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Physics Module for Chemical Engineers

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Physics Module for Chemical Engineers

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jael83848

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MODULE IN

PHYSICS for ENGINEERS (LECTURE)

ENGGPHYS

CHEMICAL ENGINEERING Department

SCHOOL of ENGINEERING and ARCHITECTURE
Property of and for the exclusive use of SLU. Reproduction, storing in a retrieval system, distributing, uploading or posting online, or transmitting in any form or by any
means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise of any part of this document, without the prior written permission of SLU, is strictly prohibited.
Property of and for the exclusive use of SLU. Reproduction, storing in a retrieval system, distributing, uploading or posting online, or transmitting in any form or by any means, 1
electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise of any part of this document, without the prior written permission of SLU, is strictly prohibited.
-ENGR. MYLENE M. OCASION-
ENGG PHYS
COURSE LEARNING OUTCOMES
1. Demonstrate knowledge of physics
concepts and principles by
describing everyday phenomena
and analyze problems on vectors,
one- and two-dimensional motion
and Newton’s laws.
2. Demonstrate knowledge of physics
concepts and principles by
describing everyday phenomena
and analyze problems on work,
energy, and power, impulse and
momentum and dynamics of
rotation.
3. Demonstrate knowledge of physics
concepts and principles by
describing everyday phenomena
and analyze problems on simple
harmonic motion, fluids at rest, heat
transfer, mechanical waves,
PHYSICS FOR ENGINEERS electricity, magnetism, and optics.
4. Demonstrate ability to use
(CALCULUS – BASED LECTURE)
mathematical tools, including
calculus in solving problems
involving physics concepts and
principles.

COURSE OVERVIEW

Dear Future Chemical Engineers,

In this course, you will learn about physics as a core component of engineering
analysis and computations. This course will enable you to understand and solve problems
applied to engineering principles by applying calculus and basic mathematics.

Your academic experience as Chemical Engineering student will be utilized in this

course. To ensure that you will demonstrate the above cited course learning outcomes at
the end of the semester, this module is divided into the following:

MODULE 1: VECTORS – This aims to give you an overview of vector quantities. It will enable
you to differentiate scalar quantities to vector quantities. It will enable you to perform
mathematical operations (addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division) of vectors 1.)
graphically and 2.) analytically to solve corresponding application problems.

MODULE 2: KINEMATICS – This aims to give you an overview on motion along a straight
line and in two dimensions. It will enable you to Describe rectilinear motion using graphs,
diagrams, equations; and, in terms of distance/displacement, average/instantaneous
speed, velocity, and acceleration. This module will help you solve problems on rectilinear
motion with constant acceleration and free fall as well as two-dimensional motion in general
and particularly projectile motion.

MODULE 3: DYNAMICS – This aims to give you an overview on forces and Newton’s Laws of
Motion. It will enable you to apply Newton’s Laws of Motion to analyze and solve problems
involving a body in equilibrium or a body in acceleration.

MODULE 4: WORK, ENERGY AND POWER – This aims to give you an overview on the concept
of work, energy and power and work – energy relation. It will enable you to Solve problems
on work done by a constant or by a varying force, as well as problems in mechanics,
applying the concepts of gravitational potential energy, kinetic energy, work-energy
theorem, and mechanical power.

MODULE 6: ROTATING BODIES – This aims to give you an overview on the basic concepts of
rotational motion particularly angular displacement, angular velocity and angular
acceleration, dynamics of rotation particularly torque and the rotation of rigid bodies and
elasticity particularly Hooke’s law and Young’s modulus of elasticity. This will enable you to
Solve problems on rotational motion, dynamics of rotation, and elasticity.

MODULE 7: OSCILLATIONS – This aims to give you an overview on simple harmonic motion
and simple pendulum, spring-mass systems. It will enable you to Solve problems on SHM
involving horizontal spring system, vertical spring system, and simple pendulum.

MODULE 8: WAVES– This aims to give you an overview on the properties of waves and the
types mechanical of waves. It will give you an idea on the mathematical representation of
waves and the modes of vibration. It will enable you to Solve problems on the mathematical
representation of a wave and problems related to the modes of mechanical waves.

MODULE 9: FLUIDS AT REST – This aims to give you an overview on the basic concepts of fluids
at rest. This module will also enable you to Solve problems on the application of Archimedes’
Principle.

MODULE 10: HEAT TRANSFER – This aims to give you an overview on the basic concepts of
heat energy and heat transfer and to solve problems on heat transfer.

MODULE 11: ELECTROSTATICS– This aims to give you an overview on the basic concepts of
electrostatics and methods of charging. This module will also include discussions on electric
force and charging. It will enable you to solve problems involving the different methods of
charging and electric force.

MODULE 12: ELECTRICITY – This aims to give you an overview on Electricity specifically current,
voltage and resistance. This module will also include laws on electricity such as Ohm’s Law.
This module also includes series and parallel circuits. It will enable you to Solve basic problems
involving current, resistance, and voltage in circuits that contain DC sources and resistors in
series and/or parallel.

MODULE 13: MAGNETISM – This aims to give you an overview on the basic concepts of
magnetism specifically magnetic field, magnetic field intensity and magnetic flux. It will

MODULE 14: OPTICS – This module will give you an overview of the basic concepts on the
nature and properties of light. It will enable you to solve problems involving the nature of
light, refraction, and reflection.

Sincerely,

Engr. Mylene M. Ocasion

Course Facilitator

Contents
COURSE OVERVIEW ....................................................................................................................................... 3
TABLE OF CONTENTS ..................................................................................................................................... 6
MODULE 1: VECTORS .................................................................................................................................. 10
ENGAGE .................................................................................................................................................... 10
EXPLORE .................................................................................................................................................... 10
EXPLAIN...................................................................................................................................................... 10
ELABORATE ............................................................................................................................................... 19
EVALUATE ................................................................................................................................................ 267
MODULE 2: KINEMATICS ............................................................................................................................. 28
MODULE 2 UNIT 1: MOTION ON A STRAIGHT LINE ................................................................................ 28
ENGAGE .................................................................................................................................................... 28
EXPLORE .................................................................................................................................................... 28
EXPLAIN...................................................................................................................................................... 28
ELABORATE ............................................................................................................................................... 32
EVALUATE .................................................................................................................................................. 37
KINEMATICS UNIT 2: MOTION IN TWO DIMENSIONS ............................................................................ 38
ENGAGE .................................................................................................................................................... 38
EXPLORE .................................................................................................................................................... 38
EXPLAIN...................................................................................................................................................... 38
ELABORATE ............................................................................................................................................... 41
EVALUATE .................................................................................................................................................. 43
MODULE 3: DYNAMICS ............................................................................................................................... 45
ENGAGE .................................................................................................................................................... 45
EXPLORE .................................................................................................................................................... 45
EXPLAIN...................................................................................................................................................... 45
ELABORATE ............................................................................................................................................... 50
EVALUATE .................................................................................................................................................. 55
MODULE 4: WORK, ENERGY and POWER ................................................................................................ 57
ENGAGE .................................................................................................................................................... 57
EXPLORE .................................................................................................................................................... 57

Property of and for the exclusive use of SLU. Reproduction, storing in a retrieval system, distributing, uploading or posting online, or transmitting in any form or by any means, 6
electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise of any part of this document, without the prior written permission of SLU, is strictly prohibited.
-ENGR. MYLENE M. OCASION-
EXPLAIN...................................................................................................................................................... 57
ELABORATE ............................................................................................................................................... 62
EVALUATE .................................................................................................................................................. 71
MODULE 5: IMPULSE AND MOMENTUM................................................................................................... 73
ENGAGE .................................................................................................................................................... 73
EXPLORE .................................................................................................................................................... 73
EXPLAIN...................................................................................................................................................... 73
ELABORATE ............................................................................................................................................... 76
EVALUATE .................................................................................................................................................. 79
MODULE 6: ROTATING BODIES .................................................................................................................. 80
MODULE 6 UNIT 1: ROTATIONAL MOTION .............................................................................................. 80
ENGAGE .................................................................................................................................................... 80
EXPLORE .................................................................................................................................................... 80
EXPLAIN...................................................................................................................................................... 80
ELABORATE ............................................................................................................................................... 84
EVALUATE .................................................................................................................................................. 88
MODULE 6 UNIT 2: DYNAMICS OF ROTATION ........................................................................................ 89
ENGAGE .................................................................................................................................................... 89
EXPLORE .................................................................................................................................................... 89
EXPLAIN...................................................................................................................................................... 89
ELABORATE ............................................................................................................................................... 92
EVALUATE .................................................................................................................................................. 94
MODULE 6 UNIT 3: ELASTICITY ................................................................................................................... 97
ENGAGE .................................................................................................................................................... 97
EXPLORE .................................................................................................................................................... 97
EXPLAIN...................................................................................................................................................... 97
ELABORATE ............................................................................................................................................. 100
EVALUATE ................................................................................................................................................ 101
MODULE 7: OSCILLATIONS ....................................................................................................................... 102
ENGAGE .................................................................................................................................................. 102
EXPLORE .................................................................................................................................................. 102
EXPLAIN.................................................................................................................................................... 102

Property of and for the exclusive use of SLU. Reproduction, storing in a retrieval system, distributing, uploading or posting online, or transmitting in any form or by any means, 7
electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise of any part of this document, without the prior written permission of SLU, is strictly prohibited.
-ENGR. MYLENE M. OCASION-
ELABORATE ............................................................................................................................................. 105
EVALUATE ................................................................................................................................................ 108
MODULE 8: WAVES .................................................................................................................................... 109
ENGAGE .................................................................................................................................................. 109
EXPLORE .................................................................................................................................................. 109
EXPLAIN.................................................................................................................................................... 109
ELABORATE ............................................................................................................................................. 115
EVALUATE ................................................................................................................................................ 119
MODULE 9: FLUIDS AT REST ....................................................................................................................... 121
ENGAGE .................................................................................................................................................. 121
EXPLORE .................................................................................................................................................. 121
EXPLAIN.................................................................................................................................................... 121
ELABORATE ............................................................................................................................................. 123
EVALUATE ................................................................................................................................................ 126
MODULE 10: HEAT TRANSFER ................................................................................................................... 127
ENGAGE .................................................................................................................................................. 127
EXPLORE .................................................................................................................................................. 127
EXPLAIN.................................................................................................................................................... 127
ELABORATE ............................................................................................................................................. 130
EVALUATE ................................................................................................................................................ 133
MODULE 11: ELECTROSTATICS ................................................................................................................. 134
ENGAGE .................................................................................................................................................. 134
EXPLORE .................................................................................................................................................. 134
EXPLAIN.................................................................................................................................................... 134
ELABORATE ............................................................................................................................................. 138
EVALUATE ................................................................................................................................................ 143
MODULE 12: ELECTRICITY ......................................................................................................................... 145
ENGAGE .................................................................................................................................................. 145
EXPLORE .................................................................................................................................................. 145
EXPLAIN.................................................................................................................................................... 145
ELABORATE ............................................................................................................................................. 151
EVALUATE ................................................................................................................................................ 156

ENGAGE
Where can you apply physical quantities in your daily activities?

What is the difference between scalar and vector quantities?

Which method is more accurate in solving vector sums (graphical or analytical method?)

What is the difference between DOT and CROSS products?

EXPLORE
Read Module 1: Introduction and Vectors (pp 10 – 18)
EXPLAIN

PHYSICS
 Physics is the most fundamental science
- basis or the foundation of other physical sciences like chemistry, geology, and
astronomy
- most principles or laws of the other sciences are based on the principles of physics
 Physics is the study of the basic laws of nature
- basic concepts and laws of physics govern most of the things that happen around
us
 Physics is an experimental science
- physics is a science of measurement

Physics and its importance in the field of engineering:

Basically, physics is involved with the study of energy and its different forms. It
therefore serves as a foundation to engineering which is primarily involved with the design,
construction and operation of devices, machines, structures, and systems which in various
ways utilize these different forms of energy.

Basic Concepts of Physics:

1. matter – anything that occupies space and has weight
- it possesses inertia
- it is subject to gravity
2. mass – the amount or quantity of matter in a body
3. motion – the displacement of a body with reference to another body
4. force – that which is capable of changing the condition of rest or motion of a certain
body

BRANCHES OF PHYSICS
1. Classical physics
- Branch of physics that deals with objects moving less than the speed of light
- All branches established before 1900’s
Sub-branches: (some)
o Mechanics – oldest branch of physics; deals with the behaviour of objects
subjected to forces and/or motion
 Statics – study of matter at rest, and forces in equilibrium
 Dynamics – deals with forces and their relation to motion
o Acoustics – deals with the behaviour and properties of sound waves
o Thermodynamics – deals with the relation of heat and other forms of energy
2. Modern physics
- Branch of physics that deals with objects at Extreme events
Sub-branches: (some)
o Nuclear physics – physics of atomic nuclei and their interactions
o Theory of relativity
o Quantum physics – describes nature at smallest scale of energy of atoms and
subatomic particles

Physical Quantities:
The study of Physics involves dealing with a lot of physical quantities. These physical
quantities are used to define all physical characteristics of matter such as length, mass and
time. In Mechanics, we have the basic quantities and all others are considered as derived
quantities because they are obtained or defined by simple relations between the basic
ones.

Table 1.2 Derived Quantities

Derived Quantities Combination of two or more basic quantities
area Length length
acceleration Length time
Force Mass acceleration
pressure Force area

In the proper expression of physical quantities, it should have magnitude. There should
at least be a number (to indicate how large or how small the quantity is) and the unit (to
indicate the nature and type of the quantity).

SCALAR AND VECTOR QUANTITY:

Many physical quantities have magnitudes only but no directions. These are called
scalar quantity. Examples are mass, time, density, temperature, etc. There are, however,
many physical quantities such as force, velocity, displacement, etc. which have directions
as well as magnitude and these aspects always have to be indicated when expressing these
quantities. They are called vectors.

In physical computations and analyses, we have to be aware of the difference

between vectors and scalars because the mathematical treatments are not the same. For
example, we add scalars arithmetically, but we cannot do the same to vectors. Special
methods are used.

BASIC CONCEPTS ABOUT VECTORS

A. Vector notation
 Vectors are typically represented by a CAPITAL BOLD LETTER or drawing an ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
ARROW
above the symbol. The arrow is used to convey direction and magnitude.
F or F
⃗ = a vector of magnitude|F ⃗ |or F and in a certain direction
⃗ = 30N due south
F
Direction
Magnitude

C. Specifying directions of vectors – There are two common methods being used:
Method 1: Using the angle Ɵ that the vector makes with the “zero-degree reference
line”.
Ex: A = 10 m 40o
A
B = 10 m 140o B
o
140
40o

Method 2: Using geographic directions. N

Ex. C = 30 km 500 N of E C
D = 10 km 60o W of S F
F = 20 km N 40o W 40o
50o
W E
60o
D

S
OTHER CONCEPTS ON VECTORS:
o COLLINEAR – parallel vectors which lie on the same straight line irrespective of their
magnitudes and direction
o COPLANAR – vectors acting in the same plane, eg. two vectors parallel to the x-y
plane or any plane
o CONCURRENT – vectors which passes through the same point

Collinear Coplanar Concurrent

Vector addition is the process of combining two or more vectors into one. The
combination is called the RESULTANT of the vectors. Subtraction is just like addition. In vector
subtraction, the negative of one vector is added to the other. For example, if two vectors A
and B are to be added, the operation is indicated as A + B. However, if vector B is to be
subtracted from vector A, the operation is indicated as A – B which is the same as A + (-B).
The negative of vector B is added to vector A. The negative of a vector is a vector of the
same magnitude but in the opposite direction. For example, if vector A = 50 units 30oN of W,
its negative or –A = 50 units 30oS of E.

METHODS OF DETERMINING RESULTANT:

1. Algebraic Method (for co-linear vectors only).

o Resultant vector, R= algebraic sum of the vectors
o 𝐑 = ⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐕𝟏 + ⃗⃗⃗⃗ ⃗⃗⃗⃗𝐧 = 𝚺 𝐯𝐞𝐜𝐭𝐨𝐫𝐬
𝐕𝟐 +. . . +𝐕

2. Parallelogram Method
o Applied if only 2 vectors are given
o 2 vectors are joined tail to tail, forming a parallelogram (such for the name of the
method)
o a diagonal represents either the resultant or the equilibrant (depending on its
direction)

 STEPS:
1. Draw vectors on same point of origin (use a scale)
2. Form a parallelogram, identify parallels with (‘) A’
3. Connect the origin to the intersection of the B
parallel lines
R
4. The line formed from the origin to the intersection
represents the RESULTANT of the vectors
B’
5. The line formed from the intersection to the origin
A
represents the EQUILIBRANT
6. Measure the length (magnitude), and the angle
for the direction

** EQUILIBRANT – vector which when added to a set of vectors will result to zero, thus resulting
to an equilibrium or balance, it is exactly equal to the magnitude of the resultant but directly
opposite in direction

θ
a

5.b If the triangle formed is not a right triangle, solve R using sine and cosine law.

Cosine Law:
c 2 = a2 + b2 − 2abcos(C)
Sine Law:
a b c
= =
sin(A) sin(B) sin(C)

4. The Polygon Method (graphical method) – Tip to tail method

- suggested to be used for two or more vectors which are non-collinear but coplanar
The goal is to draw a mini version of the vectors to give an accurate picture of the
magnitude and direction.

Steps:
1. Pick appropriate scale.
2. Using ruler and protractor, draw the first
vector to scale in appropriate direction.
3. Draw the second vector starting from the
head of the first vector.
4. All vectors must be connected in head-to-tail
fashion.
5. To determine the resultant vector, connect the tail of the first vector to the head of
the last vector drawn.
6. Measure the magnitude of R with a ruler and convert this length to its actual amount
and unit.
7. Measure the direction of R with a protractor and add this value along with the
direction after the magnitude.

Steps:
1. Resolve the vectors into their x- and y-components.
y – component When the angle  is measured from the horizontal
x component = A cos θ
A y component = A sin θ

 When the angle  is measured from the vertical

 x component = A sin 
x – component y component = A cos 

2. Add the x- and y-components of each vector to determine the components Rx

and Ry of the resultant vector, R.

3. To get the magnitude R of the resultant, use the Pythagorean theorem:

R = √R x 2 + R y 2
4. To get the direction of the resultant:
Angles: Direction
Ry N of E or Nof W or
measured from the horizontal θ = tan−1 θ Y of X
Rx S of E or S of W
Rx W of N or E of N or
measured from the vertical ϕ = tan−1 ϕ X of Y
Ry W of S or E fo S

UNIT VECTORS
– is a vector having a magnitude of unity with no units. Its purpose is to describe a direction
in space. y

+j
Let i = unit vector pointing in the + x-axis
j = unit vector pointing in the + y-axis x
k = unit vector pointing in the + z-axis
+k +i

z
i.e.
Vector Ax = Axi B x = Bx i
In terms of its components A = Axi + Ayj B = Bx i + B y j

If vectors do not lie in the x-y plane, then a third component is needed.
Then: 𝐀 = 𝐀 𝐱 𝐢 + 𝐀 𝐲 𝐣 + 𝐀𝐳 𝐤
𝐁 = 𝐁 𝐱 𝐢 + 𝐁 𝐲 𝐣 + 𝐁𝐳 𝐤
𝐂 =𝐀+𝐁
𝐂 = (𝐀 𝐱 𝐢 + 𝐀 𝐲 𝐣 + 𝐀 𝐳 𝐤) + (𝐁𝐱 𝐢 + 𝐁𝐲 𝐣 + 𝐁𝐳 𝐤)
𝐂 = (𝐀 𝐱 + 𝐁𝐱 )𝐢 + (𝐀 𝐲 + 𝐁𝐲 )𝐣 + (𝐀 𝐳 + 𝐁𝐳 )𝐤
𝐂 = 𝐂𝐱 𝐢 + 𝐂𝐲 𝐣 + 𝐂𝐳 𝐤

PRODUCTS OF VECTORS:
Since vectors are not ordinary numbers, ordinary multiplication is not directly
applicable to vectors.
a) SCALAR PRODUCT – is also called dot product. It is a scalar quantity and it may be
positive or negative.
If 𝟎° ≤ 𝛟 < 𝟗𝟎°, then A ∙ B is 𝐩𝐨𝐬𝐢𝐭𝐢𝐯𝐞
𝟗𝟎° < 𝛟 ≤ 𝟏𝟖𝟎°, then A ∙ B is 𝐧𝐞𝐠𝐚𝐭𝐢𝐯𝐞
B
𝐀. 𝐁 = 𝐀𝐁 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝛟 𝛟 = 𝟗𝟎° then A ∙ B = 𝟎
(Scalar product of two perpendicular
ϕ vectors is always zero)
A
Using unit vector representation:
`
𝐀 ∙ 𝐁 = (𝐀 𝐱 𝐢 + 𝐀 𝐲 𝐣 + 𝐀 𝐳 𝐤) ∙ (𝐁𝐱 𝐢 + 𝐁𝐲 𝐣 + 𝐁𝐳 𝐤)

𝐀 ∙ 𝐁 = (𝐀 𝐱 𝐢 ∙ 𝐁𝐱 𝐢) + (𝐀 𝐱 𝐢 ∙ 𝐁𝐲 𝐣) + (𝐀 𝐱 𝐢 ∙ 𝐁𝐳 𝐤) + (𝐀 𝐲 𝐣 ∙ 𝐁𝐱 𝐢) + (𝐀 𝐲 𝐣 ∙ 𝐁𝐲 𝐣) + (𝐀 𝐲 𝐣 ∙ 𝐁𝐳 𝐤)
+ (𝐀 𝐳 𝐤 ∙ 𝐁𝐱 𝐢) + (𝐀 𝐳 𝐤 ∙ 𝐁𝐲 𝐣) + (𝐀 𝐳 𝐤 ∙ 𝐁𝐳 𝐤)

If vectors are parallel to each other, ϕ = 0o; cos 0o = 1

If vectors are perpendicular to each other, ϕ = 90o; cos 90o = 0
i∙i =1 i∙j = 0
j∙j=1 i∙k= 0 𝐀 ∙ 𝐁 = 𝐀 𝐱 ∙ 𝐁 𝐱 + 𝐀 𝐲 ∙ 𝐁 𝐲 + 𝐀 𝐳 ∙ 𝐁𝐳
k∙k=1 j∙k=0

|𝐀 × B| = |A||B| sin θ
BXA A
=-AxB
Using unit vector representation:
𝐀 × 𝐁 = (Ax i + Ay j + Az k) × (Bx i + By j + Bz k)
0
𝐀 × 𝐁 = (Ax i × Bx i)0 + (Ax i × By j)k + (Ax i × Bz k)j + (Ay j × Bx i)k + (Ay j × By j) + (Ay j × Bz k)i
+ (Az k × Bx i)j + (Az k × By j)i + (Az k × Bz k)0

i×i= 0 i×j =k j × i = −k
j×j=0 k×i=j i × k = −j i
k×k=0 j×k= i k × j = −i

𝐀 × 𝐁 = (Ax By ) × k − (Ax Bz ) × j − (Ay Bx ) × k + (Ay Bz ) × i + (Az Bx ) × j − (Az By ) × i

𝐀 × 𝐁 = (Ay Bz − Az By ) × i + (Az Bx − Ax Bz ) × j + (Ax By − Ay Bx ) × k

Another method on how to solve cross product is by using the method of determinants.

i j k i j
+
𝐀×𝐁 Ax Ay Az Ax Ay

Bx - By Bz Bx By

𝐀 × 𝐁 = A y Bz i + A z Bx j + A x By k − Bx A y k − By A z i − Bz A x j
𝐀 × 𝐁 = (Ay Bz − By Az ) × i + (Az Bx − Bz Ax ) × j + (Ax By − Bx Ay ) × k  same as the above
equation

60°
30°
S
W
S

75o E of S = S 75o E = E 15o S 60o W of N = W 30o N = N 60o W From E (0°) = 270°

From E (0°) = 345° From E (0°) = 150°

Algebraic Method:

1. For the given vectors: A = 50 km due east, B = 20 km due west, C = 30 km due west,
D = 25 km due east, E = 60 km due west. Determine (a) their resultant, (b) C – D and
(c) D – A – B.

E C B D A

60 30 20 25 50

Solution:
 For sign convention of vectors: to the right is positive, to the left is negative.
a) R = Σ vectors = A + B + C + D + E
R = 50 km + (−20 km) + (−30 km) + 25 km + (−60 km)
𝐑 = −𝟑𝟓 𝐤𝐦
Therefore, R = 35 km due West

b) C − D = −30 km − 25 km = −55 km
C – D = 55 km due West
c) D − A − B = 25 km − 50 km − (−20 km) = −5 km
D – A – B = 5 km due West

1. Determine the resultant for the given vectors by using parallelogram method.
A: 15 km, 33o N of E B: 10 km, 27o S of E

Solution:
Scale: 10km: 2 cm
B’ Measured R = 4.4 cm
A Measured θ = 10°
10 km
4.4 cm × = 22 km
R 2 cm
Therefore, 𝐑 = 𝟐𝟐 𝐤𝐦 𝟏𝟎° 𝐍 𝐨𝐟 𝐄
A’
B

TRIANGLE METHOD:

1. Given two vectors A = 70 m 60o N of E and B =35 m 30o S of E. Determine their resultant
(magnitude and direction).

Solution: First step is to draw the triangle formed by the two vectors, that is by connecting
the two vectors head/tip to tail and by drawing the resultant by completing the triangle
(from origin to the head of the second vector).

Since the triangle formed by the two vectors is a right Δ, therefore, use Pythagorean theorem
to solve for R.

R2 = A2 + B 2
R2 = (70m)2 + (35 m)2
30o 𝐑 = 𝟕𝟖. 𝟐𝟔𝟐𝟒 𝐦
For the direction:
θ = α + 60o
B 35
Wherein, α = Tan−1 ( ) = Tan−1 ( )
A 70
α = 26.5651o
α θ Hence, 𝛉 = 26.5651 + 60 = 𝟖𝟔. 𝟓𝟔𝟓𝟏o
60o Therefore, R = 78.2624 m 86.5651o N of E

1. Determine the magnitude and direction of the resultant for the given vectors. Use
polygon method.
A: 2 kph 45o N of E; B: 2.8 kph 58o E of S; C: 5.1 kph W 28o S; D: 3.2 kph N 18o W

Solution:
Scale: 1cm:1kph
A B Measured R = 1.8 cm
R Measured θ = 18o
1 kph
R = 1.8 cm × = 1.8 kph
1 cm
D therefore
𝐑 = 𝟏. 𝟖 𝐤𝐩𝐡, 𝟏𝟖° 𝐍 𝐨𝐟 𝐖

*For polygon method, you may start with any vector and you will still arrive with the same
result. For practice, you may try solving this problem with different pattern 

COMPONENT METHOD:
1. A sailor in a small boat encounters shifting winds. She sails 8 km south, then 15 km 30o E of
N, and then 12 km 25o N of W. Use component method to determine the magnitude and
direction of her resultant displacement.

SOLUTION:
N

Bx
A = 8 km
Ax = 0 By
Ay = - 8 km
S
30o
E

N
Cy

Cx = C x cos 25o = 12 km x cos 25o Bx = B x sin30o = 15 km x sin30o

25O
W
Cx = - 10.8757 km Bx = + 7.5 km
Cx
Cy = C x sin 25o = 12 km x sin 25o By = B x cos30o = 15 km x cos30o
Cy = + 5.0714 km By = + 12.9904 km

𝐑 𝐱 = Σ X − comp = Ax + Bx + Cx 𝐑 𝐲 = Σ Y − comp = Ay + By + Cy
R x = 0 + 7.5 km − 10.8757 R y = −8 km + 12.9904 km + 5.0714
𝐑 𝐱 = −𝟑. 𝟑𝟕𝟓𝟕 𝐤𝐦 𝐑 𝐲 = 𝟏𝟎. 𝟎𝟔𝟏𝟖 𝐤𝐦

Therefore, by using Pythagorean theorem:

R2 = R x 2 + R y 2 = (−3.3757 km)2 + (10.0618km)2
𝐑 = 𝟏𝟎. 𝟔𝟏𝟑 𝐤𝐦
For the direction:
Ry 10.0618
Ry R θ = tan−1 ( ) = tan−1 ( )
Rx 3.3757
θ = 71.4536o
θ Therefore 𝐑 = 𝟏𝟎. 𝟔𝟏𝟑𝐤𝐦 𝟕𝟏. 𝟒𝟓𝟑𝟔𝐨𝐍 𝐨𝐟 𝐖
Rx

 The solution for component method may also be presented on a tabular form.
Take note that angle θ should be the angle the vector makes with zero-degree
reference line.

Vector Angle,θ X-comp = vector x cosθ Y-comp = vector x sinθ

A = 8 km 270o 0 -8 km

B = 15 km 60o 7.5 km 12.9904 km

C = 12 km 155o -10.8757 km 5.0714

𝑅 2 = 𝑅𝑥 2 + 𝑅𝑦 2 𝑅𝑦 𝑹𝒙 = Σ 𝑋 − 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝 𝑹𝒚 = Σ 𝑌 − 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝
𝜃 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 ( )
𝑅𝑥
𝑹 = 𝟏𝟎. 𝟔𝟏𝟑 𝒌𝒎 𝑹𝒙 = −𝟑. 𝟑𝟕𝟓𝟕 𝒌𝒎 𝑹𝒚 = 𝟏𝟎. 𝟎𝟔𝟏𝟖 𝒌𝒎
𝜃 = 71.4536o

SOLUTION:
From the statement “he finds himself back where he started” means that the resultant of the
four displacements is equal to zero. To solve for the fourth unmeasured displacement, D,
simply use the tabular solution.
Vector Angle, θ X-comp = vector x cos θ Y-comp = vector x sin θ
A = 180 m 180o -180 m 0m
B = 210 m 315o 148.4924 m -148.4924 m
C =280 m 60o 140 m 242.4871 m
D =? θ =? Dx =? Dy =?
R=0m 0o 0 km 0 km

To solve for D, apply Pythagorean theorem: D2 = Dx 2 + Dy 2

But, solve first for Dx and Dy.

From the equation:

𝐑 𝐱 = Σ X − comp 𝐑 𝐲 = Σ Y − comp
𝐑 𝐱 = Ax + Bx + Cx + Dx 𝐑 𝐲 = Ay + By + Cy + Dy
0 = −180m + 148.4924 m + 140m + Dx 0 = 0 − 148.4924m + 242.4871m + Dy
𝐃𝐱 = −𝟏𝟎𝟖. 𝟒𝟗𝟐𝟒 𝐦 (means West) 𝐃𝐲 = −𝟗𝟑. 𝟗𝟗𝟒𝟕 m (means South)

Hence: D2 = (−108.4924m)2 + (−93.9947m)2

𝐃 = 𝟏𝟒𝟑. 𝟓𝟒𝟔𝟓 𝐦
Dx Dy 93.9947
For the direction: θ = tan−1 ( ) = tan−1 ( )
θ Dx 108.4924
𝛉 = 𝟒𝟎. 𝟗𝟎𝟒𝟕𝟏o
Dy D Therefore: 𝐃 = 𝟏𝟒𝟑. 𝟓𝟒𝟔𝟓 𝐦 𝟒𝟎. 𝟗𝟎𝟒𝟕𝟏o S of W

GIVEN:
A = -2i + 3j + 4k → Ax = -2; Ay = 3; Az = 4

B = 3i + 1j – 3k → Bx = 3; By = 1; Bz = -3

C = 3i -4j + 2k → Cx = 3; Cy = -4; Cz = 2

3i
B
4k
3j -3k -4j
1j
A 3i
2i C
2k
-2i
SOLUTION:
a) Magnitude of each vector
To solve for the magnitude of each vector, simply apply Pythagorean theorem
A2 = Ax 2 + Ay 2 + Az 2 = (−2)2 + (3)2 + (4)2
𝐀 = 𝟓. 𝟑𝟖𝟓𝟐 𝐮𝐧𝐢𝐭
B 2 = Bx 2 + By 2 + Bz 2 = (3)2 + (1)2 + (−3)2
𝐁 = 𝟒. 𝟑𝟓𝟖𝟗 𝐮𝐧𝐢𝐭
C 2 = Cx 2 + Cy 2 + Cz 2 = (3)2 + (−4)2 + (2)2
𝐂 = 𝟓. 𝟑𝟖𝟓𝟐 𝐮𝐧𝐢𝐭

b) Vector sum A + B using unit vector

A + B = (−2i + 3j + 4k) + (3i + 1j – 3k )
𝐀 + 𝐁 = 𝐢 + 𝟒𝐣 + 𝐤

d) Find the scalar product A. B

There are two equations to solve for 𝐀 ∙ 𝐁, these are
𝐀 ∙ 𝐁 = 𝐀𝐁 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝛟 and 𝐀 ∙ 𝐁 = 𝐀 𝐱 𝐁𝐱 + 𝐀 𝐲 𝐁𝐲 + 𝐀 𝐳 𝐁𝐳

Use the second equation since angle ϕ between the two vectors is not given.
A ∙ B = AxBx + AyBy + AzBz = (−2)(3) + (3)(1) + (4)(−3)
𝐀 ∙ 𝐁 = −𝟏𝟓 𝐬𝐪. 𝐮𝐧𝐢𝐭

e) Cross product A x B

There are two equations to solve for A x B, these are

𝐀 × 𝐁 = 𝐀𝐁 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝛟 and 𝐀 × 𝐁 = (𝐀 𝐲 𝐁𝐳 − 𝐀 𝐳 𝐁𝐲 ) 𝐢 + ( 𝐀 𝐳 𝐁𝐱 – 𝐀 𝐱 𝐁𝐳 ) 𝐣 + (𝐀 𝐱 𝐁𝐲 − 𝐀 𝐲 𝐁 )𝐤

Use the second equation since angle ϕ between the two vectors is not given.

Solution 1:
A × B = (Ay Bz − Az By ) × i + ( Az Bx – Ax Bz ) × j + (Ax By − Ay B ) × k

AxB = {(3)(−3) − (4)(1)} × i + {(4)(3) − (−2)(−3)} × j + {(−2)(1) − (3)(3)} × k

𝐀𝐱𝐁 = −𝟏𝟑𝐢 + 𝟔𝐣 − 𝟏𝟏𝐤

Solution 2:
i j k i j

+
𝐀×𝐁 -2 3 4 -2 3

3 - 1 -3 3 1

A x B = −9i + 12j − 2k − 9k − 4i − 6j
𝐀 𝐱 𝐁 = −𝟏𝟑𝐢 + 𝟔𝐣 − 𝟏𝟏𝐤
Magnitude of 𝐀 𝐱 𝐁 = √(−𝟏𝟑)𝟐 + (𝟔)𝟐 + (−𝟏𝟏)𝟐
Magnitude of 𝐀 𝐱 𝐁 = 𝟏𝟖. 𝟎𝟓𝟓𝟓 𝐬𝐪. 𝐮𝐧𝐢𝐭

Final ϕ = 1800 − 50.2808o → 𝛟 = 𝟏𝟐𝟗. 𝟕𝟏𝟗𝟐o

AxB
B B

A
θ A

 To solve for the angle between the two vectors, it is better to use the dot product
equation because it will give the exact answer for the angle ∅. The angle obtained from
the cross product equation can sometimes be the exact angle, but in some cases it
should be deducted from 180o (i.e. if 𝐀 ∙ 𝐁 is negative) because the final answer is the
supplementary angle of the angle that is obtained from cross product equation.

g) (A x C) . B
A = -2i + 3j + 4k → Ax = -2 ; Ay = 3 ; Az = 4
B = 3i + 1j – 3k → Bx = 3 ; By = 1 ; Bz = -3
C = 3i -4j + 2k → Cx = 3 ; Cy =-4 ; Cz = 2

Find first A x C by using the method of determinants.

i j k i j

AxC= -2
+-2 3 4 -2 3
_
3 -4 2 3 -4

𝐴 𝑥 𝐶 = 6𝑖 + 12𝑗 + 8𝑘 − 9𝑘 + 16i + 4j
𝑨 𝒙 𝑪 = 𝟐𝟐 𝒊 + 𝟏𝟔 𝒋 − 𝒌
𝐴 𝑥 𝐶 = (𝐴 𝑥 𝐶)𝑥 𝑖 + (𝐴 𝑥 𝐶)𝑦 𝑗 + (𝐴 𝑥 𝐶)𝑧 𝑘

(𝐴 𝑥 𝐶). 𝐵 = (𝐴𝑥𝐶)𝑥 𝐵𝑥 + (𝐴𝑥𝐶)𝑦 𝐵𝑦 + (𝐴𝑥𝐶)𝑧 𝐵𝑧

(𝐴 𝑥 𝐶) . 𝐵 = (22)(3) + (16)(1) + (−1)(−3)

(𝑨 𝒙 𝑪). 𝑩 = 𝟖𝟓 𝒄𝒖𝒃𝒊𝒄 𝒖𝒏𝒊𝒕

2. Determine the equilibrant of the given vectors by (a) parallelogram method and (b)
triangle method. Use the given scale for your answer.
C = 10 kph, 12 N of W E = 15 kph, 83 S of E

3. Determine the resultant of the given vectors by component method. Summarize your
answers in the given table.
VECTORS  from 0° X – component Y - component

E 23 km 11 N of E

N 25 km 24 E of S

G 19 km 18 S of W

R 27 km 58 W of N

4. Given are the vectors A = 30 N 45o N of W and B = 45 N 75o S of E. Determine a) their

resultant and b) their vector difference B – A.

5. A sailor in a small boat encounters shifting winds. She sails 8 km south, then 15 km 30o E of
N, and then 12 km 25o N of W. Use polygon method to determine the magnitude and
direction of her resultant displacement.

6. Solve for the required using the given vectors

A = 3i – 8j + 6k B = 4 j + 9k – 5i C = 7k – 2
a. A ∙ B b. A x B c. (A x B) × C d. (B × C) ∙ A

ENGAGE
Based on your learning from module 1, how can you apply vectors and scalar quantities in
the study of motion?

EXPLORE
Read Module 2 Unit 1: Motion on a straight line (pp 28 – 31)
EXPLAIN

MOTION
 Change in position of an object in a given time interval
 A continuous change in position

KINEMATICS
 A branch of mechanics concerned with the motion of objects regardless of the cause
of motion.
PARTICLE
 “Idealized model” representing a moving body; no rotation or change in shape
occurs during motion
COORDINATES (Rectangular)
 The mathematical method of locating points in a space or plane will also be used for
locating bodies as they move

MOTION ALONG A STRAIGHT LINE (RECTILINEAR MOTION)

We start our study with the simplest type of motion a body can undergo. This is called
rectilinear motion or motion along a straight line. For the analysis, we will be considering the
line of motion as a coordinate axis, i.e. the x-axis if the line of motion is horizontal or inclined
or the y-axis if the line of motion is vertical.

o indicate the location of the body at any time as it moves

o the distance from a given reference point along the path at any time
o usually given as a function of time like X = (10 m/s2) t2 or X = (5 m/s) t + 10 m, etc.
o The form of the equation depends on how the body moves along the line.

 In cases where the line of motion is the y-axis, position is denoted by (y).

2. Displacement (x)
o the change in position of a body during a certain length of time or time interval

 Displacement is different from distance travelled in the sense that displacement is a

vector quantity directed from the initial to the final position. Distance is the length of
a path followed by a particle. However, in one directional rectilinear motion, the
magnitude of the displacement is the same as the distance travelled.

3. Time instant (t) vs time interval (t)

time instant (t)
 A point in time, i.e. at the time 3 secs after starting or time 5 secs before stops, etc.
time interval (t)
 a length of time, i.e. during the first 5 secs, or during the time from t1 = 4 secs to
t2 = 7 secs, etc.

4. Speed vs velocity
Speed – defines how fast an object moves

a. Average velocity (Vave)

 velocity of a body taken during a time interval, or between two points along its
path
𝐝𝐢𝐬𝐩𝐥𝐚𝐜𝐞𝐦𝐞𝐧𝐭 ∆𝐱
𝐕𝐚𝐯𝐞 = =
𝐭𝐢𝐦𝐞 𝐢𝐧𝐭𝐞𝐫𝐯𝐚𝐥 ∆𝐭

b. Instantaneous velocity (V)

 velocity of an object at a specific time, or specific point along its path
∆𝐱 𝐝𝐱
𝐕 = 𝐥𝐢𝐦 =
∆𝐭 →𝟎 ∆𝐭 𝐝𝐭
Where x is the position of the given as a function of time
*velocity is the derivative of displacement

5. Acceleration – the rate of change in velocity of an object; a body is said to be

accelerating when the velocity is changing

a. Average acceleration (a ave)

 acceleration of a body taken during a time interval, or between two points along
its path (displacement)
𝐜𝐡𝐚𝐧𝐠𝐞 𝐢𝐧 𝐯𝐞𝐥𝐨𝐜𝐢𝐭𝐲 ∆𝐕
𝐚𝐚𝐯𝐞 = =
𝐭𝐢𝐦𝐞 𝐢𝐧𝐭𝐞𝐫𝐯𝐚𝐥 ∆𝐭

b. Instantaneous acceleration (a)

 acceleration of an object at a specific time, or specific point along its path
∆𝐕 𝐝𝐕 𝐝𝟐 𝐱
𝐚 = 𝐥𝐢𝐦 = =
∆𝐭 →𝟎 ∆𝐭 𝐝𝐭 𝐝𝐭 𝟐
*acceleration is the derivative of velocity AND the 2nd derivative of the displacement

UNIFORMLY ACCELERATED RECTILINEAR MOTION (UARM)

 A very common and simple type of one-dimensional motion where the acceleration is
constant.
 In such a case, at any instant within the interval, and the velocity changes at the same
rate throughout the motion.

BASIC KINEMATIC EQUATIONS for UARM:

**To simplify the equations,
it will be assumed here that at time t = 0, the position xi = 0, Thus the time interval Δt will
be the same as time instant t (Δt = t) because ti = 0 and tf = t.

FREE FALLING MOTION

 A freely falling body is one that moves vertically in air under the action of its weight
alone. Air resistance is neglected and there is no external additional factor that is causing
the body to move except gravity.
The specific equations for free fall are the following (based from Basic equations of UARM:

From UARM  Free Fall Sign convention:

1. 𝐗 =
𝐕𝐢 + 𝐕𝐟
𝐭 1. 𝐘 =
𝐕𝐢 + 𝐕𝐟
𝐭 Y is positive (+) if measured above the
𝟐 𝟐
starting point. It is negative (-) if measured
2. 𝐕𝐟 = 𝐕𝐢 + 𝐚𝐭 2. 𝐕𝐟 = 𝐕𝐢 + 𝐠𝐭 below the starting point.
Vi and Vf are positive (+) if directed
𝟏 𝟏 upward, negative (-) if directed
3. 𝐗 = 𝐕𝐢 𝐭 + 𝐚𝐭 𝟐 3. 𝐘 = 𝐕𝐢 𝐭 + 𝐠𝐭 𝟐
𝟐 𝟐 downward.
Time t is always positive (+).
𝟏 𝟏
4. 𝐗 = 𝐕𝐟 𝐭 − 𝐚𝐭 𝟐 4. 𝐘 = 𝐕𝐟 𝐭 − 𝐠𝐭 𝟐
𝟐 𝟐
g is always negative (-):
5. 𝐕𝐟𝟐 = 𝐕𝐢𝟐 + 𝟐𝐚𝐗 5. 𝐕𝐟𝟐 = 𝐕𝐢𝟐 + 𝟐𝐠𝐘 (g=-9.8 m/s2; -980 cm/s2; -32 ft/s2)

a) The position of the particle 3 secs after starting

 To solve for the position of the body at any time t, simply substitute the value of t in
the given equation.
m m m m
Therefore at t = 3 secs ; 𝑋3𝑠 = (6 ) t + (0.5 3) t 3 = (6 ) (3s) + (0.5 3 ) (3s)3
s s s s
𝑿𝟑𝒔 = 𝟑𝟏. 𝟓 𝐦
b) The displacement during the time interval from 2 secs to 5 secs
 Displacement is the change in the position of the body. That is ∆X = X2 − X1. But
before ∆X can be solved, the values of X1 and X2 should be solved first from the
equation of X.
Let t1 = 2 sec, and x1 = distance travelled at time 2 seconds
m m m m
X1 = (6 ) t + (0.5 3 ) t 3 = (6 ) (2s) + (0.5 3) (2s)3
s s s s
𝐗 𝟏 = 𝟏𝟔 𝐦
Let t2 = 5 sec, and x2 = distance travelled at time 5 seconds
m m m m
X2 = (6 ) t + (0.5 3 ) t 3 = (6 ) (5s) + (0.5 3 ) (5s)3
s s s s
𝐗 𝟐 = 𝟗𝟐. 𝟓 𝐦
Therefore: the displacement, ∆X = X2 − X1 = 92.5 m − 16 m
∆𝐗 = 𝟕𝟔. 𝟓 𝐦 (occurs between t1 and t2)
c) The average velocity during the first 5 secs
 Average velocity is the velocity of the body taken during a time interval. That is
𝐃𝐢𝐬𝐩𝐥𝐚𝐜𝐞𝐦𝐞𝐧𝐭 ∆𝐗
𝐕𝐚𝐯𝐞 = =
𝐭𝐢𝐦𝐞 𝐢𝐧𝐭𝐞𝐫𝐯𝐚𝐥 ∆𝐭
 The term during the first 5 secs means that the body starts from t 1 = 0 s and ends at t2
= 5 s.
Solve first for the values of X1 and X2 from the equation of X.

h) What are the acceleration and velocity when it started?

 The term “when it started” means time t = 0. To solve for the value of acceleration
and velocity at t = 0, use the equation of instantaneous acceleration and
instantaneous velocity, respectively.
m 𝐦
At t = 0 s; a = (3 3 ) t = 𝟎
s 𝐬𝟐
m m 𝐦
At t = 0 s; V=6 + (1.5 3 ) t 2 =𝟔
s s 𝐬

UARM:
1. A car starting from rest moves with constant acceleration. After 10 sec the velocity is now
30 m/s. Compute for (a) acceleration, (b) distance travelled after 10 sec, (c) time it took
to travel 100meters, and (d) its velocity after travelling 50 meters.

SOLUTION: First step of the solution is to identify the given values. Draw a simple diagram
representing the given.
Given:

a) the acceleration
 To solve for the acceleration, choose an equation wherein the given values can
be substituted directly. Given are the Vi, Vf and t. Therefore, use equation (2).
m m
Vf = Vi + at → 30 = 0 + a (10 s) → 𝒂 = 𝟑 𝒎/𝒔𝟐
s s
b) the distance travelled after 10 secs
 To solve for the distance travelled given again Vi, Vf and t, choose equation (1)
m m
Vi + Vf 0 + 30
s s
X= t= (10 s) → 𝑿 = 𝟏𝟓𝟎 𝒎/𝒔
2 2
c) the time it took to travel 100 meters
 This time the value of acceleration can be used to solve for the time the car took
to travel 100 m since the car is moving at constant acceleration. Given now are
Vi , X and 𝒂. Therefore, use equation (3) to solve for t.

2. A subway train starts from rest at a station and accelerates at a rate of 1.6 m/s 2 for 14 s.
It runs at constant speed for 70 s and slows down at a rate of 3.5 m/s 2 until it stops at the
next station. Find the total distance covered.

GIVEN:

REQUIRED: Total distance traveled by the subway train, XT

SOLUTION:
The total distance traveled by the train is the sum of the distances it has traveled in the
different situations it has encountered.
Let X1 = distance traveled at 𝒂 =1.6 m/s2
X2 = distance traveled at constant velocity
X3 = distance traveled at 𝒂 = -3.5 m/s2

Therefore, 𝑋𝑇 = 𝑋1 + 𝑋2 + 𝑋3

Solve for 𝑿𝟏 : Given 𝑎, t and Vi , use equation (3) to solve for X1.
𝟏 𝑚 1 𝑚
𝑿𝟏 = 𝑽𝒊 𝒕 + 𝒂𝒕𝟐 = (0 ) (14𝑠) + (1.6 2 ) (14𝑠)2 → 𝑿𝟏 = 𝟏𝟓𝟔. 𝟖 𝒎
𝟐 𝑠 2 𝑠

Solve for 𝑿𝟐 : Before 𝑋2 can be solved, the value of the constant velocity(let it be V 1) should
be solved first.
Given 𝒂 =1.6 m/s2 ,t = 14 s and Vi = 0 m/s, use equation (2) to solve for V1.
𝑚 𝒎
𝑽𝟏 = 𝑽𝒊 + 𝒂𝒕 = 0 + (1.6 2 ) (14 𝑠) = 𝟐𝟐. 𝟒
𝑠 𝒔

At constant velocity, the only equation that is applied is 𝑿 = 𝑽𝒕

𝑚
𝑋2 = 𝑉1 𝑡 = (22.4 ) (70 𝑠) → 𝑿𝟐 = 𝟏𝟓𝟔𝟖 𝒎
𝑠

Solving for 𝑋𝑇 : 𝑋𝑇 = 𝑋1 + 𝑋2 + 𝑋3 = 156.8 m + 1568 m + 71.68 m  𝑿𝑻 = 𝟏𝟕𝟗𝟔. 𝟒𝟖 𝒎

FREE FALL
1. A stone is thrown vertically downward with a velocity of 5 m/s from a window 50 meters
above ground level. (a) How much time will it take to travel to the ground? (b) With what
velocity will it strike the ground? (c) How far did it fall in 2?

Given: Solution:
a) Time for the stone to reach the ground
 Given are Vi, Y and g, hence, use equation (3) to solve for the
value of t, but don’t forget to use proper sign convention.
𝟏
𝒀 = 𝑽𝒊 𝒕 + 𝒈𝒕𝟐
𝟐
𝑚 1 𝑚
−50 𝑚 = (−5 ) 𝑡 + (−9.8 2 ) 𝑡 2
𝑠 2 𝑠
𝑚 2 𝑚
(4.9 2 ) 𝑡 + (5 ) 𝑡 − 50 𝑚 = 0
𝑠 𝑠
Use quadratic formula to solve for the values of t:
−𝟓 ± √(𝟓)𝟐 − 𝟒(𝟒. 𝟗)(−𝟓𝟎)
𝒕= → 𝒕 = 𝟐. 𝟕𝟐𝟒𝟕 𝒔
𝟐(𝟒. 𝟗)
b) Velocity with which the stone strikes the ground
 Use equation (5) to solve for Vf.
𝒎 𝒎
𝑽𝟐𝒇 = 𝑽𝟐𝒊 + 𝟐𝒈𝒀 = (−𝟓 )𝟐 + 𝟐 (−𝟗. 𝟖 𝟐 ) (−𝟓𝟎 𝒎)
𝒔 𝒔
𝑽𝒇 = 𝟑𝟏. 𝟕𝟎𝟏𝟕 𝒎/𝒔

2. A ball is thrown vertically upward from the roof of a building. It just misses the roof on its
way down and passes a point 30 m below its starting point 5 s after it leaves the thrower’s
hand. Air resistance may be ignored. (a) What is the initial speed of the ball? (b) How
high does it rise above its starting point? (c) What is its velocity 5 s after it leaves the
thrower’s hand?

b) Height, Y, the ball reached above its starting point

 When the ball reaches its highest point its velocity becomes zero. Knowing the
values of Vi, Vf and g, use equation (5) to solve for the value of Y.
𝑽𝟐𝒇 = 𝑽𝟐𝒊 + 𝟐𝒈𝒀
𝑚 2 𝑚 2 𝑚
(0 ) = (18.5 ) + 2 (−9.8 2 ) 𝑌
𝑠 𝑠 𝑠
𝒀 = 𝟔𝟗. 𝟖𝟒𝟕 𝒎
c) Velocity of the ball 5 s after it leaves the thrower’s hand
 Use equation (2) to solve for the velocity, V f, of the ball 5 s after it leaves the
thrower’s hand, since the given are Vi, t and g.
𝒎 𝒎
𝑽𝒇 = 𝑽𝒊 + 𝒈𝒕 = 𝟏𝟖. 𝟓 + (−𝟗. 𝟖 𝟐 ) (𝟓𝒔)
𝒔 𝒔
𝑽𝒇 = −𝟑𝟎. 𝟓 𝒎/𝒔
( - ) negative means velocity is downward

3. A stone is dropped from a building 50 m high. At what time will the stone reach the
ground? What is the stone’s velocity upon hitting the ground? What is the stones velocity
at 1 sec? what is the stones position at t=2 secs and t= 3 secs?

4. At what velocity must an object be thrown vertically up to reach its maximum height in
2.5 seconds? How high is the peak from the starting point?

EVALUATE
UARM:
1. A car is moving at uniform acceleration. Its velocity after traveling for 2 seconds is 4m/s
and is found 12 meters from where it started. If the car’s velocity at 5 seconds is 10 m/s,
determine (a) the car’s acceleration, (b) its displacement at t = 5 seconds measured
from its starting point and (c) its velocity at the start.

FREE FALL:
1. If the stone in example problem 3 was initially thrown downwards at 4 m/s, how much
time will it take to reach the ground? At what velocity will it hit the ground? At what time
will it reach a velocity of 12m/s? Where is the stone at v=6 m/s?

2. Resolve practice problem number 1, if the stone was thrown upwards instead. Use the
same given values. How high will the stone reach?

KINEMATICS UNIT 2: MOTION IN TWO DIMENSIONS

ENGAGE
From Module 2 Unit 2, what concepts can be applied in two- dimensional motion?

What factors would affect the motion of objects in two dimensions?

EXPLORE
Read Module 2 Unit 2: Motion in Two Dimensions (pp 38 – 40)
EXPLAIN

MOTION IN TWO DIMENSIONS

Motion in two dimensions can be modelled as two independent motions in each of
the two perpendicular directions associated with the x and y axes. That is, any influence in
the y direction does not affect the motion in the x direction and vice versa.

 PROJECTILE MOTION
o A curvilinear motion which moves under the sole effect of gravity. Air resistance is
neglected just like in free falling motion. The difference is that for a projectile, the
initial velocity called the velocity of projection is not vertical. It is directed either
horizontally, at an angle below the horizontal, or at an angle above the horizontal.
o the path is that of an inverted parabola, symmetric about a vertical line that
passes thru the vertex (highest point)

HORIZONTAL COMPONENTS VERTICAL COMPONENTS

Displacement R = range = X Y
Velocity Vx = constant (Vix = Vfx) Vy (under free fall)
acceleration ax=0 ay = g = -9.81 m/s2

Equations for Projectile Motion:

Vertical: Sign convention:
1. 𝐘 =
𝐕𝐢𝐲 + 𝐕𝐟𝐲
𝐭 Y is positive (+) if measured above the starting point. It is negative
𝟐
(-) if measured below the starting point.
2. 𝐕𝐟𝐲 = 𝐕𝐢𝐲 + 𝐠𝐭
Viy and Vfy are positive (+) if directed upward, negative (-) if
𝟏 directed downward.
3. 𝐘 = 𝐕𝐢𝐲 𝐭 + 𝐠𝐭 𝟐
𝟐
Time t is always positive (+).
𝟏
4. 𝐘 = 𝐕𝐟𝐲 𝐭 − 𝐠𝐭 𝟐 g is always negative (-). (g=-9.8 m/s2; -980 cm/s2; -32 ft/s2)
𝟐

5. 𝐕𝐟𝐲
𝟐 𝟐
= 𝐕𝐢𝐲 + 𝟐𝐠𝐘

Horizontal:
6. 𝐑 = 𝐗 = 𝐕𝐱 𝐭

CASES:
1. Projectile launched HORIZONTALLY

θ at initial is zero
vi = vix = vx = vfx
Y is negative

2. Projectile launched at an angle BELOW the horizontal

vi = vix = vx = vfx
Viy is negative
Y is negative

3. Projectile launched at an angle ABOVE the horizontal

vi = vix = vx = vfx
Viy is positive
V approaches zero as it
reaches Ymax

b) The velocity 2 secs after being thrown

To solve for the velocity after 2 s, use the equation

𝑉 = √𝑉𝑥2 + 𝑉𝑦2 ; 𝑉𝑖𝑥 = 𝑉𝑖 = 𝑉𝑥 = 𝟑𝟎 𝒎/𝒔

To solve for 𝑉𝑦 at t = 2 s use equation (2) since Vi , t and g are given. But 𝑉𝑖𝑦 is again zero
since 𝑉𝑖 is horizontal.
𝑚 𝒎
𝑉𝑦 = 𝑉𝑖𝑦 + 𝑔𝑡 = 0 + (−9.8 2
) (2 𝑠)2 = −𝟑𝟗. 𝟐 ↓
𝑠 𝒔
𝑚 𝒎
Therefore: 𝑉 = √𝑉𝑥2 + 𝑉𝑦2 = √(30 )2 + (−39.2 𝑚/𝑠)2 → 𝑽 = 𝟒𝟗. 𝟑𝟔𝟐𝟑
𝑠 𝒔

c) the horizontal displacement or range

Range is the maximum horizontal displacement traveled by the ball. Use equation
(6) to solve for the range. Time t in equation (6) is the time it takes to travel to the
ground.
𝑚
𝑅 = 𝑉𝑥 𝑡 = (30 )(2.8571 𝑠)
𝑠
𝑹 = 𝟖𝟓. 𝟕𝟏𝟑 𝒎

2. An airplane was diving at an angle of 30o below the horizontal when it dropped a bomb
from a height of 1000 meters. The bomb hits the ground 5 sec later. (a) What was the
velocity of the airplane? (b) With what velocity did the bomb hit the ground?

𝟏 1 𝑚
𝒀 = 𝑽𝒊𝒚 𝒕 + 𝒈𝒕𝟐 → −1000 𝑚 = (−𝑉𝑖 𝑠𝑖𝑛30𝑜 )(5 𝑠) + (−9.8 2 )(5 𝑠)2 → 𝑽𝒊 = 𝟑𝟓𝟏 𝒎/𝒔
𝟐 2 𝑠
b) With what velocity did the bag of sand hit the ground

𝑽𝒇 = √𝑽𝟐𝒇𝒙 + 𝑽𝟐𝒇𝒚
𝑚 𝒎
But 𝑉𝑖𝑥 = 𝑉𝑓𝑥 = 𝑉𝑥 = 351 𝑥 𝑐𝑜𝑠 30𝑜 → 𝑽𝒇𝒙 = 𝟑𝟎𝟑. 𝟗𝟕𝟒𝟗
𝑠 𝒔
Use equation (2) to solve for Vfy.
𝑚 𝑚
𝑉𝑓𝑦 = 𝑉𝑖𝑦 + 𝑔𝑡 = (−351 𝑥 𝑠𝑖𝑛30𝑜 ) + (−9.8 2 ) (5 𝑠)
𝑠 𝑠
𝑽𝒇𝒚 = − 𝟐𝟐𝟒. 𝟓 𝒎/𝒔 ↓

𝑚 2
𝑉𝑓 = √(303.9749 ) + (− 224.5 𝑚/𝑠)2 → 𝑽𝒇 = 𝟑𝟕𝟕. 𝟖𝟗 𝒎/𝒔
𝑠

3. A cannonball is fired with a velocity of 40 m/s 30o above the horizontal from the top of a
cliff 50 meters high. (a) How much time will it take to travel to ground level? (b) What is
the highest point reached measured from ground level? (c) What is the range of the
cannonball? (d) With what velocity did the cannonball strike the ground?

Given: SOLUTION:
a) Time t the cannonball will take to travel to ground
level
 Use equation (3) to solve for t since Y, Viy and g are
𝟏
given : 𝒀 = 𝑽𝒊𝒚 𝒕 + 𝒈𝒕𝟐
𝟐
𝑚 1 𝑚
− 50 𝑚 = (40 𝑥 𝑠𝑖𝑛30𝑜 ) 𝑡 + (−9.8 2 ) 𝑡 2
𝑠 2 𝑠
2
4.9 𝑡 − 20 𝑡 − 50 = 0
Use quadratic formula to solve for the value of t:
𝒕 = 𝟓. 𝟖𝟑𝟏𝟒 𝒔

 The height reached by the cannonball measured from the ground level, Y t, is the
sum of 50 m and height Y as shown from the diagram. To solve for the value of Y,
use equation (5). The velocity
y-component Vy of the cannonball at the highest point is zero.
𝑽𝒚𝟐 = 𝑽𝒊𝒚𝟐 + 𝟐𝒈𝒀
𝑚 𝑚
0 = (40 𝑥 𝑠𝑖𝑛30)2 + 2 (−9.8 ) 𝑌
𝑠 𝑠
𝒀 = 𝟐𝟎. 𝟒𝟎𝟖𝟐 𝒎

Solving for the total height Y t from the ground level:

𝑌𝑡 = 50 𝑚 + 𝑌 = 50 𝑚 + 20.4082 𝑚
𝒀𝒕 = 𝟕𝟎. 𝟒𝟎𝟖𝟐 𝒎
c) The range of the cannonball
𝑚
𝑅 = 𝑉𝑥 𝑡 = (40 𝑥 𝑐𝑜𝑠30𝑜 ) (5.8314 𝑠) → 𝑹 = 𝟐𝟎𝟐. 𝟎𝟎𝟓𝟔 𝒎
𝑠

d) The velocity the cannonball strike the ground, Vf

𝑽𝒇 = √𝑽𝟐𝒇𝒙 + 𝑽𝟐𝒇𝒚
𝑚
𝑽𝒇𝒙 = 𝑽𝒊𝒙 = 40 𝑥 𝑐𝑜𝑠30𝑜 = 𝟑𝟒. 𝟔𝟒𝟏 𝐦/𝐬
𝑠
To solve for 𝑽𝒇𝒚 use equation (5):
𝑚 𝑚
𝑽𝟐𝒇𝒚 = 𝑽𝟐𝒊𝒚 + 𝟐𝒈𝒀 = (40 𝑥 sin 300 )2 + 2 (−9.8 2 ) (−50 𝑚)
𝑠 𝑠
𝑽𝒇𝒚 = −𝟑𝟕. 𝟏𝟒𝟖𝟒 𝒎/𝒔 ↓

2 2
𝑚
𝑉𝑓 = √𝑉𝑓𝑥 + 𝑉𝑓𝑦 = √(34.641 + (37.1484 𝑚/𝑠)2 → 𝑽𝒇 = 𝟓𝟎. 𝟕𝟗𝟑𝟕 𝒎/𝒔
𝑠)2

4. During a fireworks display, a shell is shot into air at an initial speed of 70 m/s at Angie of
75 above the horizontal. The shell ignites once it reaches its highest point. (a) Calculate
the height at which the shell explodes. (b) how much time has passed between the
launch and explosion? (c) What is the horizontal displacement of the shell at explosion?

EVALUATE
1. In a game war, one team sets base on a cliff 15m high and 60m away from the
opponent’s base. At what velocity must the attack be launched so that the lower base
will be hit? The initial launch is at 20 degrees below the horizontal?

3. A boulder rolls over a 50m high cliff. How fast was the boulder moving if it was found 180
m on the ground? At what time did the boulder hit the ground? At what velocity was it
approaching the ground?

4. Graph the trajectory of a particle for every 1 sec, if it is moving at an initial velocity of 25
m/s from a height of 20 m, if (a) it is launched horizontally, (b) it is launched 15 above
the horizontal, and (c) it is launched 10 below the horizontal. Mark the highest point it
reaches, and its maximum horizontal displacements.

What happens when a force is subjected to an object?

EXPLORE
Read Module 3: Dynamics (pp 45 – 49)
EXPLAIN

KINEMATICS vs DYNAMICS

Kinematics is the language for describing motion of an object which includes its position,
velocity, and acceleration but there was no consideration of what might influence that
motion.

Dynamics studies the causes of motion. The two main factors we need to consider to answer
question about why the motion of an object will change are the forces acting on an object
and the mass of the object. We begin our study of dynamics by discussing the three basic
laws of motion, which deal with forces and masses and were formulated by Isaac Newton.

LAWS OF MOTION
o Physical laws that are the foundation of classical mechanics
o Describes the relation between massive bodies and the interaction of forces
o According to Sir Isaac Newton, there are three laws governing motion

1ST LAW: LAW OF INERTIA

 “Every object in a state of uniform motion tends to remain in that state of motion
unless an external force is applied”

 When the vector sum or resultant of the forces acting on a body is equal to
zero, the body will remain at rest if it is initially at rest or remains in uniform motion
along a straight line if it is initially in motion.

Inertia and Mass

Inertia - The tendency of an object to resist any attempt to change its velocity
Mass - is that property of an object that specifies how much resistance an object
exhibits to changes in its velocity: a measure of the inertia of an object.

2ND LAW: LAW OF FORCE AND ACCELERATION

 When the vector sum or resultant of the forces acting on a body is not
equal to zero, the body will move with an acceleration that is:
1) in the same direction as the resultant of the forces
2) directly proportional to the resultant of the forces
3) inversely proportional to the mass of the body.
Mathematically represented as :
∑𝐅 𝑭𝒏𝒆𝒕
= 𝐚 𝒐𝒓 𝒂 =
𝐦 𝒎

If an object that can be modeled as a particle experiences an acceleration, there must be

a nonzero net force acting on it.
𝜮𝑭 = 𝒎𝒂

3RD LAW: LAW OF ACTION AND REACTION

 “For every action there is an equal and opposite reaction”
 Between any two bodies (A and B) exerting force on each other, the force
exerted by one body (body A) on the other body (body B) is always of the
same magnitude but in the opposite direction to the force exerted by body B
on body A.
𝑭𝑨𝑩 = − 𝑭𝑩𝑨

BASIC RELATED CONCEPTS:

1. FORCES, F
o Any interaction between objects, which when unopposed will result to a change
in motion
o Defined as either a push or a pull exerted on a body
o Expressed as Newton (N) in the metric system

Figure 3.1 When a coiled spring is pulled, as in Figure a, the spring stretches.
When a stationary cart is pulled, as in Figure b, the cart moves. When a football
is kicked, as in Figure c, it is both deformed and set in motion. These situations
are all examples of a class of forces called contact forces.

b. Non-Contact Forces – also called field forces; attracts or repels from a distance or
through empty space; no physical contact is required
e.g. magnetic force, gravitational force

Figure 3.2 The gravitational force of attraction between two objects with mass,
illustrated in Figure d, the electric force that one electric charge exerts on
another, shown in Figure e (such as the attractive electric force between an
electron and a proton that form a hydrogen atom), and the force a bar
magnet exerts on a piece of iron (Figure f) are some examples of field forces.

2. Mass, m and WEIGHT, W

Mass
o amount of matter contained in a body
o A scalar quantity
o Remains constant wherever it is
Weight
o Or the force due to gravity; the gravitational force exerted on the body by
the earth (if the body is on or near the surface of the earth)
o Concentrated weight is considered as acting on the center of gravity of a body
and always directed (vertically)downward;
o Its value varies based on its location

The mass of a person is the same whether he is on earth or on mars or on the moon,
but his weight would vary depending on his location, that’s why a person is not fat/heavy,
he is just in the wrong planet! 

Figure 3.3 direction of weight is downward no matter what the orientation of the object is

3. TENSION, T
o A pulling/ stretching force acting from opposite ends applied axially through the
strings, cables, rope, etc.

4. COMPRESSION, C
o Balanced inward force on a material or structure
o Occurs when a physical force presses inward on an object causing it to become
compacted.

5. NORMAL FORCE, Nf and FRICTIONAL FORCE, f

Whenever two surfaces in contact move or tend to move past each other, the two
surfaces will always exert two forces on each other.
NORMAL FORCE
o Support force exerted upon an object that is in contact with another object
o Always perpendicular and directed towards the surface of contact
FRICTIONAL FORCE, f
o The interaction between surfaces; a force resisting the relative motion between
surfaces; always present whenever a body is in contact with a surface (whether
the body is moving or not)
o Always opposite the direction of motion or impending motion and is always
parallel to the surface of contact

6. COEFFICIENT OF FRICTION,
o The ratio between the force required to move one surface over another and the
pressure between surfaces
o Depends on the surfaces in contact and are nearly independent of the area of
contact
𝐟
𝛍=
𝐍𝐟
a. Coefficient of Static friction, s b. Coefficient of Kinetic friction, k
o The ration between the static o The ration between the kinetic
friction and normal force friction and normal force
𝐟𝐬 𝐟𝐤
𝛍= 𝛍=
𝐍𝐟 𝐍𝐟

7. FREE BODY DIAGRAM, FBD

 A diagram representing all forces (magnitude and direction) acting on a body in
question isolated from the other parts of the system
 Its construction is an integral part of the analysis of systems using Newton’s laws of
motion

** STEPS in illustrating an FBD:

choose one object, and draw an arrow to represent each force acting on it. Include
every force acting on that object. If the problem involves more than one object, a
separate free-body diagram is needed for each object. We consider for now, the
likely forces that could be acting are gravity and contact forces (one object pushing
or pulling another, normal force, friction).

System Diagram
Solution:
FBD of block A FBD of block B
T
T
V

f
Nf WB
WA

Problem Solving Strategy

1. Draw a sketch of the situation.
2. Consider only one object (at a time) and draw a free-body diagram for that object,
showing all the forces acting on that object. Include any unknown forces that you
have to solve for. If several objects are involved, draw a free-body diagram for each
object separately.
3. The Laws of Motion involve vectors, and it is usually important to resolve vectors into
components. Choose x and y axes in a way that simplifies the calculation.
4. For each object, apply Laws of Motion to the x and y components separately.
5. Solve the equation or equations for the unknown(s).

NEWTON’S FIRST LAW:

1. For the system to be in equilibrium, determine the tension 45° in
each cord. C

60°
B A

80 kg

–
To solve for the tension in cord B and C, draw FBD at the intersection of the 3 cords.
Apply 𝜮𝑭𝑿 = 𝟎
Tc
𝑇𝐶𝑥 − 𝑇𝐵𝑥 = 0
45° 𝑇𝐶 cos 45𝑜 − 𝑇𝐵 cos 30𝑜 = 0 → 𝐸𝑞1
30°
TB Apply 𝜮𝑭𝒚 = 𝟎
𝑇𝐶𝑦 − 𝑇𝐵𝑦 − 𝑇𝐴 = 0
TA
𝑇𝐶 sin 45𝑜 − 𝑇𝐵 𝑠𝑖𝑛30𝑜 − 784 𝑁 = 0 → 𝐸𝑞2
Solving the two equations simultaneously, the values obtained are:
𝐓𝐁 = 𝟐𝟏𝟒𝟏. 𝟗𝟐𝟕𝟖 𝐍
𝐓𝐂 = 𝟐𝟔𝟐𝟑. 𝟑𝟏𝟓𝟏

2. A man pushes a block of mass 25 kg so that it slides at constant velocity along a level floor.
Calculate the magnitude of the force if the coefficient of kinetic friction between the block
and floor is 0.20.
Given:
V=k Draw FBD of the block:
F
f

W Nf
μk=0.
20
To solve for the magnitude of force F To solve for N, apply the equation 𝚺𝐅𝐲 = 𝟎
applied by the man on the block use 𝚺𝐅𝐲 = 𝟎
the equation 𝚺𝐅𝐗 = 𝟎 since force F is 𝑁𝑓 − W = 0
horizontal. m
𝑁𝑓 = W = 25 kg x 9.8 2 = 245 N
𝚺𝐅𝐗 = 𝟎 s
𝐅−𝐟=𝟎 Therefore:
𝐅 = 𝐟 = 𝛍𝐍f 𝐅 = 𝐟 = 𝛍𝑵𝒇 = 𝟎. 𝟐𝟎 𝐱 𝟐𝟒𝟓 𝐍 = 𝟒𝟗 𝐍

Solution:
a) Magnitude of force F parallel to the incline applied by the man if the incline is frictionless

Draw the FBD of the block.

X
F
11o
Nf
W

For a body placed on an inclined plane, the incline itself is the X-axis and the line
perpendicular to it is the Y-axis.
To solve for magnitude of force F parallel to the incline applied by the man use 𝚺𝐅𝐗 = 𝟎
because force F is directed along the X-axis.

𝚺𝐅𝐗 = 𝟎
F − Wsin11o = 0
m
F = Wsin11o = (20 kg x 9.8 ) x sin11o
s2
𝐅 = 𝟑𝟕. 𝟑𝟗𝟖𝟔 𝐍

b) Magnitude of force F parallel to the incline applied by the man if the coefficient of kinetic
friction between the block and incline is 0.25.
Draw FBD of the block
Y

f X
F

11o
Nf
W

NEWTON’S SECOND LAW:

1. A 15 kg load of bricks hangs from one end of a rope that passes over a
small, frictionless pulley. A 28 kg counterweight is to be suspended from the
other end of the rope. The system is released from rest. a) Draw two free body
diagrams, one for the load of bricks and one for the counterweight. b) What
is the magnitude of the upward acceleration of the load of bricks? c) What is
the tension in the rope?

SOLUTION:
a) FBD of the loads of bricks and counterweight
FBD of load of bricks FBD of counterweight

T T

𝒂
𝒂

Wbricks Wcw

b) The magnitude of the upward acceleration of the load of bricks

Consider the FBD of the load of bricks to solve for its upward acceleration by using
Newton’s second law of motion equation. That is 𝚺𝐅𝐲 = 𝐦𝐚𝐲 .

For the sign convention of the forces, this time 𝚺𝐅𝐲 = 𝐦𝐚𝐲
the direction of the acceleration has to be T − Wbricks = (15 kg)ay
considered. A force that is in the same direction m
T − 15 kg x 9.8 2 = (15 kg)ay
as the acceleration is positive, otherwise the s
T − 147N = (15 kg)ay → 𝐸𝑞1
force is negative.

Since there is only one rope connecting the load of bricks and the counterweight, the
tension T in the two equations are basically the same. Solving now the two equations
simultaneously, the answers obtained are:
𝐚𝐲 = 𝟐. 𝟗𝟔𝟐𝟖 𝐦/𝐬 𝟐

c) 𝐭𝐞𝐧𝐬𝐢𝐨𝐧 𝐢𝐧 𝐭𝐡𝐞 𝐫𝐨𝐩𝐞: 𝐓 = 𝟏𝟗𝟏. 𝟒𝟒𝟏𝟗 𝐍

2. Block A has a mass of 4.0 kg, and block B has a = 2 m/s2

mass 12.0 kg. The coefficient of kinetic friction B
between block B and the horizontal surface is
0.25. a) What is the mass of block C if block B is µK = 0.25
moving to the right and speeding up with an
acceleration 2 m/s2? b) what is the tension in
each cord when block B has this acceleration? A C

SOLUTION:
a) Mass of block C

To solve for the mass of block C, draw first the FBD of block C and apply the equation
𝚺𝐅𝐲 = 𝐦𝐚𝐲 . Since the three blocks are interconnected they have the same acceleration. i.e.
𝐚𝐲 = 𝐚𝐱 = 𝐚 = 𝟐𝐦/𝐬 𝟐

FBD of Block C Let TBC be the tension in the cord connecting blocks B
TBC and C and mc be equal to the mass of block C.
𝚺𝐅𝐲 = 𝐦𝐚𝐲
m
Wc − TBC = mc (2 2 )
a = 2 m/s2 s
m m
(9.8 2 ) mc − TBC = mc (2 2 )
s s
TBC
mc =
WC 7.8 m/s 2
Looking at the equation to solve for the mass of block C, m C, the value of the tension
connecting block B and C, TBC, is still unknown. So therefore, it has to be solved first. To solve
now for TBC, block B has to be considered. Draw FBD of block B and apply the equation
𝚺𝐅𝐱 = 𝐦𝐚𝐱

To solve for TAB consider FBD of block A and apply the equation 𝚺𝐅𝐲 = 𝐦𝐚𝐲 .
FBD of Block A 𝚺𝐅𝐲 = 𝐦𝐚𝐲
TAB TAB − WA = 4 kg x 2 m/s 2
m m
TAB − 4 kg x 9.8 2 = 8 kg. 2
s s
a = 2 m/s2 𝐓𝐀𝐁 = 𝟒𝟕. 𝟐 𝐍

Solving for TBC : TBC − TAB − f = 24 N

TBC − 47.2 N − 29.4 N = 24 N
WA
𝐓𝐁𝐂 = 𝟏𝟎𝟎. 𝟔 𝐍

TBC 100.6 N
Therefore: mc = =
7.8 m/s2 7.8 m/s2
𝒎𝑪 = 𝟏𝟐. 𝟖𝟗𝟕𝟒 𝒌𝒈

b) Tension in each cord

𝑻𝑨𝑩 = 𝟒𝟕. 𝟐 𝑵 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝑻𝑩𝑪 = 𝟏𝟎𝟎. 𝟔 𝑵

EVALUATE
1. A 25kg wooden plate is held in place by two strings attached to the ceiling and the
wall. The string attached to the ceiling makes an angle 40 with the horizontal and the
string attached to the wall makes 90 with the wall. Determine the force in each string.
2. A block 4kg in mass rests on a horizontal plane. What value of horizontal force is
required to (a) move the block, (b) maintain the motion of the block once it is moved?
The coefficients of static and kinetic friction are 0.23 and 0.18, respectively. What will
the force be, if the force is instead applied 25 above the horizontal?
3. A block has a mass of 6kg and rest initially on a plane inclined at 35. What value of
force is required to stop the block from sliding if (a) the plane is frictionless, (b) the

5. A block of mass 5 kg starts to slide down a frictionless plane,

inclined at 25 as shown in figure 2. The block moves from
rest at the top. The length of the incline is 2.0 m. Find (a) the
acceleration of the block, and (b) its speed when it
reaches the bottom of the inclined.

ENGAGE
From your learnings in kinematics and dynamics, what do you think causes work?

from kinematics and dynamics, will work have a direction? Explain.

EXPLORE
Read Module 4: Work, Energy and Power (pp 57 – 61)
EXPLAIN

The study of Physics is primarily involved with understanding energy in its different
forms. Many systems operate on the principle of conservation of energy which state that
energy of all forms possessed by an isolated system remains constant. The importance of
understanding the concept of energy stems from this principle and in this module, we will be
looking at the applications of the energy idea on a wide range of physical phenomena from
the simple case of a body being pushed along a surface to the operation of machines.
We will be concentrating on Mechanical energy, which is that form of energy
associated with the motion of the body and the forces acting on it. We will start by
considering the concept of work and its relation with the two forms of mechanical energy
i.e. potential and kinetic energy and finally consider the concept of power which is an
indication of the rate at which work is done or the rate at which energy is transferred in or
out of a system.

WORK
 a measure of the amount of change (in a general sense) that a force produces when
it acts on a body
 The change may be in the velocity of the body, in its position, or in its size or shape
 By definition, the work done by a force acting on a body is equal to the product of
the force and the distance through which the force acts, provided that F and d are
in the same direction. Thus,
𝐖𝐤 = 𝐅 ∙ 𝐝
Work = force x distance
∗ we use W𝑘 to distinguished work W to Weight W
F F

F cos θ F cos θ

d
𝑾𝒌 = (𝑭 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝜽) ∙ 𝒅

Where :
 = angle between the force and displacement

𝑊𝑘 = 𝐹 cos 𝜃 ∙ 𝑑
 Force applied is in the same direction as its displacement, 𝑊𝑘 = 𝐹 cos 0 ∙ 𝑑
WORK DONE IS POSITIVE
𝑊𝑘 = 𝐹 ∙ 𝑑
𝑊𝑘 = 𝐹 cos 𝜃 ∙ 𝑑
 Force applied is perpendicular with the direction of its
𝑊𝑘 = 𝐹 cos 90 ∙ 𝑑
displacement , NO WORK IS DONE
𝑊𝑘 = 0
𝑊𝑘 = 𝐹 cos 𝜃 ∙ 𝑑
 Force applied is in the opposite direction as its displacement, 𝑊𝑘 = 𝐹 cos 180 ∙ 𝑑
WORK DONE IS NEGATIVE
𝑊𝑘 = −𝐹 ∙ 𝑑

UNITS OF WORK:
UNITS SI CGS ENGLISH
Force, F Newton, N Dyne Pound, lb
Displacement, d Meter, m Cm Ft
Work, W N. m or Joule, J [Link] or Erg lb. ft

WORK DONE BY VARYING FORCE:

Example: Work done to stretch or to compress a spring.
𝟏
𝑾𝒌 = 𝒌𝒙𝟐
𝟐
Where: k = force constant of the spring
x = maximum elongation or compression of the spring

**NOTE: Since energy is equal to work, the units of energy is the same with work: Joule, erg,
and foot-pound

2 GENERAL CATEGORIES OF ENERGY:

o Potential energy, PE or U
o The energy a body has by virtue of displacement or position
a. Gravitational Potential Energy, Ugrav or PEgrav
o Energy stored by virtue of vertical position or height
o Energy stored as the result of gravity (weight) on the object
𝐔𝐠𝐫𝐚𝐯 = 𝐏𝐄𝐠𝐫𝐚𝐯 = Fd = Wh = 𝐦𝐠𝐡
Work done by gravity = -ΔU
Work done by external force = ΔU
Where: m = mass; g = gravitational acceleration; h = height or position

b. Elastic Potential Energy, Uspring, Uel or PE spring

o Energy stored in elastic materials as a result if stretching or compressing
o Uspring is proportional to the square of the amount of stretch or compression
𝟏
𝐏𝐄𝐬𝐩𝐫𝐢𝐧𝐠 = Fx = 𝐤 𝐱 𝟐 = area of F − x diagram
𝟐
𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒: 𝐹 = 𝑘𝑥 ; 𝑘 = 𝑠𝑝𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 .

o Kinetic Energy
a. The energy a body has by virtue of motion
𝟏
𝐦𝐯 𝟐
𝐊𝐄 =
𝟐
Where: KE = kinetic energy; m= mass of object; v = velocity

Note: The work done by the external forces acting on a body (except its weight) contributes
to the change of kinetic energy of the body, assuming ΔU = 0.

ALGEBRA DERIVATION CALCULUS DERIVATION

KE = Fd = ma d; ; let x = d
KE = Fd = ma d dv
but ad from but a =
dt
Vf 2 − Vi2 dv
Vf2 = Vi2 + 2ad; ad = ∫ KE = m dx
2 dt
Vf 2 − Vi2 1 dx
∴ KE = m ( ) = m (Vf 2 − Vi2 ) ∆KE = m dv = mV dv
2 2 dt
if Vi = 0 1
∆KE = m ∫ Vdv = m ( V 2 )
𝟏 2
𝐊𝐄 = 𝐦𝐯 𝟐 𝟏
𝟐 ∆𝐊𝐄 = 𝐦 𝐯 𝟐
𝟐

*Work Energy Theorem: States that the work done by the sum of all forces acting on a particle
equals the change in the kinetic energy of the particle
𝐖𝐧𝐞𝐭 = ∆𝐊𝐄
𝐅𝐧𝐞𝐭 𝐝 = 𝐊𝐄𝐟 − 𝐊𝐄𝐢

*MECHANICAL ENERGY, E - the mechanical energy of an object is equal to the sum of its
kinetic energy and potential energy, that is
𝐄 = 𝐊𝐄 + 𝐔

LAW OF CONSERVATION OF ENERGY:

o States that in an ISOLATED SYSTEM:
a. “energy can neither be created nor destroyed; it may only be transformed”
b. “the total amount of work done is equal to the change in the total energy”;
c. Assuming that the work done is equal to ZERO:
 “the total energy is constant”
 “the energy gained is equal to the energy loss”
o The total amount of energy in the universe is constant. A falling stone provides a simple
example: More and more of its initial potential energy turns to kinetic energy as its velocity
increases, until finally all its kinetic energy has become potential energy when it strikes
the ground. The kinetic energy of the stone is then transferred to the ground as work by
the impact.

IN GENERAL: If there is NO NON-CONSERVATIVE force, then

Wk total = ∆ Total Energy Wk total = 0 → 0 = ∆KE + ∆U
Fd = ∆(U + KE) (U + KE)f = (U + KE)i → Law of Conservatio of Energy
Fd = (U + KE)f Uf − Ui = −(KEf − KEi ) → ∆U = −∆KE → U Gained = KE Lost
− (U + KE)i or
−(Uf − Ui ) = (KEf − KEi ) → −∆U = ∆KE → U Lost = KE Gained

** Conservative forces – are those forces that do work that can be recovered. Ex.
Gravitational force, elastic forces, magnetic and electric field forces
**Non-conservative or dissipative forces – are those forces which do work that can’t be
recovered. Ex. Friction and other externally applied forces

POWER
o Rate of how much work is done; or rate of how much energy is used/consumed
dW W Work
P= = =
dt t time

the more power something has, the more work it can perform in a given time

UNITS OF POWER
FORCE DISPLACEMENT WORK/ ENERGY POWER
METRIC Newton, N, Meters, m N.m, Joules (J) J/s = Watts, W
kg .m/s2 [Link] (ergs) Horsepower, hp
dynes, [Link]/s2
ENGLISH Pound, lb Foot, ft [Link] [Link]/s
*1N = 105 dynes *1J = 107
ergs *1hp = 746 watts
*1hp=550 [Link]/s *1Watt = 1 J/s = 1.34 x 10-3 hp

When a constant force F does work on a body that is moving at the constant velocity v, if F
is parallel to V the power involved is
W F∙d
P= = = Fv
t t

Since d/t= v, then Power = Force x velocity

SOLUTION:
P
First step is to draw a simple diagram
representing the given data.
Afterwards, draw a free body diagram f=5N
P = 20 N
FBD. Nf
W
30o

a) Work done by the force P c) Work done by the normal force

To solve for the work done by force WNf = 𝑁𝑓 . d cosθ
P, use the equation WP = P.d cosθ WNf = 𝑁𝑓 . d cos 90o
θ is the angle between the force 𝐖𝐍𝐟 = 𝟎 𝐉𝐨𝐮𝐥𝐞
and displacement * work is ZERO since Nf and d are
WP = P. d cosθ perpendicular
WP = (20 N)(15 m)cos 0o d) Work done by friction
𝐖𝐏 = 𝟑𝟎𝟎 𝐉𝐨𝐮𝐥𝐞 Wf = f. d cosθ
* θ = 0° since P and d are in the Wf = (5 N)(15 m)cos180o
same direction 𝐖𝐟 = −𝟕𝟓 𝐉𝐨𝐮𝐥𝐞
* work is NEGATIVE since friction d are
b) Work done by the gravity force
opposite in direction
Wg = w. d cosθ
e) Total work done on the block
Wg = (30N)(15 m)cos120o
Wtotal = ΣWi
𝐖𝐠 = −𝟐𝟐𝟓 𝐉𝐨𝐮𝐥𝐞
Wtotal = 300 J − 225 J + 0 − 75 J
* work is NEGTIVE since 𝐖𝐭𝐨𝐭𝐚𝐥 = 𝟎 𝐉𝐨𝐮𝐥𝐞
component of W along the
incline and d are opposite in
direction

GIVEN: SOLUTION:
Solve first for the force constant of the
spring by using Hooke’s Law:
F 100 N N
k= = = 250
x 0.4 m m
a) Force required to stretch the spring of
0.1 m
x = 0.4 m N
𝐅 = kx = (250 ) (0.1 m) = 𝟐𝟓 𝐍
m
Force to compress the spring 0.2 m
N
𝐅 = kx = (250 ) (0.2 m) = 𝟓𝟎 𝐍
m
F = 100 N
b) Work that must be done to stretch the c) Work that must be done to compress
spring 0.1 m beyond its unstretched length the spring 0.2 m from its equilibrium
1 1 N position
W = kx 2 = (250 ) (0.1 m)2
2 2 m 1 1 N
𝐖 = 𝟏. 𝟐𝟓 𝐉𝐨𝐮𝐥𝐞 W = kx 2 = (250 ) (0.2 m)2
2 2 m
𝐖 = 𝟓 𝐉𝐨𝐮𝐥𝐞

ENERGY
1. A 1.5-kg book is held 60 cm above a desk whose top is 70 cm above the floor. Find the
potential energy of the book (a) with respect to the desk, and (b) with respect to the
floor.
Given: Solution:
m = 1.5 kg a) Potential energy of the book with respect to
the desk
m
60 cm U = mgh = (1.5 kg) (9.8 2 ) (0.60 m)
s
𝐔 = 𝟖. 𝟖𝟐 𝐉𝐨𝐮𝐥𝐞
b) Potential energy of the book with respect to
70 cm the floor
m
U = mgh = (1.5 kg) (9.8 2 ) (1.30 m)
s
𝐔 = 𝟏𝟗. 𝟏𝟏 𝐉𝐨𝐮𝐥𝐞

A B C
VA=3.21 m/s VB=1.25 m/s

Solution:
a) Work done on the book between A and B
Use work-kinetic energy relation to solve for the work done on the book between A and
B.
1 1
𝑊𝐴𝐵 = ∆𝐾𝐸 = 𝐾𝐸𝐵 − 𝐾𝐸𝐴 = 𝑚𝑉𝐵2 − 𝑚𝑉𝐴2
2 2
1 𝑚 2 1 𝑚
𝑊𝐴𝐵 = (1.5 𝑘𝑔)( 1.25 ) − (1.5 𝑘𝑔)( 3.21 )2
2 𝑠 2 𝑠
𝑾𝑨𝑩 = −𝟔. 𝟓𝟓𝟔𝟐 𝑱𝒐𝒖𝒍𝒆

b) Velocity of the book at point C if a work of -0.750 J is done on the book from B to C
Use work-kinetic energy relation to solve for the velocity of the book at point C.
1 1
𝑊𝐵𝐶 = ∆𝐾𝐸 = 𝐾𝐸𝐶 − 𝐾𝐸𝐵 = 𝑚𝑉𝐶2 − 𝑚𝑉𝐵2
2 2
1 1 𝑚
−0.75 𝐽 = (1.5 𝑘𝑔)𝑉𝐶2 − (1.5 𝑘𝑔)( 1.25 )2
2 2 𝑠
𝑽𝑪 = 𝟎. 𝟕𝟓 𝒎/𝒔

c) Velocity of the book at point C if of work of +0.750 J were done on it from B to C

Use work-kinetic energy relation to solve for the velocity of the book at point C.
1 1
𝑊𝐵𝐶 = ∆𝐾𝐸 = 𝐾𝐸𝐶 − 𝐾𝐸𝐵 = 𝑚𝑉𝐶2 − 𝑚𝑉𝐵2
2 2
1 1 𝑚
0.75 𝐽 = (1.5 𝑘𝑔)𝑉𝐶2 − (1.5 𝑘𝑔)( 1.25 )2
2 2 𝑠
𝑽𝑪 = 𝟏. 𝟔𝟎𝟎𝟖 𝒎/𝒔

Given: Solution:
Vi=12m/s a) Speed of the ball just before it strikes
the ground by using energy methods
53.1o and ignoring air resistance
 Since the force acting on the
baseball is only its weight which is
22 m
a conservative force, therefore
Vf=? the equation that can be applied
is the Law of Conservation of
Mechanical Energy.
𝐾𝐸𝑓 + 𝑈𝑓 = 𝐾𝐸𝑖 + 𝑈𝑖
1 1
𝑚𝑉𝑓2 + 𝑚𝑔ℎ𝑓 = 𝑚𝑉𝑖2 + 𝑚𝑔ℎ𝑖
2 2
1 2 𝑚 1 12𝑚 𝑚
𝑚 𝑉𝑓 + 𝑚 (9.8 2 ) (0) = 𝑚 ( 2 + 𝑚 (9.8 2 ) (22 𝑚) → 𝑽𝒇 = 𝟐𝟑. 𝟗𝟖𝟑𝟑 𝒎/𝒔
2 𝑠 2 𝑠) 𝑠

b) Answer for part (a) if the initial velocity is at an angle of 53.1° below the horizontal
 If the initial velocity of the baseball is at an angle of 53.1o below the horizontal, still
the force acting on the ball is only its weight which is a conservative force, therefore
the equation that can be applied is the Law of Conservation of Mechanical Energy.
𝐾𝐸𝑓 + 𝑈𝑓 = 𝐾𝐸𝑖 + 𝑈𝑖
1 1
𝑚𝑉𝑓2 + 𝑚𝑔ℎ𝑓 = 𝑚𝑉𝑖2 + 𝑚𝑔ℎ𝑖
2 2
1 𝑚 1 12𝑚 𝑚
𝑚 𝑉𝑓2 + 𝑚 (9.8 2 ) (0) = 𝑚 ( 2 + 𝑚 (9.8 2 ) (22 𝑚) → 𝑽𝒇 = 𝟐𝟑. 𝟗𝟖𝟑𝟑 𝒎/𝒔
2 𝑠 2 𝑠) 𝑠

 Whether the ball is thrown horizontally, at angle below or above the horizontal or
vertically upward or downward(freefall), still the V f will be the same because the
values of Vi, hi, hf, g and mass remain constant.

GIVEN SOLUTION:
m = 0.2 kg a) i) Work done on the rock between
Vi or VA = 0 points A and B by the normal force
𝐖𝐍𝐟 = 𝑵𝒇 𝐝𝐜𝐨𝐬𝟗𝟎𝐨 = 𝟎
 Always remember that the work
Wf A-B = - 0.22 J
done by normal force is always zero,
Vf or VB
because N and d are always
perpendicular with each other.

a) ii) Work done on the rock between points A and B by gravity

m
Wg = wdcosθ = (0.2 kg ∗ 9.8 2) (0.5 m)cos 0° = 0.98 Joule
s

b) Speed of the rock as it reaches point B

 The rock encounters friction as it travels from point A to point B. Since friction
is non-conservative force, therefore to solve for the velocity of the rock at
point B use the equation:
𝐖𝐍𝐂 = 𝚫𝐊𝐄 + 𝚫𝐔
WNC = Wf = ∆KE + ∆U = (KE f − KEi ) + (Uf − Ui )
1 1
= ( mVf2 − mVi2 ) + (mghf − mghi )
2 2
1 1 m m
− 0.22 = (0.2 kg)𝐕𝐟𝟐 − (0.2 kg)(0) + (0.2 kg) (9.8 2 ) (0) − (0.2 kg)(9.8 2 )(0.5 m)
2 2 s s

𝒎
𝑽𝒇 = 𝟐. 𝟕𝟓𝟔𝟖
𝒔

Solution:
a) Velocity V2 of the skier at the bottom of the slope if frictional forces do -10.5 kJ of work
on her as she descends
 The skier encounters friction as she descends the slope. Since frictional force is non-
conservative force, to solve for the velocity of the skier at the bottom of the slope use
the equation
WNC = ΔKE + ΔU.
𝟏 𝟏
𝑾𝑵𝑪 = 𝑾𝒇 = ∆𝑲𝑬 + ∆𝑼 = (𝑲𝑬𝟐 − 𝑲𝑬𝟏 ) + (𝑼𝟐 − 𝑼𝟏 ) = ( 𝒎𝑽𝟐𝟐 − 𝒎𝑽𝟐𝟏 ) + (𝒎𝒈𝒉𝟐 − 𝒎𝒈𝒉𝟏 )
𝟐 𝟐
1 1 𝑚 𝑚
− 10500 𝐽 = (60𝑘𝑔)𝑉22 − (60 𝑘𝑔)(0) + (60 𝑘𝑔 ∗ 9.8 2 ) (0) − (60 𝑘𝑔 ∗ 9.8 2 ) (65 𝑚)
2 2 𝑠 𝑠
𝑽𝟐 = 𝟑𝟎. 𝟑𝟗𝟕𝟒 𝒎/𝒔

b) Velocity of the skier after crossing the patch

 The skier encounters friction and air resistance as she crosses horizontally a
patch of snow. Therefore, to solve for her velocity after crossing the patch of
snow use the equation
WNC = ΔKE + ΔU.
𝑾𝑵𝑪 = 𝑾𝒇 + 𝑾𝑭𝑨𝑰𝑹 = ∆𝑲𝑬 + ∆𝑼 = (𝑲𝑬𝟑 − 𝑲𝑬𝟐 ) + (𝑼𝟑 − 𝑼𝟐 )
𝟏 𝟏
= ( 𝒎𝑽𝟐𝟑 − 𝒎𝑽𝟐𝟐 ) + (𝒎𝒈𝒉𝟑 − 𝒎𝒈𝒉𝟐 )
𝟐 𝟐
𝑚
0.2 (60𝑘𝑔 ∗ 9.8 ) ∗ 82𝑚 ∗ 𝑐𝑜𝑠1800 + 160 𝑁 ∗ 82 𝑚 ∗ 𝑐𝑜𝑠180𝑜
𝑠2
1 1 𝑚 𝑚
= (60𝑘𝑔)𝑉32 − (60 𝑘𝑔)(30.3974 )2 + (60 𝑘𝑔 ∗ 9.8 2 ) (0)
2 2 𝑠 𝑠
𝑚
− (60 𝑘𝑔 ∗ 9.8 2 ) (0 𝑚)
𝑠
𝒎
𝑽𝟑 = 𝟏𝟐. 𝟖𝟓𝟒𝟏
𝒔

Solution:
a) Speed of the block as it passes through equilibrium if the horizontal surface is
frictionless
 No friction is acting between the block and the horizontal surface, so it means
there is no non-conservative force acting on the system. Therefore, to solve for the
speed of the block as it passes through the equilibrium (X = 0), use the law of
conservation of mechanical energy. Since there is spring in the system, elastic
potential energy will be included.
KEf + Uf + Uel f = KEi + Ui + Uel i
0m 0m 0 m/s 0m
1 1 1 1
mVf2 + mghf + kX2f = mVi2 + mghi + kX2i
2 2 2 2

 The block has no initial and final height since it is placed on a horizontal surface,
its initial velocity is zero, and the final elongation of the spring is zero because at
equilibrium X = 0.
1 1
mVf2 = kX2i
2 2
1 1 N
(2 kg)Vf2 = (500 ) (0.05 m)2
2 2 m
𝐕𝐟 = 𝟎. 𝟕𝟗𝟎𝟔 𝐦/𝐬

b) Speed of the block as it passes through equilibrium if the coefficient of friction

between block and surface is µk = 0.350
 This time there is non-conservative force acting on the system which is friction.
To solve for the speed of the block as it passes through the equilibrium (X = 0),
use the equation,

WNC = Wf = ∆KE + ∆U + ∆Uel = (KEf − KEi ) + (Uf − Ui ) + (Uel f − Uel i )

1 1 1 1
Wf = ( mVf2 − mVi2 ) + (mghf − mghi ) + ( kX2f − kX2i )
2 2 2 2

7. A block with mass 0.50 kg is forced against a

horizontal spring of negligible mass,
compressing the spring a distance of 0.20 m
as shown in the figure below. When released,
the block moves on a horizontal tabletop for
1.00 m before coming to rest. The spring
constant k is 100 N/m. What is the coefficient
of kinetic friction µk between the block and the tabletop?

SOLUTION:
Coefficient of kinetic friction µk between the block and the tabletop
 There is non-conservative force acting on the system which is friction. To solve for the
coefficient of kinetic friction µk between the block and the tabletop, use the
equation,
WNC = Wf = ∆KE + ∆U + ∆Uel = (KEf − KEi ) + (Uf − Ui ) + (Uel f − Uel i )
1 1 1 1
Wf = ( mVf2 − mVi2 ) + (mghf − mghi ) + ( kX2f − kX2i )
2 2 2 2

 The block has no initial and final height since it is placed on a horizontal surface, its
initial velocity and final velocity is zero, and the final elongation of the spring is zero
because it will go back to its unstretched length (X= 0).
1
Wf = − kX2i
2
1
fdcosθ = μNdcosθ = − kX2i
2
m 1 N
μ (0.5 kg ∗ 9.8 2 ) (1 m)cos 180o = − (100 ) (0.2m)2
s 2 m
𝝁 = 𝟎. 𝟒𝟎𝟖𝟐

2. A tandem (two-person) bicycle team must overcome a force of 165 N to maintain a

speed of 9.0 m/s. Find the power required per rider, assuming that each contributes
equally. Express your answer in watts and in horsepower.
m
P F ∗ V (165 N ∗ 9 s )
= =
rider 2 2
𝟏 𝐇𝐩
𝐏 = 𝟕𝟒𝟐. 𝟓 𝐖𝐚𝐭𝐭 * → 𝐏 = 𝟎. 𝟗𝟗𝟓𝟑 𝐇𝐩
𝟕𝟒𝟔 𝐖𝐚𝐭𝐭

3. Working Like a Horse. Your job is to lift 30-kg crates a vertical distance of 0.90 m from the
ground onto the bed of a truck. (a) How many crates would you have to load onto the
truck in 1 minute for the average power output you use to lift the crates to equal 0.50 Hp?
(b) How many crates for an average power output of 100 W?

SOLUTION:
a) Number of crates to be loaded onto the truck in 1 minute for the average power output
used to lift the crates be equal to 0.50 Hp
 Let N be equal to the number of crates
Work U N ∗ mgh
P= = =
time t t
J m
746 N ∗ (30 kg ∗ 9.8 2) (0.9 m)
s s
0.50 Hp ∗ =
1 Hp 60 s
𝐍 = 𝟖𝟒. 𝟓𝟖 𝐜𝐫𝐚𝐭𝐞𝐬 ≈ 𝟖𝟒 𝐜𝐫𝐚𝐭𝐞𝐬

b) Number of crates to be loaded onto the truck in 1 minute for the average power output
used to lift the crates be equal to 100 W
Work U N ∗ mgh
P= = =
time t t
m
J N ∗ (30 kg ∗ 9.8 s2) (0.9 m)
100 =
s 60 s
𝐍 = 𝟐𝟐. 𝟔𝟕𝟓𝟕 𝐜𝐫𝐚𝐭𝐞𝐬 ≈ 𝟐𝟐 𝐜𝐫𝐚𝐭𝐞𝐬

2. Determine the potential energy for each position in the given figure. Determine the mass
of the ball if the height of each step is 10m.

3. Solve for the Kinetic energy and velocity at each position for problem 3, if the velocity
initial is (a) 0 m/s; (b) 2 m/s.

4. Determine the potential and kinetic energy for each position.

KE=0 J
PE=35 000 J

6. a 2kg mass is attached to a spring. If the elongation of spring is 4cm. how much potential
energy is there in the spring?

7. The potential energy of an elastic spring when elongated 12 cm is 3.5 Joule. Determine
the spring constant. What is the potential energy and force of the spring if its elongation
is 10 cm?

8. A 2 kg mass is attached to a spring. If the elongation of the spring is 4 cm, determine the
potential energy of the spring. What is the value of the spring constant? How much force
is required to elongate the spring by 5 cm?

9. A spring has a force constant of 3N/m. How much force is required to compress the spring
by 2 cm? If a pulling force of 3N is applied how much is the spring’s deformation?

POWER
1. A 60 kg person runs up the stairs 12 meters high for 3 minutes. Determine the power.

2. Determine the mass of a person climbing a tree 5 meters high in 9 seconds with power of
450 Joule

3. Determine the energy used by a rotary pump with power of 400 watts. The pump works
for a period of 5minutes and rotates 5 rounds.

4. Determine the power required by an 80kg man to run down a slope from 1.0 m/s to 2.0
m/s in 2 seconds.

5. a 95 kg running back runs accelerates from 5.0 m/s to a final velocity. determine his final
velocity given that the power is 200 Joule/sec and the running was done for 5 seconds.

6. How long would it take to go for a pulley to move a 50 kg sack with a power of 250
Joule/second. The sack moves from 3m/s to 5m/s.

EXPLORE
Read Module 5: Impulse and Momentum (pp 73 - 75)
EXPLAIN

LINEAR MOMENTUM AND COLLISIONS

Another conservation principle worth looking at is the Law of conservation of
momentum. Many physical phenomena can also be analyzed using this law. In fact, in
several situations, it is even simpler to use it than the law of conservation of energy or
Newton’s laws of motion. Specific cases are impacts and collisions wherein large forces are
applied for short times and cause changes in the motion of the bodies in the system. In
addition to momentum, another concept called impulse will be introduced. Based on
Newton’s laws, these two concepts are related, and we will see how these relations apply in
many areas of physics and mechanics.

IMPULSE (J) – Impulse of a force is defined as the product of a force and the time during
which it acts. (in some books impulse is also denoted as I)
𝐉 = 𝐅𝐭

Impulse is a vector quantity whose direction is the same as the direction of the force,
i.e. the impulse of a force directed upward is directed upwards. Its units are N.s in the SI.
If the force varies with time, then
𝐭𝟐
𝐉 = ∫ 𝐅 𝐝𝐭
𝐭𝟏
Where F is given as function of time t

LINEAR MOMENTUM (p) of a body is the product of its mass (m) and velocity (v):
Linear momentum = (mass of body) (velocity of body)
𝐩 = 𝐦𝐯

Momentum is a vector quantity whose direction is that of the velocity. The units of
momentum are kg-m/s in the SI, and can be expressed in component form:
p𝑥 = mv𝑥 p𝑦 = mv𝑦 p𝑧 = mv𝑧

The time rate of change of the linear momentum of a particle is equal to the net force acting
on the particle.

The momentum of a system changes if a net force from the environment acts on the system.

IMPULSE-MOMENTUM THEOREM
The change in the momentum of a particle is equal to the impulse (I) of the new force
acting on the particle.
Impulse = change in momentum
𝐈 = 𝚫𝐩
𝐰𝐡𝐞𝐫𝐞: 𝐈 = ∑𝐅𝚫𝐭 𝐚𝐧𝐝 𝚫𝐩 = 𝐩𝐟 − 𝐩𝐢 𝐚𝐧𝐝 𝐩 = 𝐦𝐯
Therefore,
∑𝐅∆𝐭 = 𝐦(𝐯𝐟 − 𝐯𝐢 )

Impulse is a vector quantity whose direction is that of the force. Its units are N-s in the SI.

CONSERVATION OF LINEAR MOMENTUM:

If the net external force acting on a system of objects is zero, the vector sum of the
momenta of the objects will remain constant.

IN COLLISIONS AND EXPLOSIONS:

the vector sum of the momenta just before the event equals the vector sum of the
momenta just after the event. The vector sum of the momenta of the objects involved does
not change during the collision or explosion.

Thus, when two bodies of masses m1, and m2 collide,

Total momentum before impact = Total momentum after impact
𝐦𝟏 𝐮𝟏 + 𝐦𝟐 𝐮𝟐 = 𝐦𝟏 𝐯𝟏 + 𝐦𝟐 𝐯𝟐
Where
u1 and u2 are the velocities before impact, and
v1 and v2 are the velocities after.

A PERFECTLY ELASTIC COLLISION is one in which the sum of the translational kinetic energies
of the objects is not changed during the collision. In the case of two bodies,
𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
𝐦𝟏 𝐮𝟏 𝟐 + 𝐦𝟐 𝐮𝟐 𝟐 = 𝐦𝟏 𝐯𝟏 𝟐 + 𝐦𝟐 𝐯𝟐 𝟐
𝟐 𝟐 𝟐 𝟐

COEFFICIENT OF RESTITUTION: For any collision between two bodies in which the bodies
move only along a single straight line (e.g., the x-axis), a coefficient of restitution e is
defined. It is a pure number given by
𝐯𝟐𝐱 − 𝐯𝟏𝐱
𝐞=
𝐮𝟏𝐱 − 𝐮𝟐𝐱

where
u1x and u2x are values before impact, and
v1x and v2x are values after impact.

Notice that |𝑢1𝑥 − 𝑢2𝑥 | is the relative speed of approach and |𝑣2𝑥 − 𝑣1𝑥 | is the relative speed
of recession.

2. A force directed to the right has a magnitude that varies according to the equation
F= (0.4 N/ s2) t2. It is applied to a body from t1 = 2 s to time t2 = 5 s. What is the impulse of
the force during the time interval from t1 to t2?

Solution:
t2 5sec 5sec
N N t3 (5sec)3 (2sec)3 N 125sec 3 − 8sec 3
J = ∫ F dt = ∫ 0.4 2 t 2 dt = 0.4 2 ] = 0.4 [ − ] = 0.4 2 ( )
s s 3 2 sec 3 3 s 3
t1 2sec
117
J = 0.4N ( sec) = 𝟏𝟓. 𝟔 𝐍. 𝐬
3

MOMENTUM
3. A 10 kg block is initially moving to the right at 20 m/s. Determine the change in
momentum if (a) finally the body is moving at 10 m/s to the left and (b) the body is
finally moving at 5 m/s downward.

SOLUTION:
m
a. Initial momentum, p𝑖 = m ∗ v𝑖 = 10 kg ∗ 20ms = 200 kg. →
s
m
Final momentum p𝑓 = m ∗ v𝑓 = 10 kg ∗ 10ms = 100 kg. ←
s
m m
∆p = pf − pi = − 100 kg. − 200 kg.
s s
𝐦 𝐦
∆𝐩 = −𝟑𝟎𝟎 𝐤𝐠. = 𝟑𝟎𝟎 𝐤𝐠. ←
𝐬 𝐬

m m
b. pi = m ∗ vi = 10 kg ∗ 20 = 200 kg. →
s s
m m
pf = m ∗ vf = 10 kg ∗ 5 = 50 kg. ↓
s s
∆p = pf − pi = pf + (−pi) vector subtraction
𝒎
∆𝑝 = √(−502 ) + (−2002 ) = 𝟐𝟎𝟔. 𝟏𝟓𝟓𝟑 𝒌𝒈.
𝒔
50
𝜃 = tan−1 = 𝟏𝟒. 𝟎𝟑𝟔𝟐° 𝒃𝒆𝒍𝒐𝒘 𝒚𝒉𝒆 𝒉𝒐𝒓𝒊𝒛𝒐𝒏𝒕𝒂𝒍 𝒕𝒐 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒍𝒆𝒇𝒕
200

1. A 2-kg brick is moving to the right at a speed of 6m/s. How large a force F is needed to
stop the brick in a time of 7x10-4 s?

SOLUTION: Using impulse momentum relation,

m I = ∆p
pi = m ∗ vi = 2 kg ∗ 6ms = 12 kg. →
s ∑F ∆t = pf − pi
pf = m ∗ vf = 2 kg ∗ 0 = 0 m
(0 − 12)kg.
s
∑F = = −17, 142.857 N
7x 10−4 s
∑F = 𝟏𝟕. 𝟏𝟒𝟑 𝐤𝐍 ←

2. A 0.25-kg ball moving in the +x-direction at 13m/s is hit by a bat. Its final velocity is 19m/s
in the –x-direction. The bat acts on the ball for 0.01 s. Find the average force exerted on the
ball by the bat.
SOLUTION: Using impulse momentum relation,
13m m I = ∆p
pi = m ∗ vi = 0.2 5kg ∗ = 3.25 kg. →
s s ∑F ∆t = pf − pi
19m m (−4.75 − 3.25)kg.
m
pf = m ∗ vf = 0.25 kg ∗ = 4.75 kg. ← s
s s ∑F = = −800 N
0.01 s
∑F = 𝟖𝟎𝟎 𝐍 ←

CONSERVATION OF LINEAR MOMENTUM

1. A 16-g ball is moving in the +x-direction at 30cm/s while a 4 g ball is moving in the –x-
direction at 50cm/s. They collide head on and stick together. Find their velocity after
the collision.
GIVEN:
cm
m1=16 g 280 g − = 16g ∗ v1 + 4g ∗ v2
u1=30 cm/s s
m2=4g
u2 =50 cm/s  Since the two balls will stick together
after the collision, therefore their final
SOLUTION: velocities will be the same, i.e. v1=v2
Use Law of conservation of momentum cm
280 g − = 16g ∗ v1 + 4g ∗ v1
equation: s
cm
Total momentum before impact = Total 280 g − = 20g ∗ v1
s
momentum after impact 𝟐𝟖𝟎 𝐜𝐦 𝐜𝐦
𝐯𝟏 = = 𝟏𝟒 → = 𝐯𝟐
m1 u1 + m2 u2 = m1 v1 + m2 v2 𝟐𝟎 𝐬 𝐬
cm cm
16 g (30 ) + 4 g (−50 ) = 16 g(𝑣1 ) + 4g(𝑣2 )
s s

2. An 8-g bullet is fired horizontally into a 9-kg cube of wood, which is at rest, and sticks in it.
The cube is free to move and has a speed of 40cm/s after impact. Find the initial velocity
of the bullet.

3. A ball has a mass of 4 kg and velocity of 8m/s to the north. Impulse is given at point,
changing its velocity to 6 m/s east. Determine the impulse and the change in momentum.

4. Car A is 3000N moves at velocity 3 m/s east. A car B 2500 N approaches car A at velocity
4m/s west. Determine the velocity of car A if (a) the two cars get stuck together after
collision; (b) car B moves 5m/s west; (c) car B moves 3m/s east

5. A 50 kg mass is sitting on a frictionless surface. An unknown constant force pushes the

mass for 2 seconds until it reaches a velocity of 3m/s. (a) what is the initial momentum of
the mass? (b) what is the final momentum of the mass? (c) what is the value of the force
acting on the mass? (d) what is the impulse acting on the mass?

What is the difference between translational and rotational motion?

What are the characteristics of rotational motion?

Can objects move in circular motion while moving linearly? Cite an example

EXPLORE
Read Module 6: Rotational Motion (pp 80 - 84)
EXPLAIN

ROTATIONAL MOTION
 Refers to motion of objects about a fixed axis
 It is also called angular motion or circular motion
 The earth’s revolution (and other planets as well) around the sun may be treated as
circular but is not an example of rotational motion as planetary orbits are elliptical in
reality
 An object may experience rotation while also experiencing linear motion, for example,
a football spinning like a top as it arcs through the air when passed, or a wheel rolling
down a street
 Treatment of objects under both rotational and linear motion are done separately,
though the two types of motion are analogous

RPM
means revolutions per minute (rev/min). One revolution is equal to 2π rad or 360o.
Sometimes the angular velocity of a rotating body is expressed in RPM.

ROTATIONAL MOTION vs TRANSLATIONAL (LINEAR) MOTION

In physics, any quantity that can be described linearly can also be described in angular
terms

LINEAR ROTATIONAL

Position x Angular position , rad

angular
Displacement x, meters  , rad
displacement
dx ∆x m dθ ∆θ rad
Velocity v= = , Angular velocity = , ω=
dt ∆t s dt ∆t s
dv ∆v m dω ∆ω rad
Acceleration a= = , Angular acceleration α = = ,
dt ∆t s 2 dt ∆t s 2

Average angular velocity, 𝜔𝑎𝑣𝑒

Average angular velocity 𝜔𝑎𝑣𝑒 of the body in the time
interval ∆𝑡 = 𝑡2 − 𝑡1 is the ratio of the angular displacement
∆𝜃 = 𝜃2 − 𝜃1 to ∆𝑡.
∆θ θ2 − θ1
ωave = =
∆t t 2 − t1

Instantaneous angular acceleration ∆ω dω

α ≡ lim =
∆t→0 ∆t dt

Take note that a particle moving with constant angular velocity has a tangential velocity, vt
in the direction perpendicular to r. even if the magnitude of vt is constant the direction of its
vector is continuously changing.
Since the vt is always changing, a centripetal acceleration, ac will exist, which is directed
inward toward the rotation axis

Vt
ac

Magnitude
unit
formula
circumferential velocity = tangent m
vc = vt 𝐫𝛚
velocity at P s
radial acceleration = acceleration
𝐯𝐭 𝟐 m
ac towards the center (centripetal 𝐫𝛚𝟐 =
𝐫 s2
acceleration)
circumferential acceleration = tangent m
at 𝐫𝛂
acceleration at P s2

Circumferential acceleration:
dvc
a𝑡 = → But
dt But d(rω) rdω Therefore: 𝐚𝒕 = 𝐫𝛂
a𝑡 = a𝑡 = → dω
v𝑡 = rω → dt dt =α→
dt
→

radial acceleration:
Aporoximate the arc = chord
∆𝑥
From linear velocity: 𝑣 =
∆𝑡
By similar triangles:
∆𝑥 ∆𝑣 𝑟∆𝑣
= → ∆𝑥 =
𝑟 𝑣 𝑣
r∆v
Equate x: v∆t =
v
∆𝑣
from linear acceleration: 𝑎 =
∆𝑡
∆𝒗 𝒗𝟐
Therefore, 𝒂= =
∆𝒕 𝒓
Or since
(𝑟𝜔)2
𝑣 = 𝑟𝜔 → ∴ 𝑎 = → 𝒂 = 𝒓𝝎𝟐
𝑟

MOTION WITH CONSTANT ANGULAR ACCELERATION

Whenever a body rotates with constant angular acceleration, its change of angular
velocity is constant for equal time interval. For example, a body which is initially at rest,
rotates with constant acceleration of 4 rad/s2. When time is 0, the angular velocity of the
body is 0, after 1 sec its angular velocity is 4 rad/s, after 2 sec (from starting time), its angular
velocity is 8 rad/s, after 3 sec (from starting time), its angular velocity is 12 rad/s, etc.

Since, angular motion is analogous to linear motion, linear equations may also be applied
using angular quantities:

ELABORATE
RADIANS and RPM
1. What angle in radians is subtended by an arc 3 m in length, on the circumference of a
circle whose radius is 2 m?
𝐬 3m
SOLUTION: 𝛉 = = = 𝟏. 𝟓 𝐫𝐚𝐝𝐢𝐚𝐧
𝐫 2m

2. What angle in radians is subtended by an arc of length 78.54 cm on the circumference

of a circle of diameter 100 cm? What is the angle in degrees?
𝐬 78.54 cm
SOLUTION: 𝛉 = = 100 = 𝟏. 𝟓𝟕𝟎𝟖 𝐫𝐚𝐝𝐢𝐚𝐧
𝐫 ( ) cm
2
360o
θ = 1.5708 radian ∗ = 𝟗𝟎𝐨
2π rad

3. The angle between the two radii of a circle of radius 2 m is 0.60 rad. What length of arc
is intercepted on the circumference of the circle by the two radii?
SOLUTION: s = rθ = 2m ∗ 0.60 = 𝟏. 𝟐 𝐦

4. What is the angular velocity (in rad/s) of the crankshaft of an automobile engine that is
rotating at 4800 RPM?
rev 1 min 2π rad 𝐫𝐚𝐝
SOLUTION: ω = 4800 ∗ ∗ = 𝟓𝟎𝟐. 𝟔𝟓𝟒𝟖
min 60 s 1 rev 𝐬

ANGULAR QUANTITIES
1. A merry-go-round is being pushed by a child. The angle the merry-go-round has turned
𝒓𝒂𝒅 𝒓𝒂𝒅 𝟑
through varies with time according to the equation 𝜽𝒕 = (𝟐 )𝒕 + (𝟎. 𝟎𝟓 )𝒕 .
𝒔 𝒔𝟑
b) Calculate the angular velocity of the merry-go-round as a function of time.
c) What is the initial value of the angular velocity?
d) Calculate the instantaneous value of the angular velocity at t = 5 s and the average
angular velocity for the time interval t = 0 to t = 5 s.

∆θ θ2 − θ1 16.25 rad−0 𝐫𝐚𝐝

ωave = = = = 𝟑. 𝟐𝟓
∆t t2 − t 1 5 s−0 𝐬

𝒓𝒂𝒅 𝒓𝒂𝒅
2. A rigid object rotates with an angular velocity that is given by 𝝎(𝒕) = 𝟒 − (𝟎. 𝟖 ) 𝒕𝟐
𝒔 𝒔𝟑
a) Calculate the angular acceleration as a function of time.
b) Calculate the instantaneous angular acceleration at t = 2 s and the average angular
acceleration for the time interval t = 0 to t= 2 s.

SOLUTION:
a) The angular acceleration as a function of time is the first derivative 𝜔 of with respect
to time.
𝑑𝜔 𝑟𝑎𝑑
𝛼= = − (1.6 3 ) 𝑡
𝑑𝑡 𝑠

b) When the time t = 2 s, the instantaneous angular acceleration is

rad
α2 sec = − (1.6 3 ) (2 s) = −𝟑. 𝟐 𝐫𝐚𝐝/𝐬 𝟐
s

For the average angular acceleration for the time interval from t = 0 to t = 2 s, first calculate
the value of 𝜔 at time t = 0, then at time t = 2 s.
rad rad
When t = 0; ω1 = 4 − (0.8 3 ) 02 = 0
s s
rad rad
When t = 2 s; ω2 = 4 − (0.8 3 ) (2 s)2 = 0.8 rad/s
s s
rad
∆ω ω2 − ω1 0.8 −0 𝐫𝐚𝐝
s
αave = = = = 𝟎. 𝟒
∆t t 2 − t1 2s−0 𝐬𝟐

Given: Solution:
rad ∆ω
α = 1.5 2 angular acceleration is defined by α =
s ∆t
rads rad ∆ω rad
ωi = 3.0 1.5 2 = → ∆ω = 2.25
sec s 1.5s s
∆t = 1.5 seconds but ∆ω = ωf − ωi
Required: rad rad
2.25 = ωf − 3.0
Final angular speed s s
𝐫𝐚𝐝
∴ 𝛚𝐟 = 𝟓. 𝟐𝟓
𝐬

4. An average car tire has a radius of 0.35 meters. If the car accelerates in a straight line
from rest at 3.15 m/s2, calculate for the angular acceleration of the front passenger tire.
Given: Solution:
m
R = 0.35 meters a 3.15 2 𝐫𝐚𝐝
s
a = 3.15 m/s2 α= → α= = 𝟗 𝟐
R 0.35m 𝐬
vi = 0 m/s Angular acceleration is to the left when
Required: facing the direction in which the car
𝛼 = angular acceleration moves (by right-hand rule)

5. A merry-go-round has an angular acceleration of 0.35 radians per second squared. At

what angle does the merry-go-round rotate after acceleration from rest for 3 seconds?
Given: Solution:
𝛼= 0.35 rad/sec 2 1
Use equation 3, θ = ωi t + αt 2
2
Δt= 3.0 seconds 1 𝑟𝑎𝑑
ωi= 0 𝜃 = (0.35 2 ) (3.0𝑠)2
2 𝑠
Required: Angle of rotation 𝛉 = 𝟏. 𝟓𝟕𝟓 𝐫𝐚𝐝

6. An electric motor is turned off, and its angular velocity decreases uniformly from 1000
RPM to 400 RPM in 5 sec.
a) Find the angular acceleration of the motor.
b) Find the number of revolutions the motor made in the 5-s interval.
c) After the 5-s interval, how many more seconds are required by the motor to come
to rest?

a) ω1 = ωi + αt
rad rad
41.8879 = 104.7198 + α (5 s)
s s
𝐫𝐚𝐝
𝛂 = −𝟏𝟐. 𝟓𝟔𝟔𝟒 𝟐
𝐬
rad rad
ωi +ω1 (104.7198 s +41.8879 s )
b) θ = t= ∗ 5s
2 2
1 rev
θ = 366.5192 rad ∗ = 𝟓𝟖. 𝟑𝟑𝟑𝟑 𝐫𝐞𝐯
2π rad

c) ωf = ω1 + αt
rad rad
0 = 41.8879 + (−12.5664 2 ) t
s s
𝐭 = 𝟑. 𝟑𝟑𝟑𝟑 𝐬

7. The angular velocity of a bicycle wheel is 4 rad/s at t = 0, and its angular acceleration is
constant and equal to 2 rad/s2. A spoke OP on the wheel is horizontal at t =0.
a) What angle does this spoke make with the horizontal at time t = 3 s?
b) What is the wheel’s angular velocity at this time?

SOLUTION:
a) The angle θ is given as a function of time by the equation
1
θ = θi + ωi t + αt 2
2
Since the spoke initially positioned horizontally, θi = 0
rad 1 rad
θ = 0 + (4 ) (3 s) + (2 2 ) (3 s)2 = 21 rad
s 2 s
1 rev
θ = 21 rad ∗ = 3.3423 rev
2 π rad

 The body turns through three complete revolutions plus an additional 0.3423
360o
rev ( 0.3423 rev ∗ = 123.228o ). The line OP thus turns through 123.228o
1 rev
and makes an angle of 56.772o(180o-123.228o) with the horizontal.

b) At time t = 3 s
rad rad 𝐫𝐚𝐝
ωf = ωi + αt = 4 + (2 2 ) (3 s) = 𝟏𝟎
s s 𝐬

how are you going to compare the torques on an object caused by various forces?

EXPLORE
Read Module 6 Unit 2: Dynamics of Rotation (pp 89 -91)
EXPLAIN

TORQUE, τ (or MOMENT of a FORCE, M)

o A measure of the effectiveness of the force in producing rotation about an axis
o Sometimes called “twisting” or torsional force
o Causes an object to acquire angular acceleration; it is the product of the force F and
the distance of its action form the axis of rotation (lever arm)
𝝉 =𝑭𝒙ℓ
o Where:
o F = torsional force applied
o ℓ = lever arm = moment arm = perpendicular distance of the force to the point
of rotation

o note: cross multiplication is applied to the force and distance. Thus the resulting product
is a VECTOR. The direction of the torque is perpendicular to the plane formed by F and
d.

CENTER OF GRAVITY
- The center of gravity (cg) of an object is the point at which the entire weight of the object
may be considered concentrated
- A single vertically upward force of the same magnitude as the weight of an object will
keep the object in equilibrium when applied through its center of gravity (try holding your
notebook at the center with your index finger, the point where you can balance your
notebook is the cg of the notebook! Try other things to appreciate  )

DYNAMICS OF ROTATION
LINEAR MOTION ROTATIONAL MOTION
R m R m

a 
 Force is required to cause linear  Torque is required to create
acceleration rotational/angular acceleration
 From Newton’s 2nd law:  From Newton’s 2nd law:
o F = ma o  = I
Since  = F x ℓ; But
where ℓ = R = distance of force to  = at/R (from angular acceleration)
the axis of rotation So,
substituting,
at
 = ma x R = I maR = I
R
Therefore,
∴ 𝐈 = 𝐦𝐑𝟐 → moment of inertia of a particle

Moment of Inertia, I
 Also known as Rotational Inertia
 Quantity that expresses the tendency of an object to resist rotational acceleration

 Moment of inertia of a particle: 𝑰 = 𝒎𝑹𝟐

 Moment of inertia of a system : 𝐼𝑡𝑜𝑡 = ∑ 𝑰 = 𝒎𝟏 𝒓𝟏 𝟐 + … + 𝒎𝒏 𝒓𝒏 𝟐

𝐈𝐱 = ∑(𝐈̅𝐱 + 𝐀𝐫𝐲 ) 𝐈𝐱 = ∑(𝐈̅𝐱 + 𝐦𝐫𝐲 )

𝐈𝐲 = ∑(𝐈̅𝐲 + 𝐀𝐫𝐱 ) 𝐈𝐲 = ∑(𝐈̅𝐲 + 𝐦𝐫𝐱 )

where
Ix̅ = moment of inertia about centroidal x − axis
Iy̅ = moment of inertia about centroidal y − axis
ry = vertical distance from reference to the centroid
rx = horizontal distance from reference to the centroid
A = area; m = mass

MOMENT OF INERTIA OF RIGID BODIES

Substitute value of rt=1.5in and rw=13 in to Eq3

𝑇𝑦 (1.5𝑖𝑛) = 𝑤𝑦 (13𝑖𝑛), 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑤𝑦 = 𝑤 sin 60 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑇𝑦 = 𝑇 sin 60
So we get,
𝑇 sin 60 (1.5𝑖𝑛) = 50 sin 60 (13𝑖𝑛)
Therefore,
13
𝑇 = 50 ( ) = 𝟒𝟑𝟑. 𝟑𝟑𝟑 𝒍𝒃
1.5
Substitute T in in any of Eq 1 or Eq2
From Eq1: 𝐹 cos 60 = −433.33 𝑙𝑏𝑠 cos 60 + 50𝑙𝑏 cos 60 = −𝟑𝟖𝟑. 𝟑𝟑𝐥𝐛
𝑜𝑟
From Eq2: 𝐹 sin 60 = −433.33 𝑙𝑏𝑠 sin 60 + 50𝑙𝑏 sin 60 = −𝟑𝟖𝟑. 𝟑𝟑𝐥𝐛
**negative sign indicates that actual force at the elbow is downwards

2. The given plate in the figure is is fixed at point O and is allowed – O +

to rotate at this point. Find the total torque applied by the
2m
forces? If the fixed point was instead at point A, determine the
corresponding torque of the forces. If F1 is moved at A, will the F1 = 4N
2m
torque change? If the F2 is moved at A will the torque A B
change? 3m F2 = 5N
F3 = 6N

b. if F1 is moved at A, the total torque will change since the lever arm (moment arm) is
increased
∑ 𝜏 = −𝐹1 (4) + 𝐹2 (4) = −4𝑁(4𝑚) + 5𝑁(4𝑚) = −16𝑁 − 𝑚 + 20𝑁 − 𝑚 = 𝟒𝐍 − 𝐦

3. Three masses are attached to a uniform meter stick as

shown. The mass of the meter stick is 150.0 g and the
masses are to the left of the fulcrum are m1 = 50.0 g
andm2 =75.0 g. Find the mass of the third mass that
balances the system when attached to the right end of
the stick. What is the force applied by the fulcrum to the stick?
Solution: m
20cm
Draw an FBD of the forces
CG

For uniform or regular objects, center of mass is at 70 cm

midpoint or middle, therefore for the meter stick given 40 cm 30 cm
its
mass acts on the center of mass at 50cm.

To solve for the mass of m3, take moment about the support at 70cm from left.
∑ 𝜏 = 𝑚1(70𝑐𝑚) + 𝑚2(40𝑐𝑚) + 𝑚(20𝑐𝑚) − 𝑚3(30𝑐𝑚) = 0
50𝑔(70𝑐𝑚) + 75𝑔(40𝑐𝑚) + 150𝑔(20𝑐𝑚) − 𝑚3(30𝑐𝑚) = 0
(3500𝑔 − 𝑐𝑚) + (3000𝑔 − 𝑐𝑚) + (3000𝑔 − 𝑐𝑚) = 30𝑚3 𝑐𝑚
9500𝑔
𝑚3 = = 𝟑𝟏𝟔. 𝟔𝟕 𝒈
30

MOMENT OF INERTIA
4. A 100-gram ball connected to one end of a cord with a length of 30 cm. What is the
moment of inertia of ball about the axis of rotation AB? Ignore cord’s mass.
Given:
Mass = 100 gram = 0.10 kg
Distance between ball an axis of rotation, r = 30 cm = 0.30 m
Required:
Moment of inertia of the ball
Solution:
I = mR2 = 0.1kg(0.3m)2
𝐈 = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟎𝟗 𝐤𝐠 − 𝐦𝟐

6. What is the moment of inertia of a 1.5 kg uniform rod with length of 2m and radius 10cm?
the axis of rotation is located at the center of the rod.?
Given: Solution:
Mass of rod = 1.5 kg 1
I= ML2
Length = 2m 12
1
Required: I= (1.5kg)(2m)2
12
Moment of inertia
𝐈 = 𝟎. 𝟓 𝐤𝐠 − 𝐦𝟐

7. What is the moment of inertia of the rod if the axis of rotation is through its center.
Given: Solution:
Mass of rod = 1.5 kg 1
I = M𝑅 2
Radius = 10cm =0.10 m 2
1
Required: I = (1.5kg)(0.10m)2
2
Moment of inertia
𝐈 = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟎𝟕𝟓 𝐤𝐠 − 𝐦𝟐

EVALUATE
PRACTICE PROBLEM:
1. Three forces act on a beam with length 6meters as shown. What is the net torque that
rotates the beam about the point O. Figure 1.

2. Determine the moment of a force about the axis of rotation at point A for the given
system. The angle = 30 and AB = BC = 1meter. Figure 2

4. The uniform beam shown in figure 4 weighs 500N and supports a 700N load. Find the
tension in the tie rope.

5. The arm shown in the figure 5. supports a 4kg sphere. The mass of the hand and forearm
together is 3kg and its weight acts at a point 15 cm from the elbow. Determine the force
exerted by the biceps muscle.

6. The mobile shown in figure below hangs at equilibrium. It consists of objects held by
vertical strings. Object 3 weighs 1.4N, while each of the identical uniform horizontal bars
weighs 0.5N. Find (a) the weights of objects 1 and 2, and (b) the tension in the upper
string.

7. If the masses in sample problem 5 are at 200 grams and 100grams respectively, and the
axis of rotation is located at mass2, calculate for the moment of the inertial of the masses/
ignore mass of rod

8. Four (4) masses 150 grams each are connected by 4 cords forming a rectangle. The
length of the cords are 60 cm and 40 cm. determine the moment of inertial of the masses
about the axis of rotation AB (a) if AB is located at the center of longer cords, (b) AB is
located at the center of shorter cords. Ignore the mass of rod.

9. What is the moment of inertial of a 3kg uniform rod with length 2 meters and radius 20cm,
if the axis of rotation is located at (a) one end of the rod, (b) at the center of the rod and
(c) through the center?

10. A 9 kg solid cylinder has a radius 0.10m and thickness 5 cm. the axis of rotation is located
at the cneter of the cylinder. Compute for the moment of inertia.

11. a uniform sphere has a radius of 0.10 m. the moment of inertia of the sphere when axis of
rotation is located at its center is 0.08 kg-m2, find the mass of the sphere.

12. A 2 kg rectangular thin plate has length of 0.5 m and width 0.20. the moment of inertia
of the plate is 0.29 kg-m2. Where is the location of the axis of rotation?

FIGURE 3 Figure 4

Figure 5 figure 6

What factors would affect the elasticity of an object?

Is the work required to stretch the spring equal to the potential energy in the spring?

EXPLORE
Read Module 6 Unit 3: Elasticity (pp 97 – 100)

EXPLAIN

A rigid body is an example of an object that does not deform under the actions of
external forces. The extent to how an object is perceived as rigid depends on the physical
materials to which the object is made. As discussed in dynamics, forces causes motion but
aside from motion, forces could also cause changes in an object such as its length, and
volume, this change is known as the deformation.

Deformation is experienced by objects through the application of external force such

as twisting (Torque), shear, tension and compression. When an object experiences
deformation, the forces on the objects are describe by the stress and strain

STRESS - the measure of the forces that causes the deformation; it is the applied force
perpendicular on the area.
𝑭
𝝈=
𝑨

 tensile stress,σ is when a force pulls and object causing it to elongate (figure a)
 compressive stress, σ is when a force causes compression and the object shrinks
(figure b)
 bulk (volume) stress, P is the stress experience when an object is compressed from
all sides, usually experienced by objects in fluids
 shear stress, τ the stress experience when deformation is caused by tangential
forces to the surface

UNITS for Stress:

Metric English
N/m2 = Pascal, Pa Pound per square inch, psi
(1kPa= 1kN/m )
2 (1psi = 6895 Pa)
atm (atmosphere) often used for bulk stresses
(1atm = 14.7psi = 1.013x 105 Pa)

STRAIN - the quantity that describes the deformation;

- it is a fractional change in either length (tensile/compression), or volume
(bulk) or shape (shear)
- it is a dimensionless value
- classified into three types, formulas are in table below

Type of strain Symbol Formula definition

Linear epsilon, ϵ ΔL
ϵ=
Lo

Shear gamma, γ Δx
γ=
y

Volume (bulk) theta, θ ΔV

θ=
Vo

HOOKE’S LAW
- discovered by English scientist ROBERT HOOKE in 1660
- a principle of physics states that for a relatively small deformation of an object, the
displacement or deformation is directly proportional to the deforming force or load
- mathematically expressed as
𝐅 = −𝐤∆𝐱
Where ∆x = deformation of the object
F = force
k = spring constant
(−)negative sign indicates the object is returning to its original state

ELASTIC MODULI
- the coefficient that relates a particular type of stress to the resulting stress

Elastic modulus Stress Strain

Young modulus, Ε 𝑜𝑟 Υ Normal force to area, σ Linear deformation, 𝜖

shear modulus, G or S Tangential to area, τ Angular deformation, γ

Bulk modulus, K or B Normal to all surface areas, P Volume deformation, θ

YOUNG’S MODULUS OF ELASTICITY

- quantity that describes a material’s response to stress applied to area
- it can be defined simply as the stiffness of a solid material
- young’s modulus states that the stress applied to the body is directly proportional to the
strain induced on the body, that is
σ α ϵ → to equate a constant Young ′ s modulus is applied
thus, σ = Yϵ
F ΔL
but, σ = and ϵ=
A Lo

Note: Hooke’s Law may also be stated in the same relation as Young’s Modulus where
“the strain in a solid body is directly proportional to the applied stress within the elastic
limit of the solid body”

STRESS-STRAIN DIAGRAM

ELABORATE
5. How much force is needed to pull a spring with a spring constant of 20 N/m for a distance
of 25 cm?
Given: Solution:
Δx = 25 cm = 0.25m
F = kΔx
since the required is force needed to pull the spring ,
negative sign is ignored
N
F = 20 (0.25m)
m
𝐅 = 𝟓𝐍

6. A nylon string has a diameter of 3mm and is pulled by a force of 150N. determine the
stress.
Given: Solution:
D = 3mm = 0.003m A = πD2/4 = π(0.003)2/4 = 7.068 x10-6 sq. m
F = 150 N F 150N
σ= = = 𝟐𝟏. 𝟐𝟐 𝐌𝐏𝐚
A 7.068 x 10−6 m2

8. A concrete has a height of t meters and has unit area of 3 square meters supports a mass
of 30,000 kg. determine (a) the stress (b) strain (c) change in height. Young’s modulus of
concrete is 20Gpa.
Given: Solution:
Y = 20 x 10 N/m
9 2 (a) stress, σ = F/A
ho = 5 m
σ = 294, 300N/ 3 m2 = 98 100 N/m2 = 98.1
A = 3 sq. m
kPa
W = mg = 30 000 kg x 9.81 m/s/s = 294,300
N (b) Strain, ϵ = σ/Y

ϵ = 98.1kPa/20 x 106 kPa = 0.000004905

(c)Δh = ϵ ho

Δh = 0.000004905 (5m) = 0.000024525 m

Δh =0.024525 mm

EVALUATE
1. A spring is pulled to 12 cm and held in place with a force of 450 N. what is the spring
constant of the spring? How much force is required compress back the spring to 2 cm?
2. A 5cm2 cord has original length of 120cm is pulled by a 20N force. The change in length
in the cord is 5mm. find the strain, stress and elastic modulus.
3. A string has a diameter of 1cm and original length of 200 cm. the string is pulled by a
force 2kN. Determine the change in length of the string given that the young’s modulus
of string is 7.5GPa
4. A material is 250 cm long, 8 cm wide and 10 cm deep. The material is subjected to an
axial force of 4500kN resulting to an expansion of 3cm. calculate for stress, strain, and the
young’s modulus of elasticity for the material
5. An object has a Young’s modulus of elasticity of 14.5Gpa. determine the stress and strain
experienced by the object if it is 200cm by 200cm x 200cm and elongates by 5cm. what
is the magnitude of the force that acts on the object?

What are the conditions for an object to oscillate with SHM?

How does a pendulum oscillate?

EXPLORE
Read Module 7: Oscillations (pp102-105)
EXPLAIN
PERIODIC MOTION
Vibratory motion or vibration is a type of motion where the particle undergoes to and
fro motion. It could be regular vibration which repeats itself over and over during a given
length of time (like the motion of a simple pendulum or the piston of a gasoline engine) or
irregular vibration (like the shaking of a building when there is an earthquake).

CHARACTERISTICS OF A BODY UNDERGOING PERIODIC MOTION:

1. Equilibrium position – that position of the body when the forces acting on it have zero
resultant. This is actually the position the body takes when it is at rest.
2. Restoring force, F – the force that brings back (restores) the body to its equilibrium
position. It is always directed towards the equilibrium position.
3. Displacement, x or y – the distance of the body from the equilibrium position at any
instant.
4. Amplitude, A – the maximum displacement from the equilibrium
5. One cycle of motion or one vibration – that part of the motion that is repeated
6. Period, T – the time it takes for a displaced object to make a complete oscillation
back and forth about its equilibrium position. (sec)
7. Frequency, f – the reciprocal of period, the number of oscillations per second
(cycles/sec or vib/sec or Hertz(Hz))
1 1
𝑇= 𝑓=
𝑓 𝑇
8. Angular frequency (or speed), ω = rate of change of an angular quantity that is
always measured in radians
ω = 2πf rad/s

SIMPLE HARMONIC MOTION

 Simplest type of periodic motion
 Restoring force is directly proportional to displacement
 Velocity of the body is inversely proportional to displacement
 Acceleration of the body is directly proportional to the negative of the displacement

 To help us visualize the concepts, we will be using as models body attached to a spring
and the simple pendulum.

EQUATIONS FOR SHM:

1. MASS ATTACHED TO A SPRING
 If a body attached to a spring is displaced from its equilibrium position, the spring
exerts a restoring force on it, which tends to restore the object to the equilibrium
position.
Mathematically, the restoring force F is given by
𝑭 = −𝒌𝒙 (𝑯𝒐𝒐𝒌𝒆’𝒔 𝑳𝒂𝒘)
where k is the spring constant (N/m), and x is
the displacement from the equilibrium position (in
m).

At equilibrium position, the mass has momentum because of the impulse that the restoring
force has imparted. Therefore, the mass continues past the equilibrium position, compressing
the spring. A net restoring force then tends to slow it down, until its velocity vanishes, whereby
it will attempt to reach equilibrium position again. As long as the system has no energy loss,
the mass will continue to oscillate.

Energy in Simple Harmonic Motion

By Law of Conservation of Energy: the total energy of a vibrating body is constant.
𝟏 𝟏
𝐓𝐨𝐭𝐚𝐥 𝐄𝐧𝐞𝐫𝐠𝐲 = 𝐊 + 𝐔 = 𝒎𝒗𝟐 + 𝒌𝒙𝟐
𝟐 𝟐
where:
K = kinetic energy: m = mass of the body
1
K = mv 2 in Joules v = velocity of the body
2
U = potential energy: k = spring constant
1
U= kx 2 in Joules x=displacement of the body
2

The instantaneous VELOCITY of the vibrating body is determined via the above energy
equation as:

k k
v = √ (A2 − x 2 ) but √ = ω therefore, v = ω√(A2 − x 2 )
m m

The instantaneous ACCELERATION is determined via Hooke’s Law, F = -kx, and F = ma;
Equating these two expressions for F gives:

𝐤
𝐚=− 𝐱 = −𝛚𝟐 𝐱
𝐦
𝑘
From the equations of angular frequency, ω = 2πf and ω = √ , other equation to solve for
𝑚

frequency and period are as follows:

𝟏 𝐤 𝐦
Frequency 𝐟= √ Period 𝐓 = 𝟐𝛑√
𝟐𝛑 𝐦 𝐤

Displacement, Velocity and Acceleration as a Function of Time, t

1. Displacement: 𝐱(𝐭) = 𝐀 𝐜𝐨𝐬(𝛚𝐭)

𝑑𝑥
2. Velocity: v = 𝐯(𝐭) = −𝛚𝐀 𝐬𝐢𝐧(𝛚𝐭)
𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑣 𝑑2 𝑥
3. Acceleration: a = = 𝐚(𝐭) = −𝛚𝟐 𝐀 𝐜𝐨𝐬(𝛚𝐭)
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 2

2. SIMPLE PENDULUM

 Consists of a point mass suspended by a weightless,

unstretchable string in a uniform gravitational field whose path is
not a straight line but an arc.
 If the pendulum swings with a small angle with the vertical,
its motion is simple harmonic.

Angular frequency: Frequency: Period:

1 𝑔
𝑘 𝑔 𝑓= √ 𝑙
ω=√ =√ 2𝜋 𝑙 𝑇 = 2𝜋√
𝑚 𝑙 𝑔

Where: 𝑙 = length of the string

g = acceleration due to gravity

 Laws of the simple pendulum (for small displacements)

1. The angle of swing (amplitude) does not affect the period.
2. The mass of the body does not affect the period.
3. The period is directly proportional to the square root of its length.
4. The period is inversely proportional to the square root of the acceleration.

ELABORATE
1. A 7.00-kg object is hung from the bottom end of a vertical spring fastened to an
overhead beam. The object is set into vertical oscillations having a period of 2.60 s. Find
the force constant of the spring.

SOLUTION:
An object hanging from a vertical spring moves with SHM. To solve for the force
constant of the spring use the equation:
m 7 𝑘𝑔
T = 2π√ = 2.60 𝑠 = 2𝜋 √
k 𝑘
𝐤 = 𝟒𝟎. 𝟖𝟖 𝐍/𝐦

2. A 0.500-kg object attached to a spring with a force constant of 8.00 N/m vibrates in
simple harmonic motion with an amplitude of 10.0 cm. Calculate the maximum value of

SOLUTION:
k = 8 N/m m = 0.5 kg

a) Find first for the angular frequency 𝜔.

k 8 N/m
ω= √ = √ = 4 s −1
m 0.5 kg
The maximum speed of the object attached to a spring occurs at the equilibrium
position, e.p..
From the equation v = 𝜔√(𝐴2 − 𝑥 2 ) , this becomes maximum if x = 0. Therefore,
𝐜𝐦 𝒎
𝐯𝐦𝐚𝐱 = 𝛚𝐀 = (4 s −1 ) ∗ 10 cm = 𝟒𝟎 = 𝟎. 𝟒
𝐬 𝒔

b) From the equation of acceleration, 𝑎𝑚𝑎𝑥 = − 𝜔2 𝑥 Therefore, the maximum

acceleration is at the amplitude ±𝐴 ( + is at the right of ep, - is at the left of e.p.).
4 2 𝐜𝐦 m
amax = − ω2 A = − ( ) ∗ (±10 cm) = ±𝟏𝟔𝟎 𝟐 = 1.6 2
s 𝐬 𝑠
↔ either to the right or to the left

c) Solve for the speed when the object is +6 cm (+ means at the right of e.p.) from
the equilibrium position using
4 𝐜𝐦 𝒎
v = ω√(A2 − x 2 ) = ( ) √(10 cm)2 − (6 cm)2 = 𝟑𝟐 = 𝟎. 𝟑𝟐
s 𝐬 𝒔

d) Solve for the acceleration when the object is +6 cm (+ means at the right of e.p. )
from the equilibrium position using
4 2 𝐜𝐦 𝐦
a = − ω2 x = − ( ) ∗ 6 cm = −𝟗𝟔 = −𝟎. 𝟗𝟔 ← directed towards e.p.
s 𝐬𝟐 𝐬
e) To solve for the total energy possessed by the object, we can use any of the three
equation in solving for energy.
1 1 𝑁
Total Energy = U = kA2 = (8 ) (0.1 𝑚)2 = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟒 𝑱𝒐𝒖𝒍𝒆
2 2 𝑚
1 𝑚 2 1 𝑁
Total Energy = K + U = (0.5 𝑘𝑔) (0.32 ) + (8 ) (0.06𝑚)2 = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟒 𝑱𝒐𝒖𝒍𝒆
2 𝑠 2 𝑚
1 2
1 𝑚
𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 = 𝑚𝑣𝑚𝑎𝑥 = (0.5 𝑘𝑔)(0.4 )2 = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟒 𝑱𝒐𝒖𝒍𝒆
2 2 𝑠

SOLUTION:
The equation given x = 4.00 cos(3.00π t), where x is in meter and t in sec, is in the form 𝒙(𝒕) =
𝑨 𝐜𝐨𝐬(𝝎𝒕), an equation of displacement x as a function of time. To determine the values of
frequency, period, and amplitude of the motion, simply inspect the given equation of x.

𝐱(𝐭) = 𝟒 𝐜𝐨𝐬 (𝟑𝛑 𝐭) = 𝐀 𝐜𝐨𝐬 (𝛚𝐭)

Therefore, 𝛚 = 𝟑𝛑 → 2πf = 3π → 𝐟 = 𝟏. 𝟓 𝐇𝐳
1 1
T= = 1.5 = 𝟎. 𝟔𝟔𝟔𝟕 𝐬
f
s
𝐀=𝟒𝐦

To solve for the position of the particle at t = 0.250 s, simply substitute the value of t in the
equation of x.

𝐱(𝐭) = 𝟒 𝐜𝐨𝐬 (𝟑𝛑 𝐭)

𝐱 𝟎.𝟐𝟓 𝐬 = 𝟒 𝐜𝐨𝐬 (𝟑𝛑 ∗ 𝟎. 𝟐𝟓 )
𝐱 𝟎.𝟐𝟓 𝐬 = −𝟐. 𝟖𝟐𝟖𝟒 𝐦

 Remember! To solve for the value of cos (3𝜋 ∗ 0.25 ) the calculator should be in mode
radian.

4. A simple pendulum has a mass of 0.250 kg and a length of 1.00 m. It is displaced

through an angle of 15.0° and then released. Using the analysis model of a particle in
simple harmonic motion, find (a) the period of vibration of the bob, (b)the maximum
speed of the bob, (c) its maximum angular acceleration, and (c) the maximum
restoring force on the bob.

mass m
b) Since 15o is small enough that (in radians) sin𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 ≈
A 𝜃 (15o = 0.2618 rad), therefore it can be modelled as SHM.
mgsingθ
mgconsθ
Solving for the angular frequency,
W = mg 1 rad
ω = 2πf = 2π ∗ = 3.1305
2.0071 s s

The amplitude as a distance A = Lθ = 1m ∗ 0.2618 = 0.2618 m

3.1305 𝐦
vmax = ωA = ( ) (0.2618m) = 𝟎. 𝟖𝟏𝟗𝟔
s 𝐬

3.1305 2 m
c) amax = ω2 A = ( ) (0.2618 m) = 2.5656
s s2
d) To solve for restoring force, apply Newton’s second law:
m
ΣF = ma = 0.25 kg ∗ 2.5656 2 = 𝟎. 𝟔𝟒𝟏𝟒 𝐍
s

EVALUATE
1. A body in simple harmonic motion has a velocity of 8cm/s when its displacement is 2cm
and a velocity of 2 cm/s when the displacement is 8 cm. what is the amplitude of the
oscillation?

2. The equation of motion of a particle started at t=0 is given by x = 10sin(10t+π/3) where x

is in centimeter and t in second. (a) at what time will the particle come to rest? (b) the
time it will have a zero acceleration, and (c) the maximum speed.

3. A mass 2.5 kg is suspended through a vertical spring experiences simple harmonic motion
with period 6 seconds. If the oscillations are stopped and the body hangs in equilibrium,
determine the potential energy stored in the spring.

4. What period would you expect from a pendulum of length 0.5 m on the moon where g
= 1.6 m/s2? will the period be the same when the pendulum is on earth? What is the
value?

5. A 2kg mass is attached to one end of a spring with spring constant of 2kN/m. the period
of the spring is twice as the as the period when it is considered as a simple pendulum.
What is the length of the of spring?

Cite objects that could produce waves

Why do guitar strings have different pitch and tone?

What is your concept and understanding regarding the production of sound and the
process of hearing?

EXPLORE
Read Module 8: Waves (pp 109 – 115)
EXPLAIN

WAVE
-any disturbance from an equilibrium condition that propagates or travels from one region
to another.
Examples: water wave, sound wave, light wave, heat wave

Two Classifications of wave:

1. Electromagnetic wave
– wave wherein the disturbance can travel through empty space or vacuum.
Examples: radio wave, TV signal, microwave, X-ray

2. Mechanical wave
– wave wherein the disturbance travel through a medium through the mechanical
vibration of the particles in the medium.
Examples: wave travelling through a vibrating string, sound wave

2. Transverse wave –the particles of the medium vibrate perpendicular to the direction
of wave.
Examples are waves travelling through any flexible material like strings, wires or cords.

Figure 1. Longitudinal Waves

Figure 2. Transverse Waves

PROPERTIES OF WAVE:
1. Amplitude, A
– the maximum displacement of a particle in the medium.

2. Wavelength, λ
– the distance between two consecutive, identical points along the repeating wave
in the same phase.

3. Frequency, f
– the number of waves that pass through a point in the medium per second. It is equal
to the vibration made by a particle in the medium per second.

4. Speed of propagation, v
– the distance travelled by the wave through the medium per unit time.

GENERAL EQUATION: 𝐕 = 𝐟𝛌

Note: Y, x, t are the variables of the equation while A, ω, and k are the constants. Y is the displacement
at any time t of a particle in the medium which is at a distance x from the source (x=0).

STATIONARY (STANDING) WAVES

Stationary or standing waves formed when two component waves (i.e. incident and
reflected waves) of similar properties travel in opposite directions though the same medium.

(a) Five snapshots of a wave traveling to the right, at the times t indicated below part (c)
(T is the period of oscillation). (b) Five snapshots of a wave identical to that in (a) but
traveling to the left, at the same times t. (c) Corresponding snapshots for the
superposition of the two waves on the same string. At t = 0, ½ T, and T, fully constructive
interference occurs because of the alignment of peaks with peaks and valleys with
valleys. At t = 1/4T and 3/4T, fully destructive interference occurs because of the
alignment of peaks with valleys.

From the figure, we can derive a wave function for that specific standing wave by
adding the wave functions y1 (x, t) and y2 (x, t):

where: y1 (x, t) = Asin(kx − ωt)

(incident wave traveling to the right)
and
y2 (x, t) = Asin(kx + ωt)
(reflected wave traveling to the left)

The principle of superposition gives, for the combined wave (stationary wave):
y𝑠 (x, t) = y1 + y2 = Asin(kx − ωt) + Asin(kx + ωt)
*Review: cos(A ± B) = cosAcosB ∓ sinAsinB
sin(A ± B) = sinAcosB ± cosAsinB

y𝑠 (x, t) = A[sin(kx)cos(ωt) − cos(kx)sin(ωt)] + A[sin(kx)cos(ωt) + cos(kx)sin(ωt)]

y𝑠 (x, t) = 2Asin(kx)cos(ωt)
𝐲𝒔 (𝐱, 𝐭) = 𝐀 𝒔𝒘 𝐬𝐢𝐧(𝐤𝐱)𝐜𝐨𝐬(𝛚𝐭)
magnitude - gives amplitude at position x
Asw = amplitude of the standing wave

MODES OF VIBRATION
 Modes – frequencies of waves associated with their wave patterns
 Harmonics – a note of which the vibration rate is a whole number
- a note whose frequency is a multiple of the fundamental frequency
 Overtone – a term preferred by musicians instead of
harmonics

I. Modes of Vibration of a String Fixed at Both Ends:

Fundamental freq. or 1st harmonic freq. 2nd harmonic freq. or 1st overtone freq.

3rd harmonic freq. or 2nd overtone freq.

For the fundamental frequency:

λ
L = ; λ = 2L and from v = λf; f = v/ λ
2
𝑣
𝑓1 =
2𝐿
For the general equation:
Let n = harmonic number 𝒏𝑽
𝒇𝒏 = 𝒏𝒇𝟏 = , 𝐻𝑧
x= overtone number 𝟐𝑳
n = x+1 𝑛 = 1,2,3,4,5, …

But the VELOCITY of Where: T = tension on the string/cord/wire, Newton

wave traveling thru μ = mass per unit length of the string = m/L ,
vibrating strings, cords kg/m
or wires is: μ = linear density = ρA
𝑻 where: ρ = density of string = SG x mass density of
𝒗 = √
𝝁 water
A = cross-sectional area of string

𝐧 𝐓
Therefore: 𝐟𝐧 = √
𝟐𝐋 µ

*For string fixed at both ends, the harmonic number is the same as the number of segments.

II. Modes of Vibration of a Rod Clamped at One End:

 It will always be a node at clamped end and an antinode at the free end.

Fundamental Freq. or 1st Harmonic Freq. 3rd Harmonic Freq. or 1st Overtone

5th Harmonic Freq. or 2nd Overtone

For the general equation:

Let n = harmonic no. 𝐧𝐕
𝐟𝐧 = 𝐧𝐟𝟏 = , Hz
x = overtone no. 𝟒𝐋
n = 2x + 1 𝑛 = 1, 3, 5, 7, 9, …

ρ = density of rod or bar

Young's modulus of elasticity
Y = stress/strain
Stress = Force / cross-sectional area = F/A
Strain = elongation / original length = e/Lo
𝐹/𝐴 𝑭𝑳
𝑌 = =
𝑒/𝐿𝑜 𝒆𝑨

III. Modes of Vibration of a Rod Fixed at Midpoint:

 It will always be a node at midpoint and antinode at the ends.
Fundamental Freq. or 1st Harmonic Freq. 3rd Harmonic Freq. or 1st Overtone

5th Harmonic Freq. or 2nd Overtone

For the general equation: 𝐧𝐕

𝐟𝐧 = 𝐧𝐯𝐟𝟏 = , Hz
Let n = harmonic no. 𝟐𝐋
x = overtone no. 𝑛 = 1, 3, 5, 7, 9, …
n = 2x + 1

IV. Modes of Vibration of an Air Column:

Pipes can either be open on both ends or on only one end. The open ends act as free-end
reflectors (producing antinodes) and the closed ends act as fixed-end reflectors (producing
nodes).
A. OPEN PIPE
In general:

𝑣
f= *L =λ/2, λ = 2L
λ

f = v/2L

𝒏𝑽
fn = n=1, 2, 3, 4, 5 ,...
𝟐𝑳

The VELOCITY of wave traveling thru air is:

𝐦 𝐦
𝐯 = 𝟑𝟑𝟐 + 𝟎. 𝟔 𝐨 𝐓
𝐬 𝐬− 𝐂
where: T = temperature in OC
B. CLOSED PIPE
For the general equation:
Let n = harmonic no.
x = overtone no.
n = 2x + 1

𝒏𝑽
𝒇𝒏 = 𝒏𝒇𝟏 = , 𝐻𝑧
𝟒𝑳
n = 1, 3, 5, 7, 9, …

ELABORATE
EXAMPLES:
𝝅
1. A transverse wave on a string is described by the wave function y = 0.120 sin( 𝒙 + 𝟒𝝅𝒕)
𝟖
where x and y are in meters and t is in seconds. What are (a) the wavelength, (b) the
frequency, and (c) the speed of propagation and the direction of this wave? Determine
(d) the transverse speed at t = 0.2s for an element of the string located at x = 1.60 m.

SOLUTION:
We use the traveling wave model. We compare the given equation with
𝒚(𝒙, 𝒕) = 𝑨 𝐬𝐢𝐧(𝒌𝒙 ± 𝝎𝒕).
𝝅 𝝅
The given wave function is y = 0.120 sin( 𝒙 + 𝟒𝝅𝒕). Thus we find 𝒌 = 𝒓𝒂𝒅/𝒎 and
𝟖 𝟖
𝒓𝒂𝒅
𝝎=𝟒 𝝅 .
𝒔

𝟐𝛑
a) From the equation: 𝒌=
𝛌
𝜋 𝑟𝑎𝑑 2𝜋 𝑟𝑎𝑑
= → 𝛌 = 𝟏𝟔 𝐦
8 𝑚 λ

b) From the equation: 𝝎 = 𝟐𝝅𝒇

𝑟𝑎𝑑
4𝜋 = 2𝜋𝑓 → 𝒇 = 𝟐 𝑯𝒛
𝑠

d) The particle transverse speed is:

𝝅
𝑑𝑦 𝑑 (𝟎. 𝟏𝟐𝟎 𝐬𝐢𝐧 ( 𝒙 + 𝟒𝝅𝒕) 𝜋
𝟖
𝑣𝑦 = = → 𝑣𝑦 = 0.12 ∗ 4𝜋 cos ( 𝑥 + 4𝜋𝑡)
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 8
Therefore, the transverse speed at t = 0.2s for an element of the string located at
𝜋
x = 1.60 m is: 𝑣𝑦 = 0.12 ∗ 4𝜋 cos ⌈ (1.6) + 4𝜋(0.2)⌉ *Take note calculator should be in rad
8
𝒎
𝒗𝒚 = −𝟏. 𝟒𝟔𝟔𝟑 = 𝟏. 𝟒𝟔𝟔𝟑 𝒎/𝒔 ↓
𝒔

2. Transverse waves travel with a speed of 20.0 m/s in a string under a tension of 6.00 N.
What tension is required for a wave speed of 30.0 m/s in the same string?

SOLUTION:
The equation for the speed of transverse wave on a string under tension can be used if
we assume that the linear density of the string is constant. Then the ratio of the two wave
speeds can be used to find the new tension.
The two wave speeds can be written as:
𝑣1 = √𝑇1 /𝜇 and 𝑣2 = √𝑇2 /𝜇
Dividing the equations sets up the proportion
𝑣2 √𝑇2 /𝜇 √𝑇2
= =
𝑣1 √𝑇1 /𝜇 √𝑇1
𝑚 2
𝑣 2 30 𝑠
Therefore, 𝑇2 = [ 2] 𝑇1 = [ 𝑚 ] (6 𝑁) = 𝟏𝟑. 𝟓 𝑵
𝑣1 20 𝑠

3. A 2-m-long wire having a mass of 0.1 kg is fixed at both ends. The tension in the wire is
maintained at 20 N. (a) What are the frequencies of the first three allowed modes of
vibration? (b) If a node is observed at a point 0.400 m from one end, in what mode and
with what frequency is it vibrating?

SOLUTION:
a) The first three modes of vibration of a wire fixed at both ends are the fundamental or
first harmonic frequency, 2nd harmonic and 3rd harmonic frequency.
To solve for the fundamental frequency use the equation:
20 N
T √ 0.1 kg
v 2m √μ
f1 = = = = 𝟓 𝐇𝐳
2L 2L 2 ∗ 2m
Second harmonic frequency, f2 = 2f1 = 2 ∗ 5 Hz = 𝟏𝟎 𝐇𝐳
Third harmonic frequency, f3 = 3f1 = 3 ∗ 5 Hz = 𝟏𝟓 𝐇𝐳

4. A 2m long rod clamped at one end has a diameter 0.5cm and a specific gravity of 9. It
elongates by 2mm when acted upon by a tensile force of 500 N. (a) What is the speed
of sound thru the rod? (b) What would be the frequency of the waves if the rod forms an
equivalent of 3.5 segments every time?

SOLUTION:
a) To solve for the speed of sound thru the rod, use the equation:
Y
v=√
ρ
𝐹
𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠 𝐴 𝐹 𝐿𝑜 500 𝑁 ∗ 2𝑚 𝑁
𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑌= = 𝑒 = = 𝜋 = 2.5465 𝑥1010
𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛 𝐴𝑒 ⌈0.005𝑚⌉2 (. 002𝑚) 𝑚2
𝐿𝑜 4
𝑁
𝑌 2.5465 𝑥 1010 2 𝒎
Solving for v: 𝑣 = √ = √ 𝑚
𝑘𝑔 = 𝟏𝟔𝟖𝟐. 𝟎𝟖𝟖𝟑
𝜌 9𝑥1000 3 𝒔
𝑚

b) When rod forms an equivalent of 3.5 segments, it means that the rod is vibrating in its
7th harmonic frequency.
7𝑣 7 ∗ 1682.0883 𝑚/𝑠
𝑓7 = 7 𝑓1 = = = 𝟏𝟒𝟕𝟏. 𝟖𝟐𝟕𝟑 𝑯𝒛
4𝐿 4∗2𝑚

5. An aluminum rod 1.60 m long is held at its center. It is stroked with a rosin-coated cloth to
set up a longitudinal vibration. The speed of sound in a thin rod of aluminum is 5 100 m/s.
What is the fundamental frequency and the first two overtone frequency of the waves
established in the rod?

SOLUTION:
The fundamental frequency of a rod fixed at its center is computed as:
𝑚
𝑣 5,100
𝑠
𝑓1 = = = 𝟏𝟓𝟗𝟑. 𝟕𝟓 𝑯𝒛
2 𝐿 2 ∗ 1.6 𝑚

f3 = 3 f1 = 3 ∗ 1593.75 Hz = 𝟒𝟕𝟖𝟏. 𝟐𝟓 𝐇𝐳
and
f5 = 5 f1 = 5 ∗ 1593.75 Hz = 𝟕𝟗𝟔𝟖. 𝟕𝟓 𝐇𝐳

6. A 1.2m long rod is fixed at midpoint and free at both ends. It produces a 2nd overtone
of frequency 6000Hz. Solve for the speed of the wave.

SOLUTION:
Second overtone is fifth harmonic frequency.
5𝑣
𝑓5 = 5 𝑓1 =
2𝐿
5𝑣
6000 𝐻𝑧 =
2 ∗ 1.2 𝑚
𝒗 = 𝟐𝟖𝟖𝟎 𝒎/𝒔

7. A pipe open at both ends has a fundamental frequency of 300 Hz when the temperature
is 0°C. (a) What is the length of the pipe? (b) What is its 2 nd overtone frequency at a
temperature of 30°C?

SOLUTION:
𝑚 𝑚
a) The velocity of air in the pipe at 0oC is: 𝑣 = 332 + 0.6 𝑜 𝑇
𝑠 𝑠− 𝐶
𝑚 𝑚 𝑚
𝑣 = 332 + 0.6 𝑜 ∗ 0𝑜 𝐶 = 332
𝑠 𝑠− 𝐶 𝑠
To solve for the length of the pipe we can use the equation of the fundamental frequency
when pipe is open at both ends, i.e.:

𝑚
𝒗 332
𝑠
𝒇𝟏 = → 300 𝐻𝑧 = → 𝑳 = 𝟎. 𝟓𝟓𝟑𝟑 𝒎
𝟐𝑳 2𝐿

𝟑𝒗
b) 2nd overtone frequency is third harmonic frequency : 𝒇𝟑 = 𝟑𝒇𝟏 =
𝟐𝑳
𝑚 𝑚 𝑚 𝑚 𝑚
But v at 30oC is : 𝑣 = 332 + 0.6 𝑇 = 332 + 0.6 ∗ 30𝑜 𝐶 = 350
𝑠 𝑠−𝑜 𝐶 𝑠 𝑠−𝑜 𝐶 𝑠

Therefore:
3 ∗ 350 𝑚/𝑠
𝑓3 = = 𝟗𝟒𝟖. 𝟖𝟓𝟐𝟑 𝑯𝒛
2 ∗ 0.5533 𝑚

SOLUTION:
𝑚 𝑚
a) The velocity of air in the pipe at 0oC is: 𝑣 = 332 + 0.6 𝑜 𝑇
𝑠 𝑠− 𝐶
𝑚 𝑚 𝑜 𝐶 = 332
𝑚
𝑣 = 332 + 0.6 ∗ 0
𝑠 𝑠 −𝑜 𝐶 𝑠

To solve for the length of the pipe we can use the equation of the fundamental frequency
of a closed pipe, i.e.:
𝑚
𝒗 332
𝑠
𝒇𝟏 = → 300 𝐻𝑧 = → 𝑳 = 𝟎. 𝟐𝟕𝟔𝟕 𝒎
𝟒𝑳 4𝐿
𝟓𝒗
b) 2nd overtone frequency is fifth harmonic frequency: 𝒇𝟓 = 𝟓𝒇𝟏 =
𝟒𝑳
𝑚 𝑚 𝑚 𝑚 𝑚
But v at 30 oC is : 𝑣 = 332 + 0.6 𝑜 𝑇= 332 + 0.6 𝑜 ∗ 30𝑜 𝐶 = 350
𝑠 𝑠− 𝐶 𝑠 𝑠− 𝐶 𝑠
5∗350 𝑚/𝑠
Therefore: 𝑓5 = = 𝟏𝟓𝟖𝟏. 𝟏𝟑𝟒𝟖 𝑯𝒛
4∗0.2767 𝑚

EVALUATE
1. A rope is held tightly and shook until the standing wave
pattern shown in the diagram at the right is established
within the rope. The distance A in the diagram is 3.27 meters.
The speed at which waves move along the rope is 2.62 m/s.
(a) Determine the frequency of the waves creating the
standing wave pattern (b)Determine the number of
vibrational cycles which would be measured in 20.0
seconds.

2. the frequency of a mechanical oscillator is adjusted

in order to vibrate a 1.5 m length of elastic cord at
one of its harmonic frequencies. The cord vibrates
with the pattern shown below when the frequency
is set to 75 Hz. Determine the speed of the waves in the elastic cord.

3. A 1.6meter long rope creates a wave which travels at 2.4 m/s and has a frequency of 1.5
Hz. What would be the new wavelength and speed if they double the frequency of
vibration of the cord?

4. A standing wave is created through a 246-cm long rope. Vibrations travel within the rope
at speeds of 22.7 m/s. Determine the frequency of vibration of the rope.

7. A rod is fixed at midpoint with both ends free. The rod produces a 3rd overtone of 7500Hz.
The speed of the wave is at 3000 m/s. determine the length of the rod and the
fundamental frequency.

8. Resolve problem 7 if the rod is fixed at one end and free at the other end?

9. A pipe is open at both ends and has a 2nd overtone of 353 Hz and speed of 353 m/s.
Determine (a) the temperature to which the wave is traveling, (b) length of the pipe (c)
the fundamental frequency of the wave?

10. Resolve problem 9 if the pipe is closed at one end and open at the other?

11. Determine the speed and the first three overtones of the pipe in problem no. 10 if the
temperature is increased by 5 degrees Celsius.

ENGAGE
what would happen to objects when they are submerged or immersed in fluids?

what forces do you think are responsible in your answer in the first question?

In recreational diving, divers can only reach 40 meters, why is this so? Explain the concept
behind this?

what causes ships and boats to float on water?

why do you think Jack did not ride the plank of wood with Rose when the Titanic sank?

EXPLORE
Read Module 9: Fluids at Rest (pp 121 – 123)
EXPLAIN

Fluids are materials that can flow. They have no definite shape and they can be
liquids or gases. Gases are highly compressible but liquids are practically incompressible.
Fluid statics is the study of fluids at rest while Fluid dynamics is the study of flowing fluids.

Basic concepts:

1. Density (ρ) of a substance is the mass per unit volume thus in SI system it is expressed
in kg/m3.
mass m
ρ= =
volume V

3. Fluid Pressure
Pressure at any point in a fluid is equal to the force per unit area of a surface
placed at the point.
𝐹𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 𝐹
𝑃= =
𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝐴
 Pressure has a unit of N/m2 or Pascal, Pa in SI.

It can also be shown that because of the weight of the fluid above a certain point, the
pressure varies with the depth as given by the formula
P
𝑷 = 𝑷𝒂 + 𝝆𝒈𝒉
a
Where Pa is the pressure at the surface = Atmospheric pressure. Also
called Barometric pressure because it is measured by a barometer.
At sea level: Pa = 14.7 psi = 76 cm Hg = 1 atm = 101325 Pa
 It is less at higher elevations.
𝝆𝒈𝒉 = gage pressure because this is what is measured by pressure
measuring devices like Hg manometers, Bourdon pressure gage, etc.
P = absolute pressure

Pascal’s Principle
“Any pressure applied to a confine fluid will be transmitted undiminished to all
parts of the fluid”

P1 = P2
F1 F2
=
A1 A2

where: A = area,

F = force,

P = pressure

4. BUOYANCY
Buoyancy is a phenomenon wherein a body immersed in a fluid experiences
an upward force called the buoyant force which tends to lessen its weight in the fluid
compared to its weight in air.

Buoyant force

Thus, 𝑩𝒖𝒐𝒚𝒂𝒏𝒕 𝒇𝒐𝒓𝒄𝒆, 𝑩𝒇 = 𝝆𝒇𝒍𝒖𝒊𝒅 ∗ 𝒈 ∗ 𝑽𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒎𝒆 𝒅𝒊𝒔𝒑𝒍𝒂𝒄𝒆𝒅

 If the weight of the object is greater than the buoyant force, the object will sink (but
still it experiences a buoyant force, which is why a rock does not feel heavy when it is
submerged as it does when it is lifted out of the water). If the weight of the object is
less than the buoyant force, it will experience a net upward force and will float to the
surface. Some of the object will protrude above the surface, so that the portion still
submerged will displace a weight of fluid equal to the weight of the object.

ELABORATE
FLUID PRESSURE:
a. A diving bell is designed to withstand pressure of sea water at a depth of 600 meters. (a)
What is the gage pressure at this depth? (b) What is the absolute pressure? (c) What total
force acts on a circular glass window 15 cm in diameter if the pressure inside the diving
bell is atmospheric? Assume density of seawater is 1030 kg/m 3

SOLUTION:
a) The gauge pressure at a depth of 600 meters is:
𝑘𝑔 𝑚
𝑃𝑔𝑎𝑔𝑒 = 𝜌𝑔ℎ = 1030 ∗ 9.8 ∗ 600 𝑚 = 𝟔, 𝟎𝟓𝟔, 𝟒𝟎𝟎 𝑷𝒂
𝑚3 𝑠2

b) Absolute pressure, 𝑃 = 𝑃𝑎 + 𝜌𝑔ℎ = 101,325 𝑃𝑎 + 6,056,400 𝑃𝑎 = 𝟔, 𝟏𝟓𝟕, 𝟕𝟐𝟓 𝑷𝒂

c) Net pressure on the glass surface = Poutside – Pinside

= 6,157,725 𝑃𝑎 − 101325 𝑃𝑎 = 6,056,400 𝑃𝑎
𝜋
𝐹 = 𝑃𝐴 = (6,056,400 𝑃𝑎) [ (0.15 𝑚)2 ] = 𝟏𝟎𝟕, 𝟎𝟐𝟓. 𝟒𝟐 𝑵
4

SOLUTION:
Net force = net gauge pressure x area
3,000 lb = p x 120 in2
P = 25 lb/in2

2. Calculate the force that must be exerted on the master cylinder of a hydraulic system to
lift a 10,000 kg truck with the slave cylinder. The master cylinder has a diameter of
1.50 cm and the slave has a diameter of 30.0 cm.

SOLUTION:
𝑃𝑚 = 𝑃𝑠
𝐹𝑚 𝐹𝑠
=
𝐴𝑚 𝐴𝑠

Solving for the area of the master cylinder:

0.015𝑚 2
𝐴𝑚 = 𝜋𝑟 2 = 𝜋 ( ) = 0.00017671458 𝑚2
2

Solving for the area of the slave cylinder:

0.3𝑚 2
𝐴𝑠 = 𝜋𝑟 2 = 𝜋 ( ) = 0.0706858347 𝑚2
2

Solving for the force applied to the slave cylinder:

Fs = mass x acceleration
Fs = 10,000 kg x 9.8 m/s 2 = 98,000 N

Solving for the force applied to the master cylinder:

Fs
Fm = x Am
As
98,000 N
Fm = x 0.00017671458 m2
0.0706858347 m2
Fm = 𝟐𝟒𝟓 𝐍

BUOYANCY
1. An object weighs 12 N in air and 10 N when immersed completely in water. Find the
volume of the object and its density.

Therefore, 𝐖𝐞𝐢𝐠𝐡𝐭 𝐨𝐟 𝐰𝐚𝐭𝐞𝐫 𝐝𝐢𝐬𝐩𝐥𝐚𝐜𝐞𝐝 = 𝛒𝐟𝐥𝐮𝐢𝐝 ∗ 𝐠 ∗ 𝐕𝐨𝐥𝐮𝐦𝐞 𝐝𝐢𝐬𝐩𝐥𝐚𝐜𝐞𝐝 = 𝟐 𝐍

2N
𝐕𝐨𝐥𝐮𝐦𝐞 𝐨𝐟 𝐰𝐚𝐭𝐞𝐫 𝐝𝐢𝐬𝐩𝐥𝐚𝐜𝐞𝐝 = volume of the object = kg m
= 𝟐. 𝟎𝟒𝟏 𝐱 𝟏𝟎−𝟒 𝐦𝟑
(1000 3 )(9.8 2 )
m s
12 N
mass 9.8 m/s2
𝛒= = = 𝟓𝟗𝟗𝟗. 𝟒𝟔 𝐤𝐠/𝐦𝟑
volume 2.041 x 10−4 m3

2. A man fishing in the Aegean See hooks an ancient gold crown. The density of gold is19.3
x 103 kg/m3, and the density of seawater is 1030 kg/m 3. While he is pulling up the treasure,
the tension in his line is 20 N. What will be the tension when he lifts the object out of the
water?

SOLUTION:
Using Newton’s first law equation Σfv = 0.
T + Bf = mg
Tension in the line, T=20 N
T + (ρwater ∗ g ∗ V) = mg = ρgold ∗ V ∗ g
Buoyant force, Bf k m kg m
20 N + (1030 3 ∗ V ∗ 9.8 2 ) = (19,300 3 ∗ V ∗ 9.8 2 )
m s m s
V = 1.117 x 10−4 m3 = volume of the displaced water =
Weight, mg = ρVg volume of th gold

If the object of weight mg is

pulled up slowly, it is in
equilibrium.

When the object is in air, the tension is equal to the weight of the gold
T 𝑇 = 𝑊 = 𝑚𝑔 = 𝜌𝑔𝑜𝑙𝑑 ∗ 𝑉 ∗ 𝑔
𝑘𝑔 𝑚
𝑇 = 19,300 3 ∗ 1.117 𝑥10−4 𝑚3 ∗ 9.8 2
𝑚 𝑠
𝑻 = 𝟐𝟏. 𝟏𝟐𝟕 𝑵
W

50°

3. A piece of metal weighs 10 g in air, 9.20 g in water, and 8.93 g when immersed in gasoline.
a) What is the density of the metal? b) What is the density of the gasoline?

4. A block of wood with the dimensions 0.15 by 0.35 by 0.4 cubic meters floats along a river
with the broadest face facing down. The wood is submerged to a height of 6cm. What
is the mass of the piece of wood?

5. A car’s weight is given as 20kN. Determine F the

external input force F for the given
diagram.
A Aa=75 cm2

Ab=3500 cm2 B

6. The hydraulic lift has a large cross section and a small cross section. Large cross-sectional
area is 25 times the small cross-sectional area. If on the small cross section is given an
input force of 50 N, then determine the output force.

How do you explain the heat transfer processes in cooking using an electric stove?

Cite simple situations where you can observe heat transfer.

What do you think happens to objects when they transfer heat?

EXPLORE
Read Module 10: Heat Transfer (pp127 – 130)
EXPLAIN

HEAT TRANSFER
- The movement of energy from a warmer object to a cooler object.
HEAT
- Form of energy transferred from one body to another due to difference in temperature
- usually measured by the temperature (Celsius, C; Fahrenheit, F; Kelvin, K)

FACTORS that affect Energy gained or lost by an object during heat transfer:
o Mass
o specific heat
o change in temperature

*3 Processes by which heat is being transferred from one body to another:

1. Conduction
2. Convection
3. Radiation

INSULATORS VS CONDUCTORS:
INSULATORS – these are materials that do not transfer heat well
e.g. Air, wood, wool
CONDUCTORS – materials that transfer heat well
e.g. Silver, fiberglass, tile

EQUATIONS FOR CONDUCTION:

𝐤𝐀(𝐭 𝐡 − 𝐭 𝐜 )𝐭𝐢𝐦𝐞 𝐤𝐀∆𝐓𝐭

𝐐=
=
𝐝 𝐝
Q kA∆T
P= =
t d
where: Q = heat conducted (cal,J)
A = area (cm2, m2)
∆T = temperature difference (°C) = 𝑇ℎ𝑜𝑡 − Tcold
t = time (sec)
d = thickness (cm, m)
cal J
k = coefficient of thermal conductivity ( , )
sec−cm℃ sec−m℃
P = power (watts)

CONVECTION
 It is the transfer of heat by the motion of a volume of hot fluid from one place to
another.
 Heat transfer by the actual movement of the heated material itself.
** 2 Process:
Force Convection – if the heated substance is forced to move by a fan or pump.
Natural Convection - the change in density that takes place when a fluid is heated.
*example: Airflow at a beach

Value if h applies to natural convection of air at atmospheric pressure:

1. Horizontal plate with air passing the top surface
𝟏
𝐡 = 𝟐. 𝟒𝟗(∆𝐓)𝟒
2. Horizontal plate with air passing the bottom surface
𝟏
𝐡 = 𝟏. 𝟑𝟏(∆𝐓)𝟒
3. Vertical plate
𝟏
𝐡 = 𝟏. 𝟕𝟕(∆𝐓)𝟒
4. Horizontal plate or vertical pipe of diameter D
𝟏
∆𝐓 𝟒
𝐡 = 𝟒. 𝟏𝟗 ( )
𝐃

RADIATION
 It takes place by means of electromagnetic waves which require no material
medium for their passage.
 It consists of electromagnetic waves which transmit energy from a source to an
absorber.

EQUATION for RADIATION

𝐐
𝐏= = 𝛔𝐄𝐚𝐓𝟒
𝐭
watt
where: σ = Stefan Boltzmann constant = 5.67 × 10−8 m2 K4
e = emissivity = 0, ideal reflector; 1, ideal absorber
T = surface temperature (K)
A = area (m 2)
P = power (watts)

ELABORATE
CONDUCTION:
1. when you hold one end of an iron rod while the other end is in direct contact with a
flame. Heat will transfer through the metal by conduction.

2. The knives and forks use a wooden handle to break with the conduction of heat.

3. When you pour hot coffee to the cup containing it. Hot liquids transfer the heat to the
container containing them, causing the latter to warm up a bit.

4. Compresses (hot water bags) used to relax muscles. The heat is transferred from the
compress to the skin and from there to the muscles.

5. An ice cube melts when placed on a person’s hand. The heat from the skin is transferred
to the ice cube causing it to melt.

CONVECTION:

1. The heat transfer of a stove.

2. Hot air balloons, which are held in the air by hot air. If it cools, the balloon immediately
begins to fall.

3. When the water vapour fogs the glass of a bath, by the hot temperature of the water
when bathing.

RADIATION
1. The transmission of electromagnetic waves through the microwave oven.

2. The light emitted by an incandescent lamp.

COMPUTATION EXAMPLES:

CONDUCTION:
1. The wall of shed in which ice is stored consists of an outer layer of wood 2cm and an inner
layer of rock wool 3cm thick. Find the heat conducted through 50m 2 of the wall in 1hr.
When the outer wood surface is at 20°C and the inner rock wool surface is at 5°C, find
cal
the temperature of the wood-rock wool interface. (kwood = 3 x 10-4
[Link]℃
; krock wool = 9 ×
cal
10−5 [Link]℃)

Solution
Let T be the temperature of the interface. The heat conducted through both layers is
the same, so that:
kA∆Tt kA∆Tt
Q=[ ] = [ ]
d wood d rock wool

cal
3 × 10−4 (50 × 104 cm2 )(20𝑜 𝐶 − 𝑇)(3600 𝑠)
[Link]℃
2
cal
9× 10−5 (50 × 104 cm2 )(𝑇 − 5𝑜 𝐶)(3600𝑠)
[Link]℃
=
3
𝐓 = 𝟏𝟕. 𝟓℃

For 𝑇yields 𝑇 = 17.5℃, the temperature of the interface. If we put this value into the
equation for 𝑄 , we obtain:
cal
kA∆Tt 3 × 10−4 (50 × 104 cm2 )(20𝑜 C − 17. 5𝑜 C)(3600s)
[Link]℃
Q= = Q=[ ]
d 2
wood
𝑸 = 𝟔. 𝟕𝟓 𝒙 𝟏𝟎𝟓 𝒄𝒂𝒍

CONVECTION:
1. A Bathroom is heated by a floor-to-ceiling steam pipe that is 10cm in diameter. The ceiling
height is L=3.0m and the temperature of the bulk of air in the room is 22°C. If the pipe
surface is at 90°C, what is the rate of convective heat transfer?

Solution:

A = πDL = π(0.10m)(3m) = 0.9425m2

∆T = (90 + 273) − (22 + 273) = 68K

 For vertical pipe of diameter D

𝟏
∆𝐓 𝟒
𝐡= 𝟒. 𝟏𝟗 ( )
𝐃

1
68 4 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑡
𝑃 = [4.19 ( ) ] 2 (0.9425m2 )(68K)
0.1 𝑚 𝐾

𝑷 = 𝟏𝟑𝟕𝟏. 𝟐𝟗𝟕𝟎 𝒘𝒂𝒕𝒕𝒔

RADIATION:
1. A copper ball 2cm in radius is heated in a furnace to 400°C. If the emissivity is 0.3, at what
rate does it radiate energy?
Solution

The surface area of the ball is

A = 4πr 2 = 4π(0.02m)2 = 0.005m2
and its absolute temperature is T = 400 + 273 = 673 K
watt
σ = Stefan Boltzmann constant = 5.67 × 10−8 2 4
m K
watt
P = σeAT 4 = (5.67 × 10−8 2 4 ) (0.3)(0.005m2 )(673K)4
m K
𝑷 = 𝟏𝟕. 𝟒𝟒𝟕𝟔 𝒘𝒂𝒕𝒕𝒔

2. The sun’s surface has a temperature of about 5800K, and the radius of the sun is about
7x108m. Calculate the total energy radiated by the sun each day, assuming the emissivity
is e=1. By way of comparison, the total energy consumed worldwide each year by
humans is about 1021J.
Solution

𝐴 = 4𝜋𝑟 2 = 4𝜋(7 × 108 )2 = 6. .1575 × 1018 𝑚2

watt
𝑃 = 𝜎𝑒𝐴𝑇 4 = (5.67 × 10−8 ) (1)(6.1575 × 1018 𝑚2 )(5800𝐾)4
m2 K 4
𝐽
𝑃 = 3.9509 × 1026 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑡𝑠 𝑜𝑟
𝑠𝑒𝑐
𝑥1026 𝐽 𝑠 24ℎ𝑟
𝐸 = 𝑃𝑡 = 3.9509 ∗ 3600 ∗
𝑠 ℎ𝑟 𝑑𝑎𝑦

𝑬 = 𝟑. 𝟒𝟏𝟑𝟔 𝒙 𝟏𝟎𝟑𝟏 𝑱𝒐𝒖𝒍𝒆/𝒅𝒂𝒚

𝑬 = 𝟏. 𝟐𝟒𝟔𝟎 × 𝟏𝟎𝟑𝟒 𝑱/𝒚𝒆𝒂𝒓

EVALUATE
1. Identify the word/s defined in each item
b. the measure of the amount of energy in matter
c. he movement of energy from a warmer object to a cooler object
d. Materials that do not transfer energy (heat) easily
e. The transfer of heat through empty space

2. Identify whether the given situations are examples of conduction, convection or

radiation.
a. Solar ultraviolet radiation, precisely the process that determines the Earth’s
temperature.
b. Ironing of clothes
c. When you walk barefoot on the hot street, and it burns your toes.
d. The heat transferred by hand or hair dryer
e. When teaspoons get hot when placed in hot coffee
f. The heat transfer generated by the human body when a person is barefoot.
g. The heat emitted by a radiator.
h. A thermometer works because the liquid in it contracts when heated.
3. Answer the following questions as either TRUE or FALSE
a. the Sun directly heat the air in our atmosphere
b. higher temperature means faster moving molecules
c. Air a great conductor of heat
d. Heat always comes from cooler temperature to warmer temperature
e. The transfer of heat When the warmth of the sun heats rocks is an example of
radiation
f. A thermometer works because the liquid in its contracts when heated which is an
example of conduction
g. temperature is a measure of total kinetic energy

An electron is negatively charged particle of an atom. What happens when an atom loses
an electron?

What happens to the force between two atoms when they are placed too far from each
other?

When a rubber comb is run through the hair and is then placed near small pieces of paper,
the pieces of paper are attracted to the rubber comb. Explain why?

EXPLORE
Read Module 11: Electrostatics (pp 134 -137)
EXPLAIN

Electrostatics
- Branch of physics that deals with the study of charges at rest
- "Electrostatic" pertains to electric charges at rest or to fields or phenomena produced
by stationary charge(s)
- Static electricity is the accumulation of electrical charges on the surface of a
material; may result in sparks, shocks or materials clinging together.

Electric Charges
- one of the basic properties of the elementary particles of matter giving rise to all
electric and magnetic forces and interactions.

There are two types of electric charges: positive and negative

these charges are commonly known as protons (+) and electrons (–)

*1C = 3 x 109statC

ELECTRON THEORY:
1. A neutral body is one that has exactly as many electrons as there are protons.

2. When a neutral body gains electron from an outside source, it acquires a negative
charge.
Hence, a negatively charged body has more electrons than protons.

3. When neutral body loses some of its own electrons, it acquires a positive charge.
Hence, a positively charged body has fewer electrons than protons.

LAWS OF ELECTROSTATICS:
1. INTERACTION OF CHARGES:
a) Like charges repel: a) positive and positive repel, b) negative and negative repel
b) Opposite charges attract: positive and negative attract
c) Charged and neutral attract: a) positive and neutral attract, b) negative and neutral
attract
Example: a charged comb (ran through the hair) attracts bits of uncharged
(or neutral) bits of paper

+ - -

- - +

Figure 11.1 Direction of interaction of Charges

ELECTRIFICATION (CHARGING OF BODY):

- The process of gaining or losing electron (transfer of electrons from one material to
the other)

Methods of Electrification/ Charging:

1. Friction
- results in a transfer of electrons between two objects that are rubbed
together
2. Conduction
- charging a neutral body by bringing into contact with a charged body
- (also known as charging by contact) involves the contact of a charged object
to a neutral
3. Induction
- The charging body is brought near the neutral body, thus inducing it to have
an opposite charge as that of the charging body
- object is charged without actually touching the object to any other charged
object
The Triboelectric Series
- a list of materials showing which have a greater tendency to become positive (+)
and which have a greater tendency to become negative (−)
- atoms of different materials hold on to their electrons with different strengths
-the materials would acquire the same amount of charge (but opposite type
or sign)
-the greater the separation in the series, the greater the exchange of charges

**OTHER PROCESSES:

Polarization is the process of separating opposite charges within an object. The

positive charge becomes separated from the negative charge. By inducing the
movement of electrons within an object, one side of the object is left with an excess
of positive charge and the other side of the object is left with an excess of negative
charge. Charge becomes separated into opposites.

2. COULOMB’S LAW OF ELECTROSTATICS (CHARLES AUGUSTIN DE COULOMB)

- The electric force F between two electric charges is directly proportional to the
product of the charges and inversely proportional to the square of the distance
between them.

ELECTRIC FORCE
- The attractive or repulsive interaction between any two charged objects; an
action-at-a-distance force
- hold atoms together; makes possible the existence of material things, human
activities, and properties and attributes (tasting, smelling, thinking, etc.)

COULOMB’S LAW
|𝒒𝟏 ||𝒒𝟐 | Where:
𝐅 = 𝐤
𝒓𝟐 F = force between the charges; N or dynes
q1& q2 = magnitude of the charges; C or esu (or statC)
r = distance between them; m or cm
k = Coulomb’s constant (depending on
𝟏
𝒌=
𝟒𝝅𝜺
Where:
ε = permitivitty of the medium
For vacuum: ε = 8.85 x 10−12 C 2 /N − m2
k = 9 x 109 N − m2 /C 2 = 1 dyne − cm2 /esu2

CHARGING BY FRICTION:
1. What type of charge would each material acquire for each of the following pairs
rubbed together?
Assume they are all initially uncharged or neutral.
a) acetate and wool
b) paper and polyester

2. Which pair would acquire higher amount of individual charge?

Answer:

1. Initially, object A is positively charged 2. A is brought in contact with B. Since A is

with +8μC; object B is neutral positively charged, electrons in B are
attracted towards A.

Then the A and B are pulled apart.

𝑞𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 = 𝑞𝐴 + 𝑞𝐵
𝑞𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 = (+8μC) + 0 = +8μC
3. B loses electrons; so, it becomes positively charged. A gains those electrons lost by B;
so, A becomes less positively charged.
𝑞𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 = 𝑞𝐴 + 𝑞𝐵
𝑞𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 = (+5μC) + (+3μC) = +8μC
As shown in no. 1 and 3, by conservation of charge:
4. The total charge in the system of charges is the same before and after the charging
process.

CHARGING BY INDUCTION
1. Initially, object A is negatively 2. A is brought close to but not in contact with
charged with -15μC; objects B and B. Since A is negatively charged, electrons
C are neutral in B are repelled and move as far away as
𝑞𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 = 𝑞𝐴 + 𝑞𝐵 + 𝑞𝐶 possible from A. These electrons transfer to
C. Then the A and B are pulled apart.

𝑞𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 = (−15μC) + 0 + 0 = −15μC

3. B loses electrons; so, it becomes positively charged C gains those electrons lost by B;
so, C becomes negatively charged. A retains its original charge
𝑞𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 = 𝑞𝐴 + 𝑞𝐵 + 𝑞𝐶
𝑞𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 = (−15μC) + (+6μC) + (−6μC) = −15μC
As shown in no. 1 and 3, by conservation of charge:
4. The total charge in the system of charges is the same before and after the charging
process.

1. Initially, object A is negatively charged 2. Since A is negatively charged, electrons

with -10μC, and B is neutral. on the left edge of Bare repelled and
move as far away as possible from A.
There are no other objects these
electrons can go to. So, they
accumulate at the right edge of B.

𝑞𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 = 𝑞𝐴 + 𝑞𝐵
𝑞𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 = (−10μC) + 0 = −10μC
3. B neither loses nor gains electrons; the electrons only move to a different part of the
object. So, B remains in its initial state which is being neutral.
𝑞𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 = 𝑞𝐴 + 𝑞𝐵

4. 𝑞𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 = (−10μC) + 0 = −10μC

GROUNDING
(Amounts of charge given are fictitious and given for purposes of illustration only)
a. Neutralizing a positively b. Neutralizing a negatively charged object
charged object
Object A being negatively
charged repel electrons at
the surface of the ground.
These electrons move as far
away as possible from A.
The surface of the ground
Object A is brought in contact with
now becomes positively
ground, which has abundance of
charged. In turn, electrons
electrons. Electrons from ground
from object A are attracted
are attracted to A because this
to the ground. When
object is positively charged
enough electrons have
(means that it has “electron
transferred out of A, A
vacancies”). When enough
becomes neutral.
electrons have transferred into A
(or filled up the “electron
vacancies”), A becomes neutral.

There are equal number of electrons and

protons.
Particle B is neutral.

Particle C:
20 𝑛𝑒𝑢𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑛𝑠, 20 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑡𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑎𝑛𝑑 18 𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑛𝑠

There are more protons than electrons.

Particle B is positively charged.
How to calculate amount of net charge or 𝑛𝑝 , total number of protons
total charge on an object: 𝑞𝑝 : charge on a single proton, +1.6𝑥10−19 𝐶
𝑛𝑒 : total number of electrons
𝑞𝑛𝑒𝑡 = 𝑞 = (𝑛𝑝 )(𝑞𝑝 ) + (𝑛𝑒 )(𝑞𝑒 )
𝑞𝑒 : charge on a single electron,
−1.6𝑥10−19 𝐶
2. b) 3.12 x 1014 protons and 4.5488 x 1016
a) 8.25749 x 1017 protons and 5.26 x 1014 electrons; the charge on this object is ____
electrons; the charge on this object is ____ C.
C. 𝑞 = (3.12 𝑥 1014 𝑝)(+1.6𝑥10−19 𝐶/𝑝)
+(4.5488𝑥 1016 𝑒)(−1.6𝑥10−19 𝐶/𝑒)
𝑞 = (8.25749 𝑥 1017 𝑝)(+1.6𝑥10−19 𝐶/𝑝)
+(5.26 𝑥 1014 𝑒)(−1.6𝑥10−19 𝐶/𝑒)
𝒒 = −𝟎. 𝟎𝟎𝟕 𝐂

𝒒 = +𝟎. 𝟏𝟑𝟐 𝑪

Determine the magnitude and direction of Magnitude of force: (exclude the signs of
the force on each charge. the charges)
|q1 ||q 2 |
F=k
r12 2

Medium is not specified. Assume it to be

free space or air; so,
ε = ε0; k = 9x109 N ∙ m2 /C 2

(5x10−9 C)(8x10−9 C)
F = (9x109 N ∙ m2 /C 2 )
(0.4 m)2
Draw the charges along a line.
q1 and q 2 have opposite types of charge;
F = 2.25x10−6 N
so, they are attracted to each other.
F12 = F21 = F
q1 is pulled by q 2 q 2 is pulled by q1

Force on q1 :
The force vector of each charge is
directed toward the other charge:
𝐅𝟐𝟏 = 𝟐. 𝟐𝟓𝐱𝟏𝟎−𝟔 𝐍,
𝐚𝐥𝐨𝐧𝐠 + 𝐱𝐝𝐢𝐫𝐞𝐜𝐭𝐢𝐨𝐧 (𝐨𝐫𝐫𝐢𝐠𝐡𝐭𝐰𝐚𝐫𝐝)

Force on q 2 :

𝐅𝟏𝟐 = 𝟐. 𝟐𝟓𝐱𝟏𝟎−𝟔 𝐍,
𝐚𝐥𝐨𝐧𝐠 − 𝐱𝐝𝐢𝐫𝐞𝐜𝐭𝐢𝐨𝐧 (𝐨𝐫𝐥𝐞𝐟𝐭𝐰𝐚𝐫𝐝)

𝑞1 = +4 𝜇𝐶 located at (0,+0.3 m)
𝑞2 = +6 𝜇𝐶 located at (0, -0.2 m)

Determine the magnitude and direction of

the force on each charge.

Solution: Medium is not specified. Assume it to be

Draw the charges along a line. free space or air; so,
𝜀 = 𝜀0; 𝑘 = 9𝑥109 𝑁 ∙ 𝑚2 /𝐶 2
𝑞1 and 𝑞2 have same type
of charge; so, they repel (4𝑥10−6 𝐶)(6𝑥10−6 𝐶)
each other. 𝐹 = (9𝑥109 𝑁 ∙ 𝑚2 /𝐶 2 )
(0.5 𝑚)2
𝑞1 is pushed away from
𝑞2 𝑞2 is pushed away from 𝐹 = 0.864 𝑁
𝑞1 𝐹12 = 𝐹21

The force vector of each 𝐹21 : force exerted by 𝑞2 on 𝑞1

charge is directed away 𝐹12 : force exerted by 𝑞1 on 𝑞2
from the other charge:
Force on 𝑞1 :

⃗𝑭𝟐𝟏 = 𝟎. 𝟖𝟔𝟒𝑵,
𝒂𝒍𝒐𝒏𝒈 + 𝒚𝒅𝒊𝒓𝒆𝒄𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 (𝒐𝒓 𝒖𝒑𝒘𝒂𝒓𝒅)

Magnitude of force: Force on 𝑞2 :

(exclude the signs of the charges)
|𝑞1 ||𝑞2 | ⃗ 𝟏𝟐 = 𝟎. 𝟖𝟔𝟒𝑵,
𝐹=𝑘 𝑭
𝑟12 2 𝒂𝒍𝒐𝒏𝒈 − 𝒚𝒅𝒊𝒓𝒆𝒄𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 (𝒐𝒓 𝒅𝒐𝒘𝒏𝒘𝒂𝒓𝒅)

EVALUATE

1. Three charged particles are aligned along the x axis as shown. Find the electric force at
(a) the position (2m, 0) and (b) the position (0, 2 m).

3. Two particles, with charges of 20nC and -20nC, are placed at the points with coordinates
(0, 4cm) and (0, -4cm) respectively. A particle with charge 10nC is located at the origin.
Find the electric force exerted on the 10 nC charge located at the origin.

Why is it important to follow the electric specifications on chargers and appliances?

A small amount of current is generated by putting your tongue to a 9V battery, however the
amount of current cannot be felt by holding 9V battery using your dry hands. What is the
concept behind the difference between the amount of current generated?

EXPLORE
Read Module 12: Electricity (pp145 – 150)
EXPLAIN
CURRENT, RESISTANCE AND ELECTROMOTIVE FORCE
I. ELECTRIC CURRENT
 charges in motion
DC (Direct Current)
: is a constant flow between two points having a different electrical potential and the
charge flow is one way (ex. cell or battery)
AC (Alternating Current)
:the charge flows alternately backwards then forwards in a circuit many times every
second (ex. power plant, generator, mains supply)
 Direction of Current
CONVENTIONAL FLOW ELECTRON FLOW

A conventional current is treated In a metallic conductor, the

as a flow of positive charges moving charges are electrons —
(would move from the positive ` but the current still points in the
battery terminal and toward the direction positive charges would
negative terminal). flow.

 Current as the rate of flow of electric charge through a conductor connected

between two points of different potentials
𝑸
𝑰=
𝒕
where:
I = current, Ampere (amp or A)
t = time, s
Q = total charge that flows, coulomb
* Note that for a metallic conductor, charges that flow are electrons
Q= Nq
where:
N = number of electrons that flow during a time t
q = charge of an electron, |qe| = 1.6x10-19 C

 Current in Relation to the Drift Velocity of the Charges

When an electric field 𝐸⃗is established in a conductor, the charge carriers (assumed
positive) acquire a drift speed 𝒗𝒅 in the direction of 𝐸⃗ ; the current is related to the drift
speed by

𝑰 = 𝒏𝒒𝑨𝒗𝒅

where: A = cross sectional area of conductor (m2)

n = free electron (conduction electron) density or concentration of particles
= the number of carriers per unit volume (n = N/V)
 (nq) = carrier charge density

 Current Density in a Conductor, J

 It is the current per unit cross-sectional area.
I A
 J= ,
A m2
 J = nqvd → vector current density

 Resistance, R
 It is the obstruction or opposition offered by the material (conductor) in the flow
of current through it. It is the extrinsic property of the material which depends upon
the amount of material present (shape and size).

OHM’S LAW: For many materials (including most metals), the ratio of the current density to
the electric field is a constant 𝜎 that is independent of the electric field producing the
current.
𝐽
=𝜎
𝐸
Materials and devices that obey Ohm’s Law are said to be ohmic
potential difference across wire, ∆V = Eℓ σ: conductivity
∆V E: Electric Field
J=σ
l ℓ: length of wire
Resistance: the ratio of the potential Resistance of a block of material along
difference across a conductor to the the length ℓ:
current in the conductor l
∆V R = ρ
R= A
I 1
resistivity, ρ =
1 Ω = 1 V/A σ
Resistance and Temperature
Over a limited temperature range: ρ: resistivity at temp T
ρ = ρo [1 + α(T − To )] ρo : resistivity at temp To
R = R o [1 + α(T − To )] α: temperature coefficient of resistivity

Δ𝜌 𝜌−𝜌0
Slope = m = =
ΔT 𝑇−𝑇0

Where:
ρ0 and ρ= resistivity at temperature T 0 and
T1respectively
𝑚
𝜌 = 𝜌0 [1 + (𝑇 − 𝑇0 )]
𝜌0
Where:
𝑚
=𝛼0 = temperature coefficient of the material
𝜌0
𝜌 = 𝜌0 [1 + 𝛼0 (𝑇 − 𝑇0 )]
Since 𝑅 ∝ 𝜌, then:
𝑅 = 𝑅0 [1 + 𝛼0 (𝑇 − 𝑇0 )]

III. ELECTROMOTIVE FORCE, emf or ℰ

 Not a force but an energy-per-unit-charge quantity that is imparted by an energy
source.
 The maximum potential difference between two electrodes of a galvanic or
voltaic cell
 energy per unit electric charge that is imparted by an energy source such as
an electric generators, or any kind of cells or battery.

Sources of Electrical Energy: burning oil or coal, hydroelectric plant, geothermal, wind,
solar, nuclear, natural gas, hydrogen, biofuel, biomass, fruits and vegetables with
moderate to high levels of acidity, cell

IV. OHM’S LAW

 Georg Simon Ohm (1787 – 1854), a German physicist, is credited with finding the
relationship between current and voltage for a resistor.
 The voltage across a resistor is directly proportional to the current, I flowing through
the resistor.
∴𝐕∝𝐈
 Ohm further defined the constant of proportionality for a resistor to be the resistance,
R.
∴ 𝐕 = 𝐈𝐑
 Thus, the resistance, R is the ability of an element to resist the flow of electric current;
measured in ohms (Ω).

V. SERIES RESISTORS AND VOLTAGE DIVISION

 What is Series?
- Two or more elements are in series if they exclusively share a single node and
consequently carry the same current.
- The equivalent resistance of any number of resistors connected in a series is the sum
- of the individual resistances.
I
𝐑 𝐞𝐪 = 𝐑𝟏 + 𝐑𝟐 + ⋯ + 𝐑𝐍 = ∑𝐍𝐧=𝟏 𝐑 𝐧

- For the given figure:

𝑅𝑒𝑞 = 𝑅1 + 𝑅2 V
- The current in a series circuit is the same for each of
the elements or resistors.
𝐈 = 𝐈𝐞𝐪 = 𝐈𝟏 = 𝐈𝟐 = ⋯ = 𝐈𝐍
I
- The total voltage in a series circuit is equivalent to
the summation of all resistance voltages or voltage
drops in the circuit
𝐕 = 𝐕𝐞𝐪 = 𝐕𝟏 + 𝐕𝟐 + ⋯ + 𝐕𝐍 V

 To determine the voltage across each resistor;

Ohm’s Law I
V1 = IR1 , V2 = IR 2
Substitute
V V
I= =
R eq R1 + R 2
V
R1
∴ V1 = V
R1 + R 2
R2
∴ V2 = V
R1 + R 2
- Note that source voltage 𝑣 is divided among
the resistors in direct proportion to their resistances
- This is regarded as the principle of voltage division

VI. Parallel Resistors and Current Division

 What is Parallel?
- Two or more elements are in parallel if they are connected to the same two nods
and consequently have the same voltages across them.
- The equivalent resistance o 2 parallel resistors is equal to the product of their
resistance divided by their sum.
I
𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
= +
𝐑𝐞𝐪 𝐑𝟏 𝐑𝟐
𝐑𝟏 𝐑𝟐 I1 I2
𝐑𝐞𝐪 =
𝐑𝟏 + 𝐑𝟐
V

- Generally, the equivalent resistance of

a circuit with 𝑁 resistors in parallel is:
𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
= + + ⋯+
𝐑 𝐞𝐪 𝐑𝟏 𝐑𝟐 𝐑𝐍
-
- The current in a parallel circuit is equivalent to the summation of all branch currents
in the circuit
𝐈 = 𝐈𝐞𝐪 = 𝐈𝟏 + 𝐈𝟐 + ⋯ + 𝐈𝐍

- The resistance voltages are each equal to the source voltage of the parallel circuit.
𝐕 = 𝐕𝐞𝐪 = 𝐕𝟏 = 𝐕𝟐 = ⋯ = 𝐕𝐍
 To determine the current through each resistor
Ohm’s Law
𝑽 𝐕
𝐈𝟏 = 𝐈𝟐 =
𝐑𝟏 𝐑𝟐
Substitute
IR1 R2
V = IR eq =
R1 +R2
IR 2
∴ I1 =
R1 + R 2
IR1
∴ I2 =
R1 + R 2
- Note that the total current 𝑖 is shared by the resistors in inverse proportion to their
resistances.
- This is regarded as the principle of current division

ELABORATE
CURRENT, RESISTANCE and EMF
1. Suppose you wish to fabricate a uniform mass, m = 1.00 g
wire from 1.00 g of copper. If the wire is to Resistance, R = 0.500 Ω
have a resistance of 0.500 Ω and all the g g (1003 )cm3
density of Cu, = 8.92 3 = (8.92 3 ) [ ]
copper is to be used, what must be a) the cm cm 1 m3
length and b) the diameter of this wire? = 𝟖. 𝟗𝟐𝐱𝟏𝟎𝟔 𝐠/𝐦𝟑
Density of copper= 8.92 g/cm3, and
resistivity = 1.7x10−8 Ω·m. 𝐫𝐞𝐬𝐢𝐬𝐭𝐢𝐯𝐢𝐭𝐲, 𝛒 = 𝟏. 𝟕𝐱𝟏𝟎−𝟖 𝛀 ∙ 𝐦
a) length, l =? mass m Substitute (2) in (1)
density, d = =
𝑙 Volume V 1.00g
R=ρ 8.92x106 g/m3
A ( 0.500 Ω )
𝑙
RA m 𝑙=
V = 1.7x10−8 Ω ∙ m
𝑙= (1) d
ρ
(0.500 Ω)(1.00 g)
1.00g l2 =
Assuming that the wire is 8.92x106 g/m3
(8.92x106 g/m3 )(1.7x10−8 Ω ∙ m)
A= (2)
cylindrical: 𝑙
Volume V 𝐥 ≅ 𝟏. 𝟖 𝐦
Area, A = =
length l
b) diameter, d =? Substitute (3) and l in (2)
For a cylindrical wire, cross- 1.00g
4(
1.00g
)
πd2 8.92x106 g/m3 8.92x106 g/m3
section is a circle: = d2 =
πd2 4 1.8 m π(1.8 m)
A= (3) 𝐝 ≅ 𝟐. 𝟖𝐱𝟏𝟎 −𝟒
𝐦
4

2. a) A 34.5 m length of copper wire at 20.0°C has temperature, T = 20°C

a radius of 0.25 mm. If a potential difference of length, l = 34.5 m
9.00 V is applied across the length of the wire, radius, r = 0.25 mm = 0.25x10−3 m
determine the current in the wire. b) If the wire is potential difference, ∆V = 9.00 V
heated to 30.0°C while the 9.00 V potential temperture coefficient of resistivity, α
difference is maintained, what is the resulting = 3.9x10−3 /°C
current in the wire? Temperature coefficient of resistivity, ρ = 1.7x10−8 Ω ∙ m
resistivity is 3.9x10−3 /°C. Resistivity is 1.7x10−8 Ω ∙ m.
a) current, I at 20°C The given α and ρ are at a reference temperature T0 =
∆V 20°C
I=
R (34.5 m)
l R = (1.7x10−8 Ω ∙ m) ≅ 2.99 Ω
at 20°C R = RoR = ρ π 0.25x10−3 m)2
(
A

3. A toaster has a heating element made of Nichrome wire resistivity, ρ = 150x10−8 Ω · m

(resistivity is 150x 10-8Ω·m and temperature coefficient of temperature coefficient of resistivity,
resistivity is 0.4x10-3/°C). When the toaster is first connected α = 0.4x10 − 3/°C
to a 120 V source (and the wire is at a temperature of
20.0°C), the initial current is 1.50 A. The current decreases as voltage, V = ∆V = 120 V
the heating element warms up. When the toaster reaches its
final operating temperature, the current is 1.20 A. Find a) the at Ti = 20°CIi = 1.50 A
power delivered to the toaster when it is at its operating at Tf If = 1.20 A
temperature b) the final temperature of the heating
element
a) Power, Pf at Tf
P = I 2 RPf = If ∆Vf Pf = (1.20 A)(120 V) = 𝟏𝟒𝟒. 𝟎 𝐖
b) final temperature, Tf The given α and ρ are at a reference temperature T0 = 20°C
R = R o [1 + α(T − To )] 120 V 120 V
Ri = = 80 Ω Rf = = 100 Ω
T = Tf To = Ti = 20°C 1.50 A 1.20 A
100 Ω = 80 Ω[1 + (0.4x10 − 3/°C)(Tf − 20°C)]
V
Ro = Ri Ri = 100 Ω
Ii Tf = {[( ) − 1] /(0.4x10−3 /°C)} + 20°C
V 80 Ω
R = Rf Rf = 𝐓𝐟 = 𝟔𝟒𝟓 °𝐂
If

SERIES CONNECTION

4. Given 4 resistors connected in series, R1=2Ω, R2=1Ω, R3=4Ω and R4=8, connected to a 30 Vol
source, find for a) Total Resistance b) Total Current and c) Voltage drops across each resistor.
a) R T = R1 + R 2 + R 3 + R 4
R T = (2 + 1 + 4 + 8)Ω = 15Ω
b) IT = 30A⁄15Ω = 2A = I1 = I2 = I3 = I4
c) By Ohm’s Law: VN = IN R N
By Voltage Divider:
RN
VN = vT ( )
RT
2
V1 = 30 ( ) = 4V
15

PARALLEL CONNECTION
5. If the resistors in Problem 4 are connected in parallel, find for the a) Total Resistance, b) Total
Voltage and c) Currents through each resistor.
o Total Resistance
1 1 1 1 1
= + + +
R eq R1 R 2 R 3 R 4
1 1 1 1 1
= + + +
R eq 2 1 4 8
R T = 0.533Ω

o VT = V1 = V2 = V3 = V4 = 30V
o By Current Ohm’s Law
V
IT = T⁄R = 30⁄0.533 = 56.285
T
R
In = IT ( T⁄R )
n
I1 = 56.285(0.533⁄2) = 15A
I2 = 56.285(0.533⁄1) = 30A
I3 = 56.285(0.533⁄4) = 7.5
I4 = 56.285(0.533⁄8) = 3.75A

SERIES-PARALLEL COMBINATION
Problem 1
By combining the resistors in the given circuit, find 𝑅𝑒𝑞

Rz = 3Ω + 3Ω = 6Ω;
Equivalent Curcuit:
𝑹𝒙 = 4 + 5 + 3 = 12Ω
Equivalent Curcuit:

Rz//6Ω = Ra

Resistor 4Ω and Rx = 12Ω are parallel

6Ω(6Ω)
Ra = = 3Ω
6Ω + 6Ω
Equivalent Curcuit:
(4)(12)
Thus, 𝑅4//𝑅𝑥 = = 3Ω = Ry
4+12

Equivalent Curcuit:

Thus,
𝑅𝑒𝑞 = 1 + 2 + 3 = 𝟔𝛀

Solution:
18Ω //9Ω and 5Ω //20Ω

4Ω and 2Ω are in series giving 6Ω

9𝑥18 5(20)
= 6Ω, and = 4Ω
9 + 18 5 + 20
Equivalent Circuit:

Then 6//6 gives 3Ω.

4Ω and 1Ω are in series, gives 5Ω.

Therefore,
𝑅𝑒𝑞 = 8 + 3 = 𝟏𝟏𝛀

2. A 200-km-long high-voltage transmission line 2 cm in diameter carries a steady current of

1000 A. If the conductor is copper with a free charge density of 8.50 x 10 28 electrons per
cubic meter, how many years does it take one electron to travel the full length of the
cable?

3. An 18-gauge copper wire (ρ = 1.72x10-8 Ω.m) has a diameter of 1.02 mm and a cross-
sectional area of 8.20x10-7m2. It carries a current of 1.67 A. Find (a) the electric-field
magnitude in the wire; (b) the potential difference between two points in the wire 50m
apart; (c) the resistance of a 50m length of this wire.

4. A certain lightbulb has a tungsten filament with a resistance of 19 V when at 20°C and
140 V when hot. Assume the resistivity of tungsten varies linearly with temperature even
over the large temperature range involved here. Find the temperature of the hot
filament. (αTungsten = 4.5 x 10-3/OC)

5. When an external resistance of 10 ohms is connected to a source, a current of 0.5A flows,

when the resistance is changed to 20 ohms, the current becomes 0.3 amperes. What are
the open circuit emf and the internal resistance of the source?

6. A battery has an emf of 15.0 V. The terminal voltage of the battery is 11.6 V when it is
delivering 20.0 W of power to an external load resistor R. (a) What is the value of R? (b)
What is the internal resistance of the battery?

7. Find the voltage needed so that a current of 10 A will

flow through the series circuit shown in the figure.

8. Find the voltage across each resistor in the circuit

of Problem 7. Show that the voltage drop equals
the applied voltage of 100V.

10. Find I3 in the parallel circuit using current divider.

How do compass (navigation) work?

In your opinion, what is the importance of the earth’s magnetic field?

EXPLORE
Read Module 13: Magnetism (pp158 – 163)
EXPLAIN

ELECTROMAGNETISM
Many applications of electricity are based on the fact that electric current passing
thru a conductor produces a magnetic field around the conductor or vice versa, i.e. when
a conductor moves thru a magnetic field, an electromotive force (emf) is generated and
hence current could flow if there is a complete loop. This is called electromagnetism. The
operation of such devices or machines like the electric motor, generator, the transformer,
the inductor coils, etc. are all based on this phenomenon.

A. The Magnetic Field

It is a region in space wherein a force acts on a charge moving through it.
Ex. The space around a magnet
The space around a current-carrying conductor

One characteristic of a magnetic field is its direction which is usually indicated by a

set of lines drawn in the magnetic field called magnetic field lines (also called magnetic lines
of force or lines of induction).

Note: When the lines are curved, the magnetic field is non-uniform and the direction at any
point is taken by the tangent to a line passing through that point.

Figure13.2 Magnetic field taken at point P

B. Magnetic Flux (∅)

A set of magnetic field lines or a group of lines taken or computed as one

C. Magnetic Flux Density ( ) at a point

Magnetic flux passing per unit area of a surface placed at the point perpendicular to
the magnetic field.

Magnetic flux density is a vector quantity and its direction is the same as the direction of the
magnetic field at a point.

SOURCES OF MAGNETIC FIELD

I. MAGNETIC FIELD OF A MOVING CHARGE

When a charge moves through a portion of space, a

magnetic field is created around the charge.
To obtain the magnetic field produced by a charge, q,
moving at velocity v, at a point located at a displacement
r from charge, we need a mathematical expression the
field in terms of q, v and r.

where: β = magnetic field at any point “P” near the moving charge (Tesla or Gauss)
q = electric charge (Coulomb, statcoulomb)
v = speed of the electric charge (m/s, cm/s)
r = distance of the point from the charge
θ = angle between r and v
μ0 = permeability of free space (Permeability is the measure of the ability of a
material to support the formation of a magnetic field within itself.)
= 4π x 10-7 T.m/A

NOTE: If the point charge is negative, the directions of the field and field lines are the
opposite with that of positive charge.

II. MAGNETIC FIELD at any POINT NEAR a STRAIGHT CONDUCTOR

a) Short Straight Conductor
The magnetic field due to the electric current in a straight wire is
such that the field lines are circles with the wire at the center.

Where: βP = magnetic field at a point P away from the

conductor
I = current through the conductor
r = perpendicular distance between point P and conductor
θ1 & θ2 = angles it make at the point with the conductor

USING RIGHT HAND RULE:

Thumb: current, I
4 Fingers: magnetic filed, 𝛽

III. MAGNETIC FIELD of a CIRCULAR COIL or LOOP

The field depends on the distance x along the axis from the center of the loop to
the field point.

Where: βP = magnetic field at a point P along the axis

of the coil
N = number of turns
I = current in the coil
a = radius of the coil
r = distance from the point P to the radius of coil

Note: At the center of the coil (r=a),

IV. MAGNETIC FIELD due to a SOLENOID

A long coil of wire consisting of many loops is called a solenoid and each loop
produces a magnetic field. Between any two wires, the fields due to each loop
tend to cancel. Toward the center of the solenoid, the fields add up to give a field
that can be fairly large and fairly uniform.

Let “P” be any point along the axis of solenoid

ELABORATE
Magnetic Field:
1. The figure below is a perspective view of a flat surface with area 3cm 2 in a uniform
magnetic field. The magnetic flux through this surface is +0.9 mWb. Find the magnitude
of the magnetic field.
𝐆𝐢𝐯𝐞𝐧: 𝐒𝐨𝐥𝐮𝐭𝐢𝐨𝐧:
2 ϕ
1m
A = 3cm2 x ( ) β=
100cm Acosθ
ϕ = +0.9 mWb θ can be 60° or 120°, using 60° will
ϕ = +0.9x10−3 Wb yield a positive answer in this case
𝟎. 𝟗 𝐱 𝟏𝟎−𝟑 𝐖𝐛
𝛃= = 𝟔𝐓
(𝟑𝐱𝟏𝟎−𝟒 𝐦)(𝐜𝐨𝐬(𝟔𝟎))

2. Determine the flux that passes through the area as shown on the figure below.
𝐆𝐢𝐯𝐞𝐧: 𝐒𝐨𝐥𝐮𝐭𝐢𝐨𝐧:
β = 2T ϕ = BAcosθ
2 ϕ
A = 6cm x 2cm = 12cm
θ = 60° 1m
= (2T)(12cm2 ) ( ) cos(60°)
100cm
𝛟 = 𝟏. 𝟐 𝐦𝐖𝐛

𝐒𝐨𝐥𝐮𝐭𝐢𝐨𝐧:
μ0 qvsinθ
β= 𝑎𝑛𝑑 βnet = β1 + β2
4π r 2
μ0 q1 v1 sinθ μ0 q 2 v2 sinθ
βnet = +
4π r1 2 4π r2 2
N m m
4πx10−7 (5x10−6 C) (6x105 ) (sin(90°)) (3x10−6 C) (8x105 ) (sin(90°))
A2 s s
βnet = [ + ]
4π (0.3m)2 (0.4m)2
100
βnet = 1x10−7 ( + 15) → 𝛃𝐧𝐞𝐭 = 𝟒. 𝟖𝟑𝟑𝟑𝛍𝐓
3

4. A coil consisting of 25 turns has a radius of 20cm and carries a current of 8 Amp.
Determine the magnetic field at (a) its center and (b) a point on its axis 10cm from its
center. Draw a diagram to indicate the current and the magnetic field. (The coil is along
the x-z plane whose current is moving from the z to the x-axis.)
𝐆𝐢𝐯𝐞𝐧: 𝐚) 𝐒𝐨𝐥𝐮𝐭𝐢𝐨𝐧: 𝐛) 𝐒𝐨𝐥𝐮𝐭𝐢𝐨𝐧:
N = 25 turns μ0 NI μ0 NI
β= β=
a, radius = 20 cm 2 a 2 (r 2 + a2 )32
N
a, radius = 0.20 m 4πx10−7 2 (25turns)(8A) N
β = A 4πx10−7 2 (25turns)(8A)
r = 10 cm = 0.10 m −2 A
2 20x10 m β= 3
2
I = 8A β = 6.2832x10−4 T (10x10−2 m + 20x10−2 m)2
𝛃 = 𝟔𝟐𝟖. 𝟑𝟐𝛍𝐓 β = 11.2397mT

EVALUATE
5. A +6µC point charge is moving at a constant speed of 8x10 6 m/s in the +y-direction,
relative to a reference frame. At the instant when the point charge is at the origin of this
reference frame, what is the magnetic-field it produces at point with coordinates x=0.5m
and y=0.5m?

7. In the figure, solve for the resultant magnetic field

at point “O”.
Coil 1: I 1 = 2A
N1 = 30 turns

a1 =
Coil 2: I 2 = 4A
N2 = 25 turns

a2 =

8. A solenoid is positioned with its axis on the y-

axis as shown. The current I = 10 A and its radius
is 0.1m. It has 100 turns. Solve for the flux density at point “O”.

What is the difference between transparent, translucent and opaque objects?

How is it that when you raise your right hand in front of a mirror your image raises its left hand?

Why is the word Ambulance is spelled backward in front of the vehicle?

Why do a spoon placed on a glass with water looks like it is broken?

If you can see the face of a friend who is under water can your friend also see you? Justify
your answer.

EXPLORE
Read Module 14: Optics (pp166 – 172)
EXPLAIN

OPTICS — NATURE OF LIGHT

Optics – branch of physics that deals with the study of the behavior and properties of light
*Light – a transverse wave, and it is the only visible wave/ray among the electromagnetic
spectrum. It can travel through a vacuum and many other media. In a vacuum, the
speed of light is a constant, c = 3 x 108 m/s. Light will travel slower through different
media.

Reflection of Light – the return or bouncing of light wave from a surface

A reflection can occur in an organized way (smooth surface) or in a random way (rough
surface).
* Reflection off of a smooth surface is called specular reflection.
* Reflection off of a rough surface is called diffuse reflection.

Law of Reflection: The angle of incidence with respect to the normal of the reflecting surface
θi, equals the angle of reflection θr:

The amount of energy that is reflected compared to the amount incident is called the
reflectivity of the surface. This also is called albedo. The reflectivity of a mirror is about 96%
(albedo = 0.96).

 If the light goes from the medium of high velocity to the one of low velocity, it is bent
toward the normal to the surface
 If the light goes the other way, it is bent away from the normal.
 Light moving along the normal is not deflected.

The index of refraction of a transparent medium is the ratio between the speed of light in
free space or vacuum, c and its speed in the medium, v:
𝐜
INDEX OF REFRACTION, 𝐧 =
𝐯

* The greater its index of refraction, the more a beam of light is deflected on entering a
medium.

Law of Refraction (Snell’s Law):

According to Snell’s law, the angles of incidence θi and refraction θr are related by the
formula
sin(θi ) v1 n2
= =
sin(θr ) v2 n1

where v1 and n1 are, respectively, the velocity of light and index of refraction of the first
medium and v2 and n2 are the corresponding quantities in the second medium. Snell’s law
is often written
𝐧𝟏𝐬𝐢𝐧(𝛉𝐢) = 𝐧𝟐𝐬𝐢𝐧(𝛉𝐫)

There are 2 basic types of lenses:

a) Convex Lens (Converging lens):
i) Lens thicker at center than edges.
ii) Light rays are refracted towards the focal point, F, on the other side of the lens.

b) Concave Lens (Diverging lens):

i) Lens thinner at center than edges.
ii) Light rays are refracted in a direction away from the focal point, F, on the inner side of
the lens.

Thin Lens Equation:

Just as we had for mirrors, the thin lens equation is
𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
= +
𝐟 𝐃𝐢 𝐃𝐨
Where: Di = Image distance
Do= Object distance
f = Focal length
f = (+) for convex lens; (–) for concave lens

MIRROR
A mirror is a surface that can reflect a beam of light in one direction instead of either
scattering it widely in many directions or absorbing it.

A. Plane Mirrors.
Images formed by plane (i.e., flat) mirrors have the following properties:

 The image is as far behind the mirror as the object is in front.

 The image is unmagnified, virtual, perverted and upright.
*Perverted means that the image is flipped about the vertical,
i.e. when you raise your right hand in front of a plane mirror, your image raises its left hand
i.e. when you have a mole on your left cheek, your image will have its mole on the right

Focal Length and Focal Point

The focal point of a mirror is the point where parallel rays converge after reflection from
a concave mirror (converging mirror), or the point from which they appear to diverge after
reflection from a convex mirror (diverging mirror). The distance from the focal point to the
vertex is called the focal length, denoted as f.
If the radius of curvature of the mirror is R, the focal length f is R/2. For a concave mirror,
f is positive, and for a convex mirror, f is negative.
R
Concave mirror: f = +
2
R
Convex mirror: f = −
2

Mirror Equation
When an object is a distance Do from a mirror of focal length f, the image is located a
distance Di from the mirror, where:
𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
= +
𝐟 𝐃𝐢 𝐃𝐨

This equation holds for both concave and convex mirrors.

ELABORATE:
REFRACTION:
1. A layer of oil (n = 1.45) floats on water (n = 1.33). A ray of light shines onto the oil with an
incidence angle of 40o. Find the angle the ray makes in water.
SOLUTION:

40o

At the air-oil interface, Snell’s law gives

𝑛𝑎𝑖𝑟 sin 40𝑜 = 𝑛𝑜𝑖𝑙 sin 𝜃2
1 sin 40𝑜 = 1.45 sin 𝜃2

At the oil-water interface, Snell’s law gives

𝑛𝑜𝑖𝑙 sin 𝜃2 = 𝑛𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 sin 𝜃3
1.45 sin 𝜃2 = 1.33 sin 𝜃3

Therefore; 1 sin 40𝑜 = 1.33 sin 𝜃3

𝜽𝟑 = 𝜽𝒘𝒂𝒕𝒆𝒓 = 𝟐𝟖. 𝟗𝒐

SOLUTION:
a) The position of the image or image distance can be determined by using the Thin
lens equation:
1 1 1
= +
𝑓 𝐷𝑖 𝐷𝑜

1 1 1
= +
12𝑐𝑚 𝐷𝑖 20𝑐𝑚

𝑫𝒊 = 𝟑𝟎 𝒄𝒎

To solve for the height of the image, use the linear magnification equation.
height of image image distance
Linear magnification = =
height of object object distance
30 cm
height of image = 4 cm ∗ = 𝟔 𝐜𝐦
20 cm

b) The following two convenient rays from O will locate the image.
1) A ray OP, parallel to the optical axis, must after refraction pass through the focus
F.
2) A ray passing through the optical center c of a thin lens is not appreciably
deviated. Hence ray OCI may be drawn a straight line.
The intersection I of these two rays is the image of O. Thus II’ represents the position
and image of OO’.

 The image is real,

inverted and enlarged.
I
Do Di

SOLUTION:

a) The position of the image or image distance can be determined by using the Thin
lens equation:
1 1 1
= +
𝑓 𝐷𝑖 𝐷𝑜

1 1 1
= +
−18𝑐𝑚 𝐷𝑖 27𝑐𝑚

𝑫𝒊 = −𝟏𝟎. 𝟖 𝒄𝒎

To solve for the height of the image, use the linear magnification equation.
height of image image distance
Linear magnification = =
height of object object distance
10.8 cm
height of image = 9 cm ∗ = 𝟑. 𝟔 𝐜𝐦
27 cm

b) The following two convenient rays from O will locate the image.
1. A ray OP, parallel to the optical axis, is refracted outward in the direction D as
if it came from the principal focus F.
2. A ray passing through the optical center of the lens is drawn as a straight line
OC.

 The image is virtual, upright

and diminished.

SOLUTION:
a) The position of the image or image distance can be determined by using the
mirror equation:
1 1 1
= +
𝑓 𝐷𝑖 𝐷𝑜

1 1 1
80
= +
( ) 𝑐𝑚 𝐷𝑖 25𝑐𝑚
2

𝑫𝒊 = −𝟔𝟔. 𝟔𝟕 𝒄𝒎 (- means the image is behind the mirror or virtual image)

To solve for the height of the image, use the linear magnification equation.
height of image image distance
Linear magnification = =
height of object object distance
66.67cm
height of image = 5 cm ∗ = 𝟏𝟑. 𝟑𝟑 𝐜𝐦
25 cm

b) Two of the following rays from O locate the image.

1) A ray OA, parallel to the principal axis, is reflected through the focus F, 40 cm
from the mirror.
2) A ray OB, in the line of the radius COB, is normal to the mirror and is reflected
back on itself through the center of curvature C.
3) A ray OD, which passes through F, is reflected parallel to the axis.

 The image is virtual,

upright and magnified.

Do
Di

SOLUTION:

a) The position of the image or image distance can be determined by using the
mirror equation:
1 1 1
= +
𝑓 𝐷𝑖 𝐷𝑜

1 1 1
40
= +
(− ) 𝑐𝑚 𝐷𝑖 30𝑐𝑚
2

𝑫𝒊 = −𝟏𝟐 𝒄𝒎 (- means the image is behind the mirror or virtual image)

To solve for the height of the image, use the linear magnification equation.
height of image image distance
Linear magnification = =
height of object object distance
12 cm
𝐡𝐞𝐢𝐠𝐡𝐭 𝐨𝐟 𝐢𝐦𝐚𝐠𝐞 = 6 cm ∗ = 𝟐. 𝟒 𝐜𝐦
30 cm

b) Use two convenient rays coming from O:

1) A ray OA, parallel to the principal axis, is reflected in the direction AA’ as if it
passed through the principal focus F.
2) A ray OB, directed toward the center of curvature C, is normal to the mirror
and is reflected back on itself.

 The image is virtual, upright

and diminished.
Do Di

2. Optical fibers are generally composed of silica, with an index of refraction around
1.44. (a) How fast does light travel in a silica fiber, and (b) How long will it take for that
light to travel from Baguio to Manila (distance between the two cities 128miles)

3. Light travels from fiber optic cable into diamond with an angle of refraction (θ r) of 36.1 °.
if the refractive index of fiber optic cable is 1.6 and the refractive index of diamond is 2.4,
determine (a) the angle of incidence(θi); (b) critical angle; (c) the speed of light in each
material.

4. A light ray strikes a reflective plane surface at an angle of 58° with the surface. (a) Find
the angle of incidence. (b) Find the angle of reflection. (c) Find the angle made by the
reflected ray and the surface. (d) Find the angle made by the incident and reflected
rays.

5. If the reflective surface in problem no. 4 is placed at an angel 10° above the horizontal.
Calculate all required values.

6. A ray of light is reflected by two parallel mirrors (1) and (2) at points A and B. The ray
makes an angle of 30° with the parallel line between the two mirrors. Calculate for (a)
the angle of reflection at the point of incidence A; (b) the angle of reflection at the point
of incidence B (c) the approximate number of reflections made by the two mirrors if the
distance between the two mirrors id d = 4 cm and the length L of the two mirror system is
3 meters, (d) In a real system, at each reflection, there are losses of the light energy
travelling between the two mirrors. If L and d are fixed, what can be done to decrease
the number of reflections on the mirrors and hence the energy lost by reflection?

30°

7. An 2cm object is placed 20 cm from a concave mirror. The focal length is 10 cm.
Determine (a) The image distance (b) the image size (c) magnification and (d) describe
the image formed

9. The focal length of a convex mirror is 10 cm and the object distance is 15 cm. Determine
(a) the image distance (b) the magnification of image (c) the image size of the object is
3 cm tall and (d) describe the image formed

10. A biker sees the image of a motorcycle behind it 1/6 times its original size when the
distance between the biker and motorcycle is 30 meters. Determine (a) the radius of
curvature of the rear-view mirror (b) the image distance (c) describe the image formed

CIVIL /GEODETIC ENGINEERING CHEMICAL ENGINEERING

Engr. Yuriko Lyn M. Abalos-Suba Engr. Normalita L. Escalante
FB account/messenger: Ym Abalos FB account/messenger: Normalita L.
E-mails: ylasuba@[Link] Escalante
E-mails: nlescalante@[Link]

Engr. Joana Marie F. Casandra - Obfan Engr. Mylene M. Ocasion

FB account/messenger: Jei-Em Cee-Oh FB account/messenger: Mylene Millanes
E-mails: jmcobfan@[Link] Ocasion
E-mails: mmocasion@[Link]
ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING
Engr. Blanche Rosaida P. Mallare
FB account/messenger:
E-mails: brpmallare@slu@.[Link]

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