. This is done in order to accommodate a
maximum number of containers below the deck.

Midship Section of Container Ships

The midship section of a ship is prepared with a lot of design and functional considerations in mind, which include the
type of cargo, stowage methods to be used by the ship, capacity of the ship, etc. In fact, a ship type is often identified
by its midship section. Some common features of the midship section of a container ship are discussed below:

 All container ships are double-bottomed, so as to allow for the double bottom spaces to be used as tanks

 Container ships are also longitudinally framed because the variable loading conditions often result in large
hogging and sagging moments, which result in high longitudinal bending stresses

 The shape of the midship section is almost box-like. In the words of a designer, it has high midship area
coefficient, ranging from 0.75 to 0.85

 The bilge strake is the angular plate that joins the inner side shell and the tank top plating. Since the presence of
this plate would prevent the stowage of containers at the corner of the section, the length of this strake is kept
to a minimum. In most recent cases, however, container ships are not provided with bilge strakes at all, in order
to ensure maximum stowage capacity

 The most important structural feature of a container ship is the torsion box, which we will discuss in detail in one
of the following sections

 Container ships are usually equipped with no hatches. That is, the ship has no continuous main deck running full
breadth all along with the ship. This open box-like structure (relate with the midship section figure), enables easy
stowage of containers from the tank top to the highest level above main deck level. The only decks are within
the double hull, which is more like stringers running full length, and provide passage way along the length of the
ship.
Torsion Box in Double Hulled Container Ships

The hull of a container ship is an open box-like structure. When a ship is at sea, it is subjected to various wave loads. In
one of the load cases, when the direction of the waves is at approximately 45 degrees to the velocity of the ship, port
side of the forward section and the starboard side of the aft section would experience a wave crest at the same time,
and vice versa.
This results in a type of periodic loading which causes the hull to twist. This effect is called torsion and is shown in the
following figure.

The topmost edges of the port and starboard sides of container ships are strengthened with high scantling web sections,
creating a box-like structure at every frame. This is called a torsion box. A torsion box runs along the entire length of the
ship from the aft peak bulkhead to the forward collision bulkhead

Torsion Box in Double Hulled Container Ships

The following figure shows the torsion box of the double hull container ship. Note that the width of the web plate in the
torsion box is higher than the web plate used around the passageway below it.

Also, the webs at passageways are at a spacing of three to four frame spaces, but the webs of a torsion box would be
present at every frame.
Classification societies have laid down a separate set of rules for the design of torsion box for container ships.
The inspection of the torsion box is always treated as a high priority in annual structural surveys, as it plays a significant
role in determining the strength of the hull structure.
Stowage of Containers

The stowage of containers on a container ship is another aspect that the designer has to deal with. Though it may
come across as something insignificant, improper stowage has resulted in most of the accidents related to container
ships.
Containers are always stowed with the longer dimension along forward to aft. This is because the ship is more prone to
rolling motions than pithing or yawing.
Stowage of containers in this orientation ensures less space for the cargo to shift within the container, ensuring more
safety against impact damage of the cargo

Below the uppermost deck, the containers are restrained against a lateral or longitudinal motion by cell guides. These
are basically angle sections that also help as guides for containers when they are loaded onto the ship. However, these
do not form a part of the primary structure, that is, they do not take up the hull stresses.
Above the uppermost deck, containers are stowed and their motion is restricted by means of lashings. Twist locks fitted
between the containers prevent vertical motion, and lashing prevents the longitudinal and transverse motions. The
lashings are usually deployed from lashing bridges that are at height intervals of one or two tiers of containers. The
lashing rods are secured at their ends by turnbuckles which maintain the tension in the lashings.

Container Loading Plan

The container loading plan is provided along with the design, and it specifies the positions of different containers on the
ship, at different load cases. This plan takes into consideration the fact that the number of containers and the weight of
cargo in each would differ on each voyage. And the stowage would also have to take into consideration, the port at
which each container has to be unloaded.
So, if a ship calls at three ports – A, B, and C, and if all containers are loaded at A, then a container to be unloaded at
port B would not preferably be stowed under a container to be unloaded at port C. But the complicity of the problem
lies here – what if most of the containers for Port B are heavier than the containers for Port C? Heavier containers cannot
be stowed above the lighter ones, as it would raise the centre of gravity of the vessel, reducing the stability margin.
This complicity of container ship design is therefore solved by means of special computer programs specially designed
to generate container loading plans for a particular loading case, which keeps in mind, the series of ports a vessel
needs to call, and also the strength and stability aspects of the ship.

Another factor that is always taken care of in the plan is the visibility from the bridge. The containers loaded above the
deck and forward of the navigation bridge are to be loaded such that the line of sight from the bridge is not affected.
That is why, if you take note of a loaded container ship, the stack of containers forward of the bridge reduces in height
as one move to the forward-most stack. This, however, reduces the total amount of containers that can be carried by
ship. Hence, many ultra-large container ships (e.g. Maersk Triple E class) have their superstructures shifted to the mid-
ship, in order to be able to accommodate containers to full height aft of the superstructure.
The study of the design of container ships does not stop at this. There are reefer ships which are specially designed to
carry refrigerated cargo in refrigerated containers. They are equipped with cooling systems connected to each
container, which is a different study in itself. Also, recent trends in the market have encouraged the use of slow
steaming, which has resulted in most container shipping companies to carry out extensive nose jobs and alteration of
propellers on their ships. Though this might seem to be in contrast with the high-speed requirement of container ships,
these ships still operate at higher speeds than oil tankers and bulkers. Larger diameter and low RPM propellers have seen
to offer more propulsive efficiency. The optimization of container ships for current industry requirements is something that
is dynamic in nature, and this requires ship designers to be aware not only of newer possibilities of design, but also to be
able to predict the trends of the industry a few years ahead of time

Developments to Container Ships

Changes to Container Ships

Container ships have been getting bigger since they began operating in liner services over 50 years ago because the
increased size produces increased operating efficiency and improved environmental performance.
Some of the world's biggest container ships are about 1,300 feet long - that's nearly 400 meters or the distance around
an Olympic running track - with a maximum width of 180 feet (55 meters). Their engines weigh 2,300 tons, their propellers
130 tons, and there are twenty-one storeys between their bridge and their engine room. They can be operated by
teams of just thirteen people and a sophisticated computer system and carry an astonishing 11,000, 20-foot containers.

If that number of containers were loaded onto a train it would need to be 44 miles or 71 kilometres long. And now, as
the graph depicts, there are ships even larger than that in operation.
Some Other Facts about Containers Ships

 A large container ship engine has about 1,000 times more powerful than a family car

 The gantry cranes that load and unload container ships can be 430 feet tall and weigh up to 2,000 tons

 Container ships are technologically advanced. A good example is the computer software that enables precise
planning for the loading and unloading of containers and keeps the vessel balanced by increasing and
decreasing ballast at the touch of a button

 A recent study by Lloyd’s Register found that the fuel efficiency of container ships (4,500 TEU capacity) has
improved 35% between 1985 and 2008

 It is estimated that on average a container ship emits around 40 times less \text{CO}_2 than a large freight
aircraft and over three times less than a heavy truck

 Container shipping is estimated to be two and a half times more energy-efficient than rail and 7 times more so
than the road.

A Game Changer for Shipping

According to Vessels Value data, 71 ULCSs with a total capacity of 1.2M TEU are due to be delivered this year. in 2018.
This is the highest volume on record for ULCS deliveries – and vastly outstrips the ULCSs due to be delivered next year (20
at a total TEU of 376,300) and in 2020 (24 at a combined 466,450 TEU).

It also towers over the 467,291 TEU delivered last year. Vessels Value analyst Court Smith told - The total outstanding
order book for container ships shows a significant amount of capacity yet to be added to the global fleet. The delivery
of so many ULCSs could also negatively impact freight rates. Despite the gloomy outlook, some of the ULCS new builds
due this year have been pushed back – and more could follow.
As the economy of scale is reducing transportation costs per box, the demand for ever bigger vessels is continuing. One
shipping source said that in the near future it would be possible to build ultra-large container ships with a capacity of
24,000 TEU. Based on the current vessel designs, these ships could be one hold longer, two rows wider, and one tier
higher. We already have 22,000 TEU vessels and more are due through the year.
The continuing expansion of ship size could see container ships built to 18 meters draft by 65 meters beam by 420 meters
length and carrying over 28,000 TEUs. These ships could ply the trans-Pacific service between west coast American ports
and Asia, also between Asian ports and selected Brazilian ports, sailing via the southern tip of Africa. However, this
appears to be the maximum size prediction that we have so far, come across.

Operating Costs vs Ship Size

It is true, due to the stability factors and larger steel thickness requirements, it is easier to increase the beam than to
increase the length of a container ship; but besides coping with higher acceleration and gravitational forces, ultra-large
wide-beam vessels would also be constrained by port and seaways limitations, such as crane outreach and drafts.
In the Suez Canal, for example, restrictions for the ship’s cross-sectional area are leading to a permissible draft of only 15
meters for a 65-meter beam.

Further height constraints could apply due to bridges in ports such as in Hong Kong, Hamburg or Osaka. Thus the quote
from a shipping source, “We are slowly approaching limits in ship size growth,” is clearly supported, based on current
technology, available infrastructure and appetite for capital investment globally.
The graph shows the per TEU decrease in operating costs with an increase in ship size.
A Look at Container Ships
Ultra Large Container Ships

The containerships are getting larger with increasing carrying capacities. There are a number of shipping companies
that vie for having the largest ships; however, the race goes on and the leading container carriers are: NYK, MSC,
OOCL, MAERSK, CMA CGM, MOL, COSCO and HAPAG LLOYD, and a few others. Here we have some details on some
of the world’s largest containerships, in terms of their TEU capacity and length.

OOCL Hong Kong

OOCL Hong Kong, the newest container ship in the fleet of the Chinese shipping firm Orient Overseas Container Line,
popularly known as OOCL, stands first in the list of world’s biggest container ships. This 399.87 meters -long Ultra Large
Container Vessel (ULCV), the first ship to cross the 21,000 marks, has a carrying capacity at 21,413 TEU.
Constructed by the Samsung Heavy Industries (SHI) shipyard, the 197,317-DWT OOCL Hong Kong measures 58.8 meters in
breadth and 32.5 meters in depth.

CMA CGM: Antoine De Saint Exupery

400-meter long and 59-meter wide

- Longer than 4 football fields and bigger than The Empire State Building and the Eiffel Tower
- 20,600 TEUs capacity, or 123 kilometres of containers
- A Becker Twisted Fin allowing to improve the propeller’s performance, helping reduce significantly the energy
expenditure for a 4% reduction in \text{CO}_2 emissions
- A new-generation engine that significantly reduces oil consumption (-25%) and fuel consumption for a 3% average
reduction of CO2 emissions

Manchester, Marseille (2018 / 20568 TEU):: Triple-E class ("Economy-Energy-Environment")

- Danish shipping giant Maersk Line’s latest vessel, Built by the Daewoo
- Shipbuilding & Marine Engineering shipyard, this Triple-E class vessel has the capacity of 20,568 TEUs
- Madrid Maersk (launched April 2017) was the first of all 11 "Triple E-class" (2nd generation) vessels. Maersk Line ordered
a total of 27 vessels (11x 20568 TEU, 16x 18270 TEU), thus replacing all the company's older ships by the 2018's end
- The ship's depth was increased to allow 12 tiers, and its width was improved to allow 24 bays and 23 container rows
across the weather deck
- The bridge was moved 2 bays toward the ship's bow - to optimize its cargo capacity and to make it easier for stowage
- The engines are lighter (7-cylinder MAN, instead of the 8-cylinder engines for the 18270 TEU ships), which increased
load capacity
- Builder: Daewoo Shipbuilding (South Korea)
- Container capacity: 20,568 TEU / 1,800 TEU refrigerated containers (reefers)
- Crew capacity: 22
- Engines: MAN (twin main engine), IMO Tier II compliant
- Propulsion: shaft generator motors double as electrical power generators; GE Marine provided its patented PTO/PTI
technology (abbrev "power take-off/power take-in").
- Power output: 52,649 kW, Speed: 21 kn / 24 mph / 39 kmh, Draught (Draft): 16 m / 53 ft, Breadth (Width): 58,6 m / 192
ft, LOA Length: 399 m / 1309 ft
- GT / Gross Weight Tonnage: 214,286 tons, DWT / Deadweight Tonnage: 206,000 tons
- Madrid Maersk is reportedly equipped with highly advanced facilities and offer the retrofit option for the future
conversion to LNG-fueled ship

MOL Triumph,

owned by Japanese shipping operator Mitsui O.S.K. Lines now sits third in the row after claiming the record of world’s
largest cargo ship for a few weeks earlier.
The 400 meters-long TEU-class container ship has a maximum cargo capacity of 20,170 TEU. Constructed by Samsung
Heavy Industries n South Korea, MOL Triumph was the first vessel of MOL in its fleet of six 20,000 TEU-class vessels. While
measures 58.8m in width and 32.8m in depth, the dead weight of the box ship is 192,672 DWT. Powered by the MAN
B&W G95ME, the vessel is capable of cruising at a maximum speed of 24.0 knots.

MSC Diana Anna, Viviana (2016-2017 / 19400 TEU)

Mediterranean Shipping Company’s MSC Diana measures 399.999 meters in length 58.80 meters in breadth, 30.20
meters in the draught.
Launched in 2016, MSC Diana was constructed by Samsung Heavy Industries in South Korea.
MSC vessel details (19400-19200 TEU)
- Fun fact is the each of MSC's 19000 TEU box ships can carry an equivalent of 39000 cars. This is a series of all 20 new
Panamax vessels (ULC / ultra-large)
- Best features: innovative engine design (low fuel consumption), double-hull structure, optimized propulsion (decreases
fuel consumption and CO2 emissions with over 35% per TEU compared to conventional MSC ships)
- Building cost: USD 140 million each
- Builder: Daewoo Shipbuilding (South Korea)
- Container capacity: 19,224 TEU / 1,800 TEU refrigerated containers (reefers)
- Crew capacity: 35
- Engines: MAN 11S90ME-C (10.2)
- Power output: 16 MW (21,000 hp), Speed: 22,8 kn / 25 mph / 41 kmh, Draught (Draft): 16 m / 53 ft, Breadth (Width): 59 m
/ 194 ft, LOA Length: 1 (395 m / 1296 ft), 2 (398 / 1307), 3 (400 / 1312)
- NT / Net Weight Tonnage: 111,432 tons, GT / Gross Weight Tonnage: 1 (192,240 tons), 2 (194,310), 3 (193,490), DWT /
Deadweight Tonnage: 197,362 tons

Environmental Challenges and Innovations in Container Ships

Bigger and deep draft vessels will be able to carry more containers, however, that will need matching infrastructural
developments in ports and harbours. From a logistics point of view, the concept of faster larger liner vessels touching
major transshipment ports on dedicated trade routes and fixed schedule has been well established. Together, the role
of major hub ports being able to transship to the smaller ports and hinterlands via rail, road and inland waterways have
also become an expectation, keeping in view of a door-to-door supply of cargoes. Faster and scheduled movements
are aided, not just by the efficiencies of the port and the carrier companies, but by extensive technology application in
the entire logistic supply chain for cross-border trade involving customs clearance, security surveillance during transit
and real-time monitoring of containers during the passage.
And, while the ships are getting bigger and port operations more sophisticated, the environmental issues have created
new challenges to the shipping carriers. The sulfur global cap being imposed by the IMO will take effect from 1 January
2020. It is only 2 years away!
The only feasible alternative today is to use low-Sulfur fuel at a premium cost or invest in new technology to cut down
emissions and the only 2 viable alternatives have emerged. Scrubber on the engine exhaust or burn LNG as the ship’s
propulsion fuel.
There are interesting discussions that we have added for you to understand the dilemma that the ship-owner’s face as
you study further.

Scrubber Vs LNG fuel

Edited from: Mfame February 23, 2018

Speaking at Maersk’s Capital Markets Day in Copenhagen this week, chief operating officer Soren Toft said the IMO
new regulations would be a “game-changer for the industry”.
“It will add substantial cost, either in the form of fuel cost or in the form of investments needed to make technical
changes to vessels, be that investment in LNG or investing in scrubbers,” warned Mr Toft.
However, similar to German carrier Hapag-Lloyd, Maersk is currently not in favour of the exhaust gas cleaning scrubber
systems, which cost $5m-$10m to install.
“Our view of this at least for the moment is that we don’t really prefer the scrubber solution,” said Mr Toft.
Currently, the price of heavy fuel oil (HFO), burnt by ships outside of ECA (emission controlled area) regions, is around
$350 per tonne, compared to low-Sulphur fuel oil (LSFO) at approximately $560 per tonne. And with a 20,000 TEU ULCV
consuming around 250 tonnes of bunkers a day while at sea the potential extra cost for container lines will be massive
from January 2020.
Writing in Ship & Bunker, Dr R Vis, a director of Singapore-based fuel oil analyst Viswa Lab, said that assuming a $200 per
tonne differential between HFO and LSFO the extra cost per day per 20,000 TEU vessel would be some $50,000, or $15m
a year based on 300 days sailing. Thus, the investment in the installation of a scrubber system could be recovered in less
than a year.
Maersk, along with other ship-owners, all seem to be adopting a wait-and-see approach on scrubbers given that a
recent report identified that globally only 240 ships have so far had a system installed.

LNG-Powered Container Ship

The first LNG-powered containership in the world was Isla Bella (launched on October 16, 2015). Isla Bella and a second
sister-ship (Perla del Caribe) were ordered in December 2012. Until 2020, they will remain the world's biggest boxships
powered by LNG ("liquefied natural gas") of the so-called Marlin Class (length 233 m /765 ft, TEU capacity 3100
containers).

 Both vessels are owned by TOTE Maritime (US-based shipping line)

 The shipbuilder is General Dynamics NASSCO (Norfolk VA / US-based Shipbuilding Company)

 The ship design is by DSME ("Daewoo Shipbuilding and Marine Engineering") South Korea

 The new LNG-power maritime technology allows a drastic increase in fuel efficiency. The green containership
Isla Bella, as reduced air-pollution, is the equivalent of removing from the road of over 15700 automobiles

Both new LNG-powered container cargo carriers operate between Florida (USA) and Puerto Rico, with departures from
Jacksonville and San Juan.
Another Significant Recent Game-Changer by CMA CGM

The French container line has ordered nine LNG-fueled, 22,000 TEU capacity containerships to be delivered by
2020. Seatrade Maritime News interviewed Nicolas Sartini, CEO of APL, part of the CMA CGM Group, about the game-
changing decision. Below are some extracts from the conversation that took place at the Sea Asia LNG Forum in
Singapore, 2018

What was the thinking behind CMA CGM to go for LNG powered vessels, than for example scrubbers or low sulphur?

Sulphur global cap takes place on 1 January 2020; CMA CGM have been looking for various options, and these options
are: One, using 0.5% low sulphur fuel which is available but is considerably more expensive than heavy fuel oil. Two is
scrubbers. Scrubbers are a relatively new technology as well, it has its merits and also its inconvenience. Then third, is
LNG, a new technology solution.

How important is it for CMA CGM as a company to be seen to taking a leadership position in terms of shipping, the
environment and climate change?

The decision was very much an environmental and economic one. CMA CGM is always at the forefront of
environmental protection.

One of the issues for LNG power on containerships is the loss of cargo space due to the size of the fuel tanks compared
to heavy fuel oil– how has CMA CGM been able to deal with this?

Technical experts have worked on this and minimized the loss of space so on a 22,000 TEU vessel; we are looking at
around 200 TEU reductions so it's 1% in capacity. Clearly, every TEU counts but 1% of capacity was not a major factor in
the decision.

CMA CGM is the first company to order LNG fueled ultra-large containerships how does the company balance game-
changing first user advantage against the potential pitfalls of being the first to use a new system?

The LNG technology already exists and there around 100 ships that are using it and probably another 100 that are being
built as we speak. So the technology is existing and proven but not yet for 22,000 TEU vessels – nine of them and coming
pretty soon with the first one delivered in January 2020. But there is the availability of the product [LNG], the availability
of the infrastructure in ports, so the message we are trying to pass today is now it’s going to be large scale….we need it
in Singapore, we need it in Rotterdam, in China and in the US.

Will CMA CGM order more LNG powered vessels of different sizes in the future?

CMA CGM is convinced we are making the right move investing in the environment, LNG has no sulphur, there is no PM
[particulate matter], there is an 85% reduction in NOx, it goes in the right direction to have more environmentally friendly
shipping.

Quantum: Environment-Friendly Container Ship

Quantum, the next-generation container ship conceptualized by Det Norske Veritas (DNV, will reduce the operating
expenditure, capital expenditure and fuel cost by 14%. It is also expected to reduce \text{CO}_2 emissions by 35%.
The design length of the ship is 272.3m. For providing good stability, beam length at the water line is kept at 42.5m and
beam at the deck level is 49m. A longer beam will reduce or eliminate the need for ballast. In order to carry more
containers without increasing fuel consumption, the deck will be made wider.
The ship’s total container capacity will be 6,210 20ft equivalent units (TEU). The speed of the ship is expected to be 21
knots. It is designed with a high reefer and shallow draft capacity.
The hull of the ship has been designed to mainly suit small ports, which have fixed draught allowances. Composite
materials, including fibre-reinforced plastics (FRP), will be used to build a wave breaker and large wind deflector. The
use of FRP will reduce the ship’s weight by 1,100t, and will also improve its aero-and-hydrodynamic performance.
Energy efficiency will be achieved with the ship’s design of a low-block coefficient and slender monohull with high fuel
efficiency. Faster unloading of container ships will be achieved by adopting the ‘boxes-in-box’ technique. Through this
technique, eight 20ft or four 40ft containers may be boxed together.
The environmentally friendly and fuel-efficient Quantum ship will have an electric propulsion system. Four marine diesel
oil (MDO) and liquefied natural gas (LNG) fueled dual-fuel generator sets will be used to supply power to the propulsion
system. Two electrical-driven Azimuth pods will be used to allow propulsion.

In order to attain the design speed of 21 knots, the ship will be furnished with 33 MW of engine power, achieved through
large four-stroke dual-fuel engines, L6 + 3xL9. The ship will be fitted with two engine rooms, P and S, helping it to attain
full redundancy.
With a dual-fuel engine, owners and operators will have the option to use the most suitable fuel. The dual-fuel engine
can be switched from one fuel to another fuel.
MDO will be used while cruising in Atlantic waters, and LNG has been prescribed for coastal waters. The ship will have
an LNG fuel capacity of 5,000m3 and an MDO capacity of 3,000m3.
When cruising at slower speeds, only three generator sets will be used. Shutting down one engine will allow the running
engines to optimize operation and fuel consumption.
The ship will be installed with two rotating pods to achieve manoeuvrability. These pods will suffice the requirement of
stern thrusters and rudders.

Quantum 9000

the image shows the DNV Quantum 9000 cutaway showing the location of LNG tank (midships) and HFO tank beside
engine room (aft). Further, DNV announced the new Quantum 9000 concept container ship. Considerably larger than
Quantum, the new 9000 model has a design speed of 22 knots and target capacity of 9,000 TEU yet will be able to use
the post-2014 Panama Canal, opening up routes from East Asia to both the west and east coast ports in the USA.
Teaming with MAN Diesel & Turbo, the larger ship is powered by a single slow speed dual fuel HFO/LNG two-stroke
engine such as the 9S80ME-C9.2-GI rated at 40 MW at 78 rpm, driving a single four-bladed propeller. An Exhaust Gas
Recirculation (EGR) system on the engine reduces NOx emissions substantially and the addition of a Waste Heat
Recovery (WHR) system improves overall efficiency. Estimated time to refuel the 6,500 m3 LNG held in two C-type tanks
is eight hours: the HFO capacity is 4,000 tons.
The hull design uses a twin-island layout which gives an increase in cargo capacity by 10 - 13 per cent with better load
distribution: the propeller shaft is shorter and visibility from the bridge is improved. The increased beam eliminates the
need for ballast water for stability and allows a shorter ship with reduced bending moment.

Lesson Summary

 Logistics is all about using the right type of resources for the right results. Ships have undergone significant
specialization in the 20th century, with each type having unique features suited for the carriage of different
types of commerce.

 General cargo ships are the oldest type of cargo ships. The basic concept of these ships being the carriage of
all type of general cargoes together.

 General cargo ships carry various forms of cargo. The capacity of a cargo hold is expressed differently for
different types of cargo.

 Carriage of cargo must be in accordance with the stability criteria at all stages during the voyage.

 Stowage is an important aspect of cargo carriage. The principal factors considered for proper cargo stowage
are the safety of the ship and all on board, the safety of cargo and port rotation.

 During transit, avoid damage by protecting the cargo from exposure to seawater and weather, and also
damage caused by improper lashing. Certain cargoes require ventilation during shipment and certain cargoes
do not.

 Ventilation is basically of two types:

- Natural ventilation
- Mechanical or forced draught ventilation

 Container ships have been getting bigger since they began operating in liner services over 50 years ago
because the increased size produces increased operating efficiency and improved environmental
performance.