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YOUR NOTES
IGCSE Biology CIE 

14. Coordination & Response

CONTENTS
14.1 Coordination, Response & Homeostasis
14.1.1 Mammalian Nervous System
14.1.2 Types of Neurones
14.1.3 The Reflex Arc
14.1.4 The Synapse
14.1.5 Sense Organs
14.1.6 The Eye
14.1.7 Hormones in Humans
14.1.8 Homeostasis: Definition
14.1.9 Homeostasis
14.1.10 Homeostasis: Temperature Control
14.1.11 Tropisms

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14.1 Coordination, Response & Homeostasis YOUR NOTES


14.1.1 Mammalian Nervous System
Structure & Role of the Mammalian Nervous System
The human nervous system consists of the:
central nervous system (CNS) - the brain and the spinal cord
peripheral nervous system (PNS) - all of the nerves in the body

It allows us to
Make sense of our surroundings and respond to them
Coordinate and regulate body functions
Information is sent through the nervous system as nerve impulses - electrical
signals that pass along nerve cells known as neurones
A bundle of neurones is known as a nerve

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YOUR NOTES


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The human nervous system

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14.1.2 Types of Neurones YOUR NOTES


Neurone Diagrams
There are three main types of neurone: sensory, relay and motor
Sensory neurones carry impulses from sense organs to the CNS (brain or
spinal cord)
Relay neurones are found inside the CNS and connect sensory and motor
neurones
Motor neurones carry impulses from the CNS to effectors (muscles or glands)
Neurones have a long fibre (axon)
This means that less time is wasted transferring the impulse from one cell to
another
The axon is insulated by a fatty sheath with small uninsulated sections along it
(called nodes)
This means that the electrical impulse does not travel down the whole axon, but
jumps from one node to the next
Their cell body contains many extensions called dendrites
This means they can connect to many other neurones and receive impulses from
them, forming a network for easy communication
Identifying the types of neurone:

The three types of neurone

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YOUR NOTES
Sensory neurones are long and have a cell body branching off the middle of the 
axon
Relay neurones are short and have a small cell body at one end with many
dendrites branching off it
Motor neurones are long and have a large cell body at one end with long
dendrites branching off it

 Exam Tip
A way to remember which neurone is which:
Sensory neurones connect a sense organ eg. eye, nose, tastebuds to the CNS
Motor neurones result in a response, which is often movement; think of a
moving motorbike

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14.1.3 The Reflex Arc YOUR NOTES


The Reflex Arc
Voluntary Responses
A voluntary response is one where you make a conscious decision to carry out a
particular action therefore it starts with your brain
An example is reaching out to pick up a cup of coffee
An involuntary (or reflex) response does not involve the brain as the coordinator
of the reaction and you are not aware you have completed it until after you have
carried it out
Involuntary actions are usually ones which are essential to basic survival and are
rapid , whereas voluntary responses often take longer as we consider what the
consequences might be before doing it
Reflex Responses
An involuntary (or reflex) response does not involve the brain as the coordinator
of the reaction and you are not aware you have completed it until after you have
carried it out
This is an automatic and rapid response to a stimulus such as touching
something sharp or hot
As it does not involve the brain, a reflex response is quicker than any other type of
nervous response
This helps to minimise the damage to the body

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A reflex

1. The pin (the stimulus) is detected by a pain/pressure/touch receptor in the skin

2. Sensory neurone sends electrical impulses to the spinal cord (the coordinator)
3. Electrical impulse is passed on to relay neurone in the spinal cord
4. Relay neurone connects to motor neurone and passes the impulse on
5. Motor neurone carries impulse to a muscle in the leg (the effector)
6. The muscle will contract and pull the foot up and away from the sharp object (the
response)

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

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The reflex pathway

Synapses
Where two neurons meet or join, they do so at a junction called a synapse
Synapses allow junctions between neurones so are important in the nervous
system being a connected network of neurones
Nerve impulses can transmit across synapses and be directed along the
appropriate route by them eg. to the correct part of the brain
Think about the analogy of railway points that guide the trains onto the
appropriate tracks based on that train's destination.

 Exam Tip
Reflex actions are:
1. Automatic
2. Fast
3. Protective
A common exam question is to be asked to draw arrows on the neurones in
the reflex arc diagram to show the direction of movement of the
impulse. Make sure you read questions carefully – not all questions have a
line underneath them to write an answer, so they can be easy to miss!

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14.1.4 The Synapse YOUR NOTES


Structure of a Synapse: Extended
The junction between two neurones is known as a synapse

A synapse

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Synapses & Neurotransmitters: Extended YOUR NOTES

Neurones never touch each other 
The junctions (gaps) in between them are called synapses
The electrical impulse travels along the first axon
This triggers the nerve-ending of the presynaptic neurone to release chemical
messengers called neurotransmitters from vesicles which fuse with the
presynaptic membrane
The neurotransmitters diffuse across the synaptic gap (or cleft) and bind with
receptor molecules on the membrane of the second neurone (known as
the postsynaptic membrane)
This stimulates the second neurone to generate an electrical impulse that travels
down the second axon
The neurotransmitters are then destroyed to prevent continued stimulation of the
second neurone which would cause repeated impulses to be sent
Synapses ensure that impulses only travel in one direction, avoiding confusion
within the nervous system if impulses were travelling in both directions
As this is the only part of the nervous system where messages are chemical as
opposed to electrical, it is the only place where drugs can act to affect the
nervous system - eg. this is where heroin works

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How an impulse is passed on at a synapse

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 Exam Tip
For maximum marks you will need to be able to understand the structure 
and functioning of a synapse and explain what happens at each step.

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14.1.5 Sense Organs YOUR NOTES


Sense Organs as Receptors
Receptors are groups of specialised cells
They detect a change in the environment and stimulate electrical impulses in
response
Sense organs contain groups of receptors that respond to specific stimuli

Once the receptor cell in the sense organ has been stimulated, it generates an
electrical impulse
This is passed on to a sensory neurone which carries the impulse to the central
nervous system
Here a response will be decided on and the impulse will be passed to a motor
neurone (via a relay neurone)
The motor neurone carries the impulse to the effector (muscle or gland)
The effector carries out the response

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14.1.6 The Eye YOUR NOTES


Structure & Function of the Eye
The eye is a sense organ containing receptor cells that are sensitive to light (rod
cells) and colour (cone cells)

The eye

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Function of the parts of the eye: YOUR NOTES



The Blind Spot

At the point where the optic nerve joins the retina, there are no light-sensitive rod
and cone cells on that part of the retina
Light falling onto that part of the retina will not result in an image being detected
the brain 'fills in' from surrounding light so we don't see a black hole where no
light has fallen
This causes a blind spot, where we cannot detect an object in our peripheral
vision even if it is there
The Pupil Reflex
This is a reflex action carried out to protect the retina from damage in bright
light and protect us from not seeing objects in dim light
In dim light the pupil dilates (widens) in order to allow as much light into the eye
as possible
In bright light the pupil constricts (narrows) in order to prevent too much light
entering the eye and damaging the retina

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The pupil reflex

In dim light, the pupil dilates (becomes larger) to allow more light to enter the eye
to improve vision.
In bright light, the pupil constricts (gets smaller) to allow less light to enter the eye
to protect the retina from damage.

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The Pupil Reflex - Antagonistic Muscle Action: Extended YOUR NOTES

The pupil reflex is an example of a pair of antagonistic muscle groups acting 
together
They work together to regulate the amount of light entering the eye
The muscles that work antagonistically are the radial muscles and the circular
muscles of the eye
When one set of muscles contracts, the other relaxes

The pupil reflex in dim light

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The pupil reflex in bright light

Responding to Changes in Light Intensity Table

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Accommodation: Extended YOUR NOTES

Accommodation: The function of the eye in focusing on near and distant 
objects
The way the lens brings about fine focusing is called accommodation
The lens is elastic and its shape can be changed when the suspensory ligaments
attached to it become tight or loose
The changes are brought about by the contraction or relaxation of the ciliary
muscles
When an object is close up:
The ciliary muscles contract (the ring of muscle decreases in diameter)
This causes the suspensory ligaments to loosen
This stops the suspensory ligaments from pulling on the lens, which allows
the lens to become fatter
Light is refracted more

Diagram showing the eye when an object is close up

When an object is far away:

The ciliary muscles relax (the ring of muscle increases in diameter)
This causes the suspensory ligaments to tighten
The suspensory ligaments pull on the lens, causing it to become thinner
Light is refracted less

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Diagram showing the eye when an object is far away

Focussing on Distant and Near Objects Table

 Exam Tip
The focusing of the eye on distant and near objects is complex and it can be
hard to remember what is happening. This is something you can work out in
an exam if you have forgotten – staring at your hand right in front of your
eye will make your eyes feel tight and tired after a few seconds. This is
because the ciliary muscles are contracted. Staring at an object far away
feels relaxing and comfortable because the ciliary muscles are relaxed.

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Rod & Cone Cells: Extended YOUR NOTES

There are two types of receptor cells in the retina: 
Rods, which are sensitive to dim light
Cones, which distinguish between different colours in bright light
There are 3 types of cone cells which are sensitive to different colours of light
(red, blue and green)
The fovea is an area on the retina where almost all of the cone cells are found
Rod cells are found all over the retina, other than the area where the optic nerve
attaches to the retina - there are no light-sensitive cells at all in this area, and so
it is known as the blind spot

 Exam Tip
Do you ever wonder why your night vision is black and white? It's because
the low light intensity isn't enough to stimulate cone cells, so only rod cells
are stimulated. Remember, only the cone cells can detect colour.
Also, if you look directly at a dim star at night, it disappears, but reappears
if you look slightly to one side of it. This is because, when looking straight
at the star, the light falls on the fovea, which has more cones so fewer rods,
so the low light intensity won't be enough to stimulate the rods. Looking to
the side allows the light to fall away from the fovea, onto more rod cells, so
the start reappears!

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14.1.7 Hormones in Humans YOUR NOTES


Hormones & Their Associated Glands
What is a Hormone?
A hormone is a chemical substance produced by a gland and carried by the blood
The hormone alters the activity of one or more specific target organs i.e. they are
chemicals which transmit information from one part of the organism to another
and bring about a change
The glands that produce hormones in animals are known collectively as the
endocrine system

The major endocrine glands in the body

Transport around the body

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Endocrine glands have a good blood supply as when they make hormones they YOUR NOTES
need to get them into the bloodstream (specifically the blood plasma) as soon as 
possible so they can travel around the body to the target organs to bring about the
response
Hormones only affect cells with target receptors that the hormone can bind to.
These are either found on the cell membrane, or inside cells. Receptors have to be
complementary to hormones for there to be an effect.
The liver regulates levels of hormones in the blood; transforming or breaking
down any that are in excess.

How hormones work

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Important hormones in the human body: YOUR NOTES



Comparison of Nervous & Hormonal Control

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Glucagon: Extended YOUR NOTES

Blood glucose levels are controlled by a negative feedback mechanism involving 
the production of two hormones - insulin and glucagon
Both hormones which control blood glucose concentration are made in the
pancreas
Insulin is produced when blood glucose rises and stimulates liver and muscle
cells to convert excess glucose into glycogen to be stored
Glucagon is produced when blood glucose falls and stimulates liver and muscle
cells to convert stored glycogen into glucose to be released into the blood

Negative feedback regulation of blood glucose levels

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YOUR NOTES
 Exam Tip
The terms glucagon and glycogen are very often mixed up by students as 
they sound similar. Remember:
Glucagon is the hormone
Glycogen is the polysaccharide glucose is stored as
Learn the differences between the spellings and what each one does so you
do not get confused in the exam!

The Hormone Adrenaline

Adrenaline is known as the 'fight or flight' hormone as it is produced in situations
where the body may be in danger
Flight = remove oneself rapidly from a dangerous situation eg. run away
Fight = if flight is not possible, resort to physical combat to overcome danger
It causes a range of different things to happen in the body, all designed to prepare
it for movement (ie fight or flight).
These include:
Increasing blood glucose concentration for increased respiration in muscle cells
Increasing pulse rate and breathing rate so glucose and oxygen can be delivered
to muscle cells, and carbon dioxide taken away, from muscles cells more quickly
Diverting blood flow towards muscles and away from non-essential parts of the
body such as the alimentary canal; again to ensure the reactants of respiration are
as available as possible
Dilating pupils to allow as much light as possible to reach the retina so more
information can be sent to the brain

 Exam Tip
It is worth learning this list of effects of adrenaline as it is a fairly common
exam question and can be worth several easy marks.

More on Adrenaline: Extended

More on Adrenaline: Extended
Additional effects of adrenaline include;
Increasing the concentration of glucose in the blood
This help deliver more important glucose to muscles for respiration
Increasing heart rate
This has the same effect, to ensure that all muscles are well prepared for
high levels of activity in a flight or fight situation

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14.1.8 Homeostasis: Definition YOUR NOTES


Homeostasis: Definition
Homeostasis is defined as the maintenance of a constant internal environment

Role of Insulin in Homeostasis

Homeostasis means that internal conditions within the body (such as temperature,
blood pressure, water concentration, glucose concentration etc) need to be kept
within set limits in order to ensure that reactions in body cells can function and
therefore the organism as a whole can live
When one of these conditions deviates far away from the normal if not brought
back within set limits the body will not function properly and the eventual
consequence without medical intervention will be death
The Role of Insulin
Insulin is secreted into the blood at times when blood glucose levels are high
This is (most often) directly after a meal
The kidneys can only cope with a certain level of glucose in the blood
If the level gets too high, glucose gets excreted and is lost in the urine
This is like running a car with a hole in the petrol tank; valuable fuel is being
wasted
To avoid this, insulin temporarily converts excess glucose into glycogen in the
liver and muscles
Insulin decreases blood glucose concentration
The glycogen is converted back to glucose several hours later when blood glucose
levels have dipped due to respiration in all tissues

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14.1.9 Homeostasis YOUR NOTES


The Concept of Negative Feedback: Extended
Negative feedback occurs when conditions change from the ideal or set point and
returns conditions to this set point
It works in the following way:
if the level of something rises, control systems are switched on to reduce it
again
if the level of something falls, control systems are switched on to raise it
again
Negative feedback mechanisms are usually a continuous cycle of bringing levels
down and then bringing them back up so that overall, they stay within a narrow
range of what is considered ‘normal’

The negative feedback cycle

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Blood Glucose Control: Extended YOUR NOTES

Blood glucose levels are controlled by a negative feedback mechanism involving 
the production of two hormones - insulin and glucagon
Both hormones which control blood glucose concentration are made in the
pancreas
Insulin is produced when blood glucose rises and stimulates liver and muscle
cells to convert excess glucose into glycogen to be stored
Glucagon is produced when blood glucose falls and stimulates liver and muscle
cells to convert stored glycogen into glucose to be released into the blood

Negative feedback regulation of blood glucose levels

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YOUR NOTES
 Exam Tip
The terms glucagon and glycogen are very often mixed up by students as 
they sound similar. Remember:
Glucagon is the hormone
Glycogen is the polysaccharide glucose is stored as
Learn the differences between the spellings and what each one does so you
do not get confused in the exam!

Type 1 Diabetes: Extended

Type 1 diabetes is a condition where the blood glucose levels are not able to be
regulated as the insulin-secreting cells in the pancreas are not able to produce
insulin
This means that blood glucose levels are often far too high
It can be treated by injecting insulin
The extra insulin causes the liver to convert glucose into glycogen, which reduces
the blood glucose level
Symptoms of diabetes include extreme thirst, weakness or tiredness, blurred
vision, weight loss and loss of consciousness in extreme cases
People with Type 1 diabetes have to monitor their blood glucose levels throughout
the day as their levels of physical activity and their diet affect the amount of
insulin needed
They can help to control their blood glucose level by being careful with their diet
- eating foods that will not cause large increases in blood glucose level, and by
exercising , which can lower blood glucose levels due to increased respiration in
the muscles

 Exam Tip
Type 2 diabetes is not in the specification, so you don't need to learn the
details of it. This is the diabetes form that doctors are most concerned about
because it is linked to obesity and lifestyle factors.
You only need to know the symptoms and treatment of Type 1 diabetes.

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14.1.10 Homeostasis: Temperature Control YOUR NOTES


The Skin & Homeostasis: Extended
Control of body temperature is a homeostatic mechanism
Homeostasis is the maintenance of a constant internal environment
This means that internal conditions within your body (such as temperature, blood
pressure, water concentration, glucose concentration etc) need to be kept within
set limits in order to ensure that reactions in body cells can function and therefore
the organism as a whole can live
The human body maintains the temperature at which enzymes work best, around
37°C
If body temperature increases over this temperature, enzymes will denature and
become less effective at catalysing reactions such as respiration
The Structure of the Skin

A cross-section of human skin

Temperature Regulation by the Skin

Regulation is controlled by the brain which contains receptors sensitive to the
temperature of the blood
The skin also has temperature receptors and sends nervous impulses to the brain
via sensory neurones
The brain responds to this information by sending nerve impulses to effectors in
the skin to maintain the temperature within a narrow range of the optimum,

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37°C YOUR NOTES

Fatty tissueunder the dermis acts as a layer of insulation to prevent too much 
body heat being lost through the skin

Homeostatic responses to changes in body temperature

Responses to changes in temperature:

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Vasoconstriction & Vasodilation: Extended YOUR NOTES

When we are cold blood flow in capillaries slows down because arterioles leading 
to the skin capillaries get narrower - this is known as vasoconstriction
This reduces the amount of heat lost from blood by radiation as less blood flows
through the surface of the skin
When we are hot blood flow in capillaries increases because blood vessels to the
skin capillaries get wider - this is known as vasodilation
This cools the body as blood (which carries heat around the body) is flowing at a
faster rate through the skin’s surface and so more heat is lost by radiation

Responses in the skin when hot

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Responses in the skin when cold

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14.1.11 Tropisms YOUR NOTES


Gravitropism & Phototropism
Tropisms
Plants can respond to changes in environment (stimuli) for survival, e.g. light,
water, gravity
Their responses are usually much slower than animals
They grow either towards a stimulus (known as a positive response) or away from
a stimulus (known as a negative response)
The responses are known as tropisms

It is very important to a plant that its roots and shoots grow in the right directions
Shoots must grow upwards, away from gravity and towards light, so that leaves
are able to absorb sunlight
This means that shoots have a positive phototropic response and a negative
gravitropic response
Roots need to grow downwards into the soil, away from light and towards gravity,
in order to anchor the plant and absorb water and minerals from the soil particles.
This means that roots have a negative phototropic response and a positive
gravitropic response

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

Placing a plant on its side shows the gravitropic responses (also known as geotropic
responses)

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Investigating Tropisms YOUR NOTES

Investigating Phototropisms 
Three identical plants are set up as shown below (A, B and C)

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Investigating the phototropic response

The seedlings in A grow towards the light source

In B the effect of the light only coming from one direction has been cancelled out
by using a clinostat (it revolves slowly and repeatedly, so the shoots are evenly
exposed to light)
This means all sides of the seedlings get an equal amount of light so they do not
curve towards the light source but grow straight up
In C the seedlings grow straight up looking for light and the plant becomes tall
and slender with yellowing leaves due to the lack of light
Investigating Gravitropisms

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Investigating the gravitropic response (set-up)

Add some damp cotton wool to two petri dishes

Place 3 bean seedlings in the cotton wool in each petri dish
A - radicle facing downwards
B - horizontally
C - radicle (root grows from here) facing upwards
Cover each dish with a lid

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Attach one petri dish to a support so that it’s on its side YOUR NOTES
Attach the second petri dish to a clinostat (as shown in the diagrams above). 
Place both in a light-proof box (so that the seedlings are in complete darkness),
leave for two days and then observe growth of the seedlings

Investigating the gravitropic response (results)

In the first petri dish all radicles (roots) have grown downwards (positive
gravitropic response) regardless of which way they were initially facing (horizontal,
up or down) and all plumules (shoots) have grown upwards (negative gravitropic
response)
In the second petri dish, all radicles and all plumules have all grown neither up
nor down but straight outwards in whichever direction they were placed as the
effect of gravity has been cancelled out by the revolving of the clinostat - they
have shown no gravitropic response at all
The experiment needs to be done in a lightproof box in order to cancel out the
effect of light on the growth of the seedlings

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Auxins: Chemical Control of Tropisms: Extended YOUR NOTES

Plants respond to stimuli by producing a growth hormone called auxin which 
controls the direction of growth of roots or stems
Therefore we say plants control their growth chemically
Auxin is mostly made in the tips of the growing stems and roots and can diffuse to
other parts of the stems or roots; spreading from a high concentration in the shoot
tips down the shoot to an area of lower concentration.
Auxin stimulates the cells behind the tip to elongate (get larger); the more auxin
there is, the faster they will elongate and grow
This is an important point. Only the region behind the tip of a shoot is able to
contribute to growth by cell division and cell elongation. This part of a shoot is
called the meristem.
If light shines all around the tip, auxin is distributed evenly throughout and the
cells in the meristem grow at the same rate - this is what normally happens with
plants growing outside
When light shines on the shoot predominantly from one side though, the auxin
produced in the tip concentrates on the shaded side, making the cells on that side
elongate and grow faster than the cells on the sunny side
This unequal growth on either side of the shoot causes the shoot to bend and
grow in the direction of the light

Positive phototropism in plant shoots

The role of auxin can be tested using seedlings placed in a box that has a slit on
one side, only allowing light in from one direction:

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YOUR NOTES


Investigating the phototropic response set-up

Investigating the phototropic response results:

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Auxin plays a role in a plants response to gravity, affecting plant shoots and roots YOUR NOTES
in different ways 
When shoots grow away from gravity it is known as negative geotropism
Gravity modifies the distribution of auxin so that it accumulates on the lower
side of the shoot
As seen in the phototropic response, auxin increases the rate of growth in
shoots, causing the shoot to grow upwards

When roots grow towards gravity it is known as positive geotropism

In roots, higher concentrations of auxin results in a lower rate of cell
elongation
The auxin that accumulates at the lower side of the root inhibits cell
elongation
As a result, the lower side grows at a slower rate than the upper side of the
root
This causes the root to bend downwards

 Exam Tip
You should be able to explain the results of an experiment like this into the
effect of light on the growth of shoots.

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