MODULE – 5

Gas Cycles
 Gas Cycles
1. Efficiency of air standard cycles - Carnot, Otto, Diesel cycles, P-V & T-S diagram,
calculation of efficiency;
2. Carnot vapour power cycle,
3. simple Rankine cycle, Analysis and performance of Rankine Cycle,
4. Ideal and practical regenerative Rankine cycles
5. Reheat and Regenerative Cycles,
6. Binary vapour cycle
7. Numericals.
10 Hours
 Gas power cycle
2 applications of thermodynamics
“ gas cycles” - working substance will be in gaseous phase throughout
the cycle.
“ vapour cycles” - working substance will be in liquid phase in one part
of the cyclic process and will be in vapour phase in some other part of
the cycle.
 Assumptions made in air standard cycle analysis
1. Air is the working fluid and behaves as a perfect gas.
2. Thermodynamic processes constituting cycle are reversible.
3. The expansion and compression are adiabatic process.
4. No chemical reaction takes place in cylinder.
5. Heat is supplied or rejected by source or sink.
6. Specific heats of working fluid do not change throughout the cycle.
 Air standard Carnot Cycle

QH
QH

QL
QL
The Carnot cycle is composed of four totally reversible processes:
1. isothermal heat addition,
2. isentropic expansion,
3. isothermal heat rejection
4. isentropic compression.
The Carnot cycle is the most efficient cycle that can be executed between a heat
source at temperature TH and a sink at temperature TL , and its thermal efficiency
is expressed as
The efficiency of the Carnot engine is given by,
𝑾𝒐𝒓𝒌 𝒐𝒖𝒕𝒑𝒖𝒕 𝑯𝒆𝒂𝒕 𝒊𝒏𝒑𝒖𝒕 − 𝑯𝒆𝒂𝒕 𝒐𝒖𝒕𝒑𝒖𝒕 𝟏𝑸𝟐 − 𝟑𝑸𝟒
𝜼𝒄𝒂𝒓𝒏𝒐𝒕 = = =
𝑯𝒆𝒂𝒕 𝒊𝒏𝒑𝒖𝒕 𝑯𝒆𝒂𝒕 𝒊𝒏𝒑𝒖𝒕 𝟏𝑸𝟐

𝑽𝟐 𝑽𝟐
𝟏𝑸𝟐 = 𝑯𝒆𝒂𝒕 𝒊𝒏𝒑𝒖𝒕 = 𝒎𝑹𝑻𝟏 𝒍𝒏 𝑽𝟏
= 𝒎𝑹𝑻𝑯 𝒍𝒏
𝑽𝟏
(𝑰𝒔𝒐𝒕𝒉𝒆𝒓𝒎𝒂𝒍 𝑷𝒓𝒐𝒄𝒆𝒔𝒔)

𝑽𝟑 𝑽𝟑
3𝑸𝟒 = 𝑯𝒆𝒂𝒕 𝒐𝒖𝒕𝒑𝒖𝒕 = 𝒎𝑹𝑻𝟑 𝒍𝒏 𝑽𝟒
= 𝒎𝑹𝑻𝑳 𝒍𝒏
𝑽𝟒
(𝑰𝒔𝒐𝒕𝒉𝒆𝒓𝒎𝒂𝒍 𝑷𝒓𝒐𝒄𝒆𝒔𝒔)
Otto cycle OR Constant volume cycle
Process 1–2: Gas is compressed isentropically.
Process 2–3: During this process heat is supplied from the heat reservoir at constant
volume.
Process 3–4: Gas expands isentropically to point 4.
Process 4–1: Heat is rejected to sink at constant volume.
The efficiency of the Otto cycle is given by,
𝑾𝒐𝒓𝒌 𝒐𝒖𝒕𝒑𝒖𝒕 𝑯𝒆𝒂𝒕 𝒊𝒏𝒑𝒖𝒕 − 𝑯𝒆𝒂𝒕 𝒐𝒖𝒕𝒑𝒖𝒕 𝟐𝑸𝟑 − 𝟒𝑸𝟏
𝜼𝒐𝒕𝒕𝒐 = = =
𝑯𝒆𝒂𝒕 𝒊𝒏𝒑𝒖𝒕 𝑯𝒆𝒂𝒕 𝒊𝒏𝒑𝒖𝒕 𝟐𝑸𝟑

𝟐𝑸𝟑 = 𝑯𝒆𝒂𝒕 𝒊𝒏𝒑𝒖𝒕 = 𝒎𝑪𝒗 𝑻𝟑 − 𝑻𝟐 (𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒕 𝒗𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒎𝒆 𝒑𝒓𝒐𝒄𝒆𝒔𝒔)

𝟒𝑸𝟏 = 𝑯𝒆𝒂𝒕 𝒐𝒖𝒕𝒑𝒖𝒕 = 𝒎𝑪𝒗 𝑻𝟒 − 𝑻𝟏 (𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒕 𝒗𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒎𝒆 𝒑𝒓𝒐𝒄𝒆𝒔𝒔)

Diesel cycle OR Constant pressure cycle
Process 1–2: Gas is compressed isentropically.
Process 2–3: During this process heat is supplied from the heat reservoir at constant
pressure.
Process 3–4: Gas expands isentropically to point 4.
Process 4–1: Heat is rejected to sink at constant volume.
The efficiency of the Diesel cycle is given by,
𝑾𝒐𝒓𝒌 𝒐𝒖𝒕𝒑𝒖𝒕 𝑯𝒆𝒂𝒕 𝒊𝒏𝒑𝒖𝒕 − 𝑯𝒆𝒂𝒕 𝒐𝒖𝒕𝒑𝒖𝒕 𝟐𝑸𝟑 − 𝟒𝑸𝟏
𝜼𝒅𝒊𝒆𝒔𝒆𝒍 = = =
𝑯𝒆𝒂𝒕 𝒊𝒏𝒑𝒖𝒕 𝑯𝒆𝒂𝒕 𝒊𝒏𝒑𝒖𝒕 𝟐𝑸𝟑

𝟐𝑸𝟑 = 𝑯𝒆𝒂𝒕 𝒊𝒏𝒑𝒖𝒕 = 𝒎𝑪𝒑 𝑻𝟑 − 𝑻𝟐 (𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒕 𝒑𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒔𝒖𝒓𝒆 𝒑𝒓𝒐𝒄𝒆𝒔𝒔)

𝟒𝑸𝟏 = 𝑯𝒆𝒂𝒕 𝒐𝒖𝒕𝒑𝒖𝒕 = 𝒎𝑪𝒗 𝑻𝟒 − 𝑻𝟏 (𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒕 𝒗𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒎𝒆 𝒑𝒓𝒐𝒄𝒆𝒔𝒔)

Carnot vapour power cycle
17
Vapour Power Cycles or Steam Power Cycle

Introduction:
• Vapour power cycles are external combustion systems in which the
working fluid (Water/steam) is alternatively vaporized and condensed.
• The vapour is generated in a steam boiler which then enters the steam
turbine, a condenser and a feed pump.
• The main objectives are to convert the energy present in the fuels into
mechanical energy and then to electrical energy.
• The fuel is burnt, hot flue gases are used to produce steam in the
steam generator. This steam so produced is expanded in a steam
turbine to do work.
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CARNOT VAPOR POWER CYCLE

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CARNOT VAPOR POWER CYCLE

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CARNOT VAPOR POWER CYCLE

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 CARNOT VAPOR POWER CYCLE

Process 4-1 : Reversible isothermal heat addition in the boiler.

Process 1-2 : Reversible adiabatic expansion in steam turbine.
Process 2-3 : Reversible isothermal heat rejection in the condenser.
Process 3-4 : Reversible adiabatic pumping in feed water pump.

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Where, T2 = Lowest temperature corresponding to the condenser pressure p3.
T1 = Highest temperature corresponding to the boiler pressure p1.

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Limitations of Carnot Vapour Cycle
Theoretically the Carnot vapour cycle is most efficient; the
following difficulties are associated with it during its
operation.
1. In process 4 to 1, it is difficult to operate the cycle with
superheated steam as heat should be added to the steam at
constant temperature, instead of constant pressure.
2. Steam condensation is not allowed to proceed to completion.
The condensation process has to be stopped at state point 3.
3. The working fluid at 3 is in both liquid and vapour state, it is
difficult to compress two phase mixture isentropically.
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Limitations of Carnot Vapour Cycle

4. The vapour has larger specific volume; hence to

accommodate greater volumes, the size of the
compressor becomes quite big.
5. For running a large sized compressor, more power is
required; this results in poor plant efficiency.
6. The steam at exhaust from the turbine is of low quality
i.e. high moisture content. The liquid water droplets
cause pitting and erosion of the turbine blades.

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CARNOT VAPOR POWER CYCLE

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• T-v diagram of a pure substance:

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CARNOT VAPOR POWER CYCLE

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Rankine Vapour Cycle

In Rankine Vapour cycle, impracticalities associated

with the Carnot cycle can be eliminated by superheating
the steam in the boiler and condensing it completely in
the condenser.

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Rankine Vapour Cycle

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Rankine Vapour Cycle

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 RANKINE VAPOR POWER CYCLE
• Process 4-1 : Constant-pressure heat addition in the boiler.
• Process 1-2 : Reversible adiabatic expansion in the turbine.
• Process 2-3 : Constant-pressure heat rejection in the condenser.
• Process 3-4 : Reversible adiabatic pumping in the feed pump.

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Efficiency of the Rankine cycle
𝑁𝑒𝑡 𝑤𝑜𝑟𝑘 𝑑𝑜𝑛𝑒 𝑊𝑇 −𝑊𝑃
𝞰= =
𝐻𝑒𝑎𝑡 𝑆𝑢𝑝𝑝𝑙𝑖𝑒𝑑 𝑄𝐻

ℎ1−ℎ2 −(ℎ4−ℎ3)
𝞰=
(ℎ1−ℎ4)

Generally the pump work is smaller than the turbine work and hence pump work
can be neglected.

ℎ1−ℎ2
𝞰 =
(ℎ1−ℎ4) 33
Mean Temperature of heat addition

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• In Rankine cycle heat is added at constant pressure.
• If Tm is the mean temperature of heat addition, so that the area
under 4 to 1 is equal to area under 5 to 6, then

• heat added,
QH = h1 – h4 = Tm(S6 – S5) = Tm(S1 – S4)
• Heat rejected,
QL =h2 – h3 = T2(S2 – S3) = T2(S1 – S4)
• Therefore efficiency,
QH−QL QL T2(S1 – S4)
𝞰= =1 − = 1-
QH QH Tm(S1 – S4)

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 T2
𝞰=1-
Tm

Where,
T2 = Temperature at which heat is rejected.
Tm = Mean temperature of heat addition.

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The Ideal reheat Rankine cycle:

Sketch the flow diagram and corresponding T-S

diagram of a reheat vapour cycle and derive an
expression for reheat cycle efficiency.
(7 marks)

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The ideal reheat Rankine cycle:

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The ideal reheat Rankine cycle:

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The ideal reheat Rankine cycle:
• In the ideal reheat Rankine cycle the expansion
process takes place in two or more stages.
• In the first stage (HP turbine), steam is expanded
isentropically to an intermediate pressure and
sent back to the boiler where it is reheated at
constant pressure, usually to the inlet temperature
of the first turbine.
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The ideal reheat Rankine cycle:
• Steam then expands isentropically in the second
stage (LP turbine) to the condenser pressure.
• Reheating increases heat supplied and work
output.
• The efficiency does not improve.
• The quality of steam at turbine exit improves,
reducing the turbine blade corrosion.
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43
44
Ideal Regenerative cycle:

With the help of a schematic diagram and T-S

diagram, explain the working of a regenerative
vapour power cycle and derive an expression for its
overall efficiency.
(10 marks)

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Ideal Regenerative cycle:

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Ideal Regenerative cycle:
Regenerative cycle is a modified form of Rankine cycle in
which it is devised to increase mean temperature of heat
addition so that cycle gets close to Carnot cycle in which all
heat addition occurs at highest possible temperature.

In ideal regenerative cycle, the feed water is heated up so as to

reduce the heat addition in boiler and heat addition occur at
hotter feed water temperature.

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Ideal Regenerative cycle:

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In ideal regenerative cycle, the condensate after leaving
the pump, circulates around the turbine casing,
counter flow to the direction of vapour flow in the
turbine. Thus it is possible to transfer heat from the
vapour as it flows through the turbine, to the liquid
flowing around the turbine.

Therefore all the heat added from an external source

(QH), is at constant temperature T1, and all the heat
rejected (QL) is at constant temperature T2, both being
reversible.
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Then,
QH = h1 – h4’ = T1(S1 – S4’)
QL = h2’ – h3 = T2(S2’ – S3)
Efficiency is given by,
QH−QL QL T2(S2′ – S3)
𝞰= =1 − = 1-
QH QH T1(S1 – S4′)
But S4’ - S3 = S1 – S2’
Or S1 – S4’ = S2’ – S3
T2
𝞰 = 1-
T1

The efficiency of ideal regenerative cycle is equal to

Carnot cycle efficiency.
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Impracticability of Ideal Regenerative cycle:

1. The reversible heat transfer cannot be possible in finite time.

2. Heat exchanger in the turbine is mechanically impracticable.
3. The moisture content of the steam in the turbine will be high.

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Practical Regenerative cycle:

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56
Practical Regenerative cycle:

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Practical Regenerative cycle:

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• In the practical regenerative cycle, the feed water is heated by
steam extracted from intermediate stages of the turbine.

• For every kg of steam entering the turbine, let m1 kg steam be

extracted from an intermediate stage of the turbine where the
pressure is P2, and it is used to heat up feedwater (1 —m1) kg
at state 8 by mixing in heater 1. The remaining (1 — m1) kg of
steam then expands in the turbine from pressure P2 (state 2) to
pressure P3 (state 3) and m2 kg of steam is extracted for heating
feedwater in heater 2.
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• So (1 – m1 — m2) kg of steam then expands in the last stage of
the turbine to pressure P4 and gets condensed into water in the
condenser.
• This water is then pumped to heater 2, where it mixes with m2
kg of steam extracted at pressure P3.
• Then (1 — m1) kg of water is pumped to heater 1 where it
mixes with m1 kg of steam extracted at pressure P2.
• The resulting 1 kg of steam is then pumped to the boiler where
heat from an external source is supplied.

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• Heaters 1 and 2 thus operate at pressures P2 and P3
respectively.
• The amounts of steam m1 and m2 extracted from the
turbine are such that at the exit from each of the
heaters, the state is saturated liquid at the respective
pressures.

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62
Therefore efficiency,
QH−QL QL
𝞰= =1 −
QH QH

Wnet WT − WP
𝞰= =
QH QH

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Reheat Regenerative cycle

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 Reheat Regenerative cycle:
• The reheating of steam is adopted when the vaporization
pressure is high.
• The effect of reheat alone on the thermal efficiency of the cycle
is very small.
• The thermal efficiency can be increased by Regeneration.
• A modem steam power plant is equipped with Reheating and
Regeneration.

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Reheat Regenerative cycle:

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67
68
Therefore efficiency,
QH−QL QL
𝞰= =1 −
QH QH

Wnet WT − WP
𝞰= =
QH QH

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70
BINARY VAPOUR CYCLE

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• In binary vapour cycle, two vapour cycles operating on two
different working fluids are used.
• Mercury is used for high pressure region and Steam is used for
low pressure region.

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• In Binary Vapour cycle, mercury vapour are generated in mercury
boiler and sent for expansion in mercury turbine and expanded
fluid leaves turbine and enters into condenser.
• From condenser the mercury condensate is pumped back into
the mercury boiler.
• In mercury condenser the water is used for extracting heat from
mercury so as to condense it.
• The amount of heat liberated during condensation of mercury is
used to evaporate the water entering mercury condenser.
• Thus, mercury condenser also acts as steam boiler. For
superheating of steam an auxiliary boiler may be employed or
superheating may be realized in the mercury boiler itself.
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Comparison between Rankine and Carnot cycle:

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Comparison between Rankine and Carnot cycle:
a)For the same maximum and minimum temperatures Rankine
cycle has lower efficiency than that of the Carnot cycle.
b) For the same maximum and minimum temperatures Rankine
cycle has the higher specific output than that of the Carnot
cycle.
c) Compression of wet vapor is difficult and involves large pump
work in case of Carnot cycle when compared to the pumping
work of feed water to the boiler in case of a Rankine cycle.

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Analysis and performance of Rankine Cycle:
Effects of pressure and temperature on
Rankine cycle performance

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Effects of pressure and temperature on Rankine cycle
performance:
1) Lowering the condenser pressure increases the thermal efficiency of the cycle:

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Maintaining the same turbine inlet state, the condenser
pressure is lowered from P2 to P2’ . Hence net work output
can be increased.
The heat input requirements also increase (under curve 4-
4’), but this increase is very small.
Thus the overall effect of lowering the condenser pressure
is an increase in the thermal efficiency of the cycle.
However the lowest pressure of condenser under ideal
conditions is limited to the saturation temperature of the
cooling water or air (cooling medium).
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2) Superheating the Steam to High temperatures
increases thermal efficiency of the cycle:

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The total area under the curve 1-1’ represents the
increase in the heat input.
Thus the net work and heat input increase as a result
of superheating the steam to a higher temperature.
The overall effect is increase in thermal efficiency.
Superheating the steam to higher temperatures
decreases the moisture content of the steam at the
turbine exit.
The temperature to which steam can be superheated is
limited by metallurgical considerations.
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3) Increasing the boiler pressure and temperature
increases the efficiency of the cycle:

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The increase in the operating pressure of the boiler automatically
raises the temperature at which the boiling takes place. This in turn,
raises the average temperature at which heat is transferred to the
steam and raises the thermal efficiency of the cycle.
But for a fixed turbine inlet temperature, the cycle shifts to the left
and the moisture content of steam at the turbine exit increases.
High moisture content results in erosion of blade surfaces, affecting
their life.
This undesirable side effect can be corrected by reheating the
steam.
Efficiency increases with boiler pressure and reaches maximum
value when the pressure is about 160bar.
Further increase in boiler pressure results in a fall in efficiency.
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1. The minimum pressure and temperature of the air standard Carnot
cycle are 1 bar and 15oC respectively. The pressure after isothermal
compression is 3.5 bar and the pressure after isentropic compression
is 10.5 bar. Determine i) Efficiency ii) Mean effective pressure and
the Power developed if the Carnot engine makes 2 cycles/s. Take for
air R=0.287kJ/kgK and γ=1.4 (May June 2010)
Min. Pressure = P2=1 bar
Min. Temperature=T2=15oC=288K=T3
Pressure after isothermal compression
= P3=3.5 bar
Pressure after isentropic compression
= P4=10.5bar
2cycles per sec
R=0.287kJ/kgK
𝞤=1.4
Find: efficiency, Mean Effective
Pressure, Power
2. A 40MW steam power plant working on Rankine cycle operates
between boiler pressure of 4 MPa and condenser pressure of 10kPa.
The steam leaves the boiler and enters the steam turbine at 400oC. The
isentropic efficiency of the steam turbine is 85%. Determine (i) the
cycle efficiency (ii) the quality of steam from the turbine and (iii) the
steam flow rate in kg per hour. Consider pump work. (jan/Feb 2006)
3. A petrol engine works on Otto cycle under ideal conditions. The
initial pressure before the beginning of compression is 101kPa at
340K. The pressure at the end of heat addition process is 3.5Mpa.
As per the details furnished by the manufacturer, engine has stroke
length twice the bore. Engine bore is 300mm and clearance
volume 4x10-3mb. Determine: i) compression ratio ii) The air
standard efficiency (Dec 09- Jan10).
4. Steam enters the turbine of a steam power plant, operating on
Rankin cycle, at 10 bar, 300o C. The condenser pressure is 0.1 bar.
Steam leaving the turbine is 90% dry. Calculate the adiabatic
efficiency of the turbine and also the cycle efficiency, neglecting
pump work.(July/Aug 2004)