Conservation of Natural Resources-BCV755B| 7th Sem

Course Name: Conservation of Natural Resources

Course Code: BCV755B
Open Elective
MODULE: 02
Water: Global water resources, Indian water resources, Resources system
planning. Water use sectors- domestic, industrial, agriculture. Water deficit and
water surplus basins in India, equitable distribution, Inter-basin water transfers,
Interlinking of rivers – Himalayan component, peninsular component, issues
involved. Ground water: its potential in India, conjunctive use, recharge of
ground water. Contamination of ground water, sea water ingress, problems and
solutions.

The three important phases in hydrological cycle are 1. Evaporation and Evapotranspiration, 2.
Precipitation and 3. Runoff. Other main components of the hydrological cycle are described briefly in
the following paragraphs.
1. Evaporation
2. Transpiration
3. Condensation
4. Precipitation
5. Infiltration
6. Runoff

In one form or another, water occurs practically everywhere, varying in quantity from an almost
unlimited supply in the oceans to nearly none in desert regions. It occurs in the atmosphere as water
vapors, clouds and precipitation. On the earth’s surface it is found principally in streams, in lakes and
in the oceans.

The oceans, comprising the largest single body of water, having 71% of the earth’s surface area and
store ~98% of the earth’s water resources. The water evaporated from the sea and land forms a part of
the atmospheric moisture which when it moves into low temperature regions, is condensed and
precipitated as rain and snow. When humidity is high, moisture condenses on the soil surface as dew.
Before reaching ground, apart or all of the precipitated water may get intercepted by plants in the
atmosphere itself. In dense forest a substantial part of the precipitated water may be returned to the
atmosphere by evaporation. T he part of the water reaching the ground is dissipated in several ways.

It may be absorbed in the ground, evaporated, transpired by plants, or may flow over ground as runoff
into streams to reach the oceans or inlands basins. Runoff occurs when the ground surface is situated
with water. The water absorbed in the ground infiltrates down through interstices of rocks till it reaches
the ground water body and completes the hydrologic cycle.

Department of Civil Engineering, MITE Page 1 of 19

 Conservation of Natural Resources-BCV755B| 7th Sem

Water Resources
Earth's water resources, including rivers, lakes, oceans, and underground aquifers, are under stress in
many regions. Humans need water for drinking, sanitation, agriculture, and industry; and contaminated
water can spread illnesses and disease vectors, so clean water is both an environmental and a public
health issue. In this unit, learn how water is distributed around the globe; how it cycles among the
oceans, atmosphere, and land; and how human activities are affecting our finite supply of usable water.

Global Water Resources

Global water resources / World’s water resources: For proper control and use of water it is essential
to have an idea of availability of water resource of the world. World oceans cover about 3/4th of the
earth’s surface. The world’s total water resources are estimated at 1.6 x 108 M ha-m, which is enough
to cover the earth with a layer of 3000 m depth. Of these global water resources about 97.3% is saline
water mainly in oceans, and only 2.7 % is available as fresh water at any time on earth. Out of this 2.7%
of fresh water, about 2.1% is available as surface water and 0.6% as ground water. Even out of this 2.1%
of surface water, 2.05% is fresh water in glaciers and icecaps and only of the order of 0.01% is available
in lakes and streams, the remaining 0.04% being in other forms. Out of 0.6% of stored ground water,
only about 0.25% can be economically extracted with the present drilling technology (the remaining
being at greater depths). It can be said that the ground water potential of the Ganga Basin is roughly
about forty times the flow of water in the river Ganga. About 77.2% of fresh water lies frozen in Polar
Regions and another 22.4% is presented as ground water and soil moisture. The rest is available in lakes,
rivers, atmosphere and vegetation.

Highlights from assessment activities over the past two decades, which are used to establish present and
future water trends, reveal that:

Department of Civil Engineering, MITE Page 2 of 19

 Conservation of Natural Resources-BCV755B| 7th Sem

Distribution of water on earth

• Saline water (ocean & sea) – 97.3%
• Fresh water – 2.7%
Freshwater resources:
– Polar ice caps – 77.2%
– Groundwater & soil moisture – 22.4%
– Lakes & reservoirs – 0.35%
– Atmosphere – 0.04%
– Rivers & streams – 0.01%

1. Freshwater resources are unevenly distributed, with much of the water located far from human
populations. Many of the world's largest river basins run through thinly populated regions. There
are an estimated 263 major international river basins in the world, covering ~231 059 898 km2 or
45.3% of the Earth's land surface area (excluding Antarctica).
2. Groundwater represents about 90% of the world's readily available freshwater resources, and some
1.5 billion people depend upon groundwater for their drinking water.
3. Agricultural water use accounts for about 75% of total global consumption, mainly through crop
irrigation, while industrial use accounts for about 20%, and the remaining 5% is used for domestic
purposes.
4. It is estimated that two out of every three people will live in water-stressed areas by the year 2025.
In Africa alone, it is estimated that 25 countries will be experiencing water stress (below 1,700 m3
per capita per year) by 2025. Today, 450 million people in 29 countries suffer from water shortages.
5. Clean water supplies and sanitation remain major problems in many parts of the world, with 20%
of the global population lacking access to safe drinking water. Water-borne diseases from faecal
pollution of surface waters continue to be a major cause of illness in developing countries. Polluted
water is estimated to affect the health of 1.2 billion people, and contributes to the death of 15 million
children annually.

A wide variety of human activities also affects the coastal and marine environment. Population
pressures, increasing demands for space and resources, and poor economic performances can all
undermine the sustainable use of our oceans and coastal areas. Serious problems affecting the quality
and use of these ecosystems include:

Department of Civil Engineering, MITE Page 3 of 19

 Conservation of Natural Resources-BCV755B| 7th Sem

Worldwide distribution of freshwater

Indian Water resources

India with a geographical area of 329 million hectares is blessed with large river basins which have been
divided into 12 major & 48 medium river basins comprising 252.8 M-ha and 24.9 M-ha of total
catchment area respectively. It possesses about 4% of the total average annual runoff of the rivers of the
world. More than 80% to 90% of annual runoff occurs during monsoon months.
Availability of water per capita annum in India

Availability of water per capita annum in India

Department of Civil Engineering, MITE Page 4 of 19

 Conservation of Natural Resources-BCV755B| 7th Sem

NEED/ NECESSITY FOR WATER RESOURCES PLANNING AND MANAGEMENT

Planning and management of water resources systems are essential due to following factors:
 Severity of the adverse consequences of droughts, floods and excessive pollution.
 These can lead to
a. Too little water due to growing urbanization, additional water requirements, in stream flow
requirements etc. Measures should be taken to reduce the demand during scarcity times
b. Too much water due to increased flood frequencies and also increase in water requirements due
to increased economic development on river floodplains c. Polluted water due to both industrial
and household discharges
 Degradation of aquatic and riparian systems due to river training and reclamation of floodplains for
urban and industrial development, poor water quality due to discharges of pesticides, fertilizers and
wastewater effluents etc.
 While port development requires deeper rivers, narrowing the river for shipping purposes will
increase the flood level

Why Plan, Why Manage?

Water resources planning and management activities are usually motivated, These benefits can be
measured in many different ways. Inevitably, it is not easy to agree on the best way to do so, and
whatever is proposed may provoke conflict. Hence there is the need for careful study and research, as
well as full stakeholder involvement, in the search for a shared vision of the best compromised plan or
management policy.

Too Little Water

Issues involving inadequate supplies to meet demands can result from conflicts or concerns over land
and water use. They can result from growing urbanization, the development of additional water supplies,
the need to meet in stream flow requirements, and conflicts over private property and public rights
regarding water allocations. Other issues can involve trans-basin water transfers and markets, objectives
of economic efficiency versus the desire to keep non-efficient activities viable, and demand
management measures, including incentives for water reuse and water reuse financing.

Department of Civil Engineering, MITE Page 5 of 19

 Conservation of Natural Resources-BCV755B| 7th Sem

Too Much Water

Damage due to flooding is a direct result of floodplain development that is vulnerable to floods. This is
a risk many take, and indeed on average it may result in positive private net benefits, especially when
public agencies subsidize these private risk takers in times of flooding. In many river basins of
developed regions, the level of annual expected flood damage is increasing over time, in spite of
increased expenditures on flood damage reduction measures. This is mainly due to increased economic
development on river floodplains, not to increased frequencies or magnitudes of floods.

Polluted Water
The discharges of wastewater by industry and households can have considerable detrimental effects on
water quality and, hence, often on public and ecosystem health. Planning and management activities
should pay attention to these possible negative consequences of industrial development, population
growth and the intensive use of pesticides and fertilizers in urban as well as in agricultural areas. Issues
regarding the environment and water quality include:

o Upstream versus downstream conflicts on meeting water quality standards

o Threats from aquatic nuisance species
o Threats from the chemical, physical and biological water quality of the watershed’s aquatic
resources
o Quality standards for recycled water
o Non-point source pollution discharges, including sediment from erosion
o Inadequate groundwater protection compacts and concerned institutions.

Policy principles
 The status of the nation’s water resources as an indivisible national asset will be confirmed and
formalised.
 National Government will act as the custodian of the nation’s water resources and its approaches.
 All water in the water cycle whether on land, underground or in surface channels, falling on,
flowing through or infiltrating between such systems, will be treated as part of the common
resource and to the extent required to meet the broad objectives of water resource management,
will be subject to common use principles
 Only water required to meet basic human needs and maintain environmental sustainability
will be guaranteed as a right. This will be known as the Reserve.
 In shared river basins, Government will be empowered to give priority over other uses to ensure
that the legitimate requirements of neighbouring countries can be met.
 All other water uses will be recognised only if they are beneficial in the public interest.
 These other water uses will be subject to a system of allocation that promotes use which is
optimal for the achievement of equitable and sustainable economic and social development.
 The new system of allocation will take into consideration the investments made by the user in
infrastructure for water use.
 All water use, wherever in the water cycle it occurs, will be subject to a resource conservation
charge where there are competing beneficial uses or where such use significantly affects other
users.
 The use of rivers and other water resources to dispose of wastes will also be made subject to a
catchment management charge which will cover actual costs, and a resource conservation
charge where there are competing beneficial uses for such use and/or such use significantly
affects other users.
Department of Civil Engineering, MITE Page 6 of 19
 Conservation of Natural Resources-BCV755B| 7th Sem

 To promote equitable access to water for disadvantaged groups for productive purposes such as
agriculture, some or all of these charges may be waived for a determined period where this is
necessary for them to be able to begin to use the resource.
 To promote equitable access to water for basic human needs, provision will also be made for
some or all of these charges to be waived.
 All major water user sectors must develop a water use, conservation and protection policy,
and regulations will be introduced to ensure compliance with the policy in key areas.
 Provision may be made to allow for the functions of the development and operation of the
national water infrastructure which links regional catchments and systems, to be transferred
to a public utility established for that purpose.
 System of allocation will use water pricing, limited term allocations and other administrative
mechanisms to bring supply and demand into balance in a manner which is beneficial in the
public interest.
 To promote the efficient use of water, the policy will be to charge users for the full financial
costs of providing access to water, including infrastructure development and catchment
management activities.

National Water Policy

National Water Policy is formulated by the Ministry of Water Resources of the Government of India to
govern the planning and development of water resources and their optimum utilization. The first
National Water Policy was adopted in September, 1987. It was reviewed and updated in 2002 and
later in 2012.

India accounts for 18% of the world population and about 4% of the world’s water resources. One of
the solutions to solve the country’s water woes is to link the rivers.

India has been successful in creating live water storage capacity of about 253 billion cubic meter (BCM)
so far. In a first, the ecological needs of river have also been taken into consideration.

Salient features

The major provisions under the policy are:

1. Envisages to establish a standardized national information system with a network of data banks
and data bases
2. Resource planning and recycling for providing maximum availability
3. To give importance to the impact of projects on human settlements and environment.
4. Guidelines for the safety of storage dams and other water-related structures
5. Regulate exploitation of groundwater
6. Setting water allocation priorities in the following order: Drinking
water, Irrigation, Hydropower, Navigation, Industrial and other uses.
7. The water rates for surface water and ground water should be rationalized with due regard to
the interests of small and marginal farmers.
The policy also deals with participation of farmers and voluntary agencies, water quality, water zoning,
conservation of water, flood and drought management, erosion etc.

Department of Civil Engineering, MITE Page 7 of 19

 Conservation of Natural Resources-BCV755B| 7th Sem

National Water Policy 2012

1. To ensure access to a minimum quantity of potable water for essential health and hygiene to all
citizens, available within easy reach of the household.
2. To curtail subsidy to agricultural electricity users.
3. Setting up of Water Regulatory Authority.
4. To keep aside a portion of the river flow to meet the ecological needs and to ensure that the low
and high flow releases correspond in time closely to the natural flow regime.
5. To give statutory powers to Water Users Associations to maintain the distribution system.
6. Project benefited families to bear part of the cost of resettlement & rehabilitation of project
affected families.
7. To remove the large disparity between stipulations for water supply in urban areas and in rural
areas.
8. To support a National Water Framework Law.

Current Policy Challenges

Water
 There are a lot of pieces of policies that guide water and supply service delivery
 A gap in water service delivery is not bridged yet, the Department needs to work much on
improving the lives of the communities thus the 12 Policy Positions were developed in order to
overcome the identified gaps
 A bottom up approach is highly needed when a plan to deliver water services is initiated in order
to create that element of responsibility to community

The Government’s National Water Mission under the National Action Plan on Climate Change
addresses many of these issues. With its main objective of “conservation of water, minimizing wastage
and ensuring its more equitable distribution both across and within States through integrated water
resources development and management,” it has the potential to shift focus from supply augmentation
to efficient utilization of available resources.

In November 2019, the Ministry of Jal Shakti for the first time set up a committee of independent experts
to draft the new National Water Policy (NWP). Over a period of one year, the committee has received
124 submissions by state and central governments, academics and practitioners. It is important that the
policy is implemented by 2030 if India’s water woes are to be solved.

The main water-consuming sectors:

The main water-consuming sectors in India are Agriculture, the Industrial Sector, and the Domestic
Sector. Agriculture accounts for the vast majority (around 80%) of the country's total water use, with
the industrial and domestic sectors each consuming about 10%. Other uses include institutional,
commercial, and public services.

Sector Breakdown

 Agriculture (approx. 80% of total use):

 This is the largest consumer of water in India, with water use at about 600 billion cubic
meters annually.

Department of Civil Engineering, MITE Page 8 of 19

 Conservation of Natural Resources-BCV755B| 7th Sem

 A significant portion comes from groundwater, leading to depletion of underground

resources.
 Inefficient irrigation methods, like flood irrigation, result in substantial water wastage.
 Industrial Sector (approx. 10% of total use):
 This sector uses approximately 75 billion cubic meters of water annually.
 Key water-intensive industries include textiles, chemicals, steel, thermal power plants,
and pulp and paper.
 Water consumption in industries is increasing, with demand projected to rise in the
coming decades.
 Domestic Sector (approx. 10% of total use):
 The remaining 10% is for domestic consumption, also around 75 billion cubic meters
annually.
 Urban water supply faces challenges, including significant water loss from leaks and
unauthorized connections.

Other Uses
 Institutional and Commercial Sectors: This includes entities like hospitals, schools, offices,
and restaurants.
 Public Uses: This category covers general public water needs.
 Energy Sector: Energy demand is increasing, with increasing water demand for this sector as
well.

Water deficit and water surplus basins in India

India has a National Perspective Plan to interlink rivers from surplus basins like Mahanadi, Godavari,
Brahmaputra, Ganga (northern tributaries), and West-flowing rivers to deficit basins such as Krishna,
Cauvery, Pennar, Vaigai, and parts of the Ganga basin itself. Studies by the National Water
Development Agency (NWDA) have identified these basins to address regional water imbalances and
mitigate drought and floods by transferring water to areas with water scarcity.

Department of Civil Engineering, MITE Page 9 of 19

 Conservation of Natural Resources-BCV755B| 7th Sem

Water Surplus Basins

 Location:
Primarily in the northern and northeastern parts of India.
 Causes:
Characterized by perennial rivers originating from the Himalayan snowmelt and receiving
abundant rainfall from the monsoon.
 Characteristics:
Abundant water supply often leads to floods, with surplus water flowing into the sea, representing
a lost resource.
 Examples: Ganga Basin, Brahmaputra Basin, Mahanadi and Godavari basins are also identified
as surplus basins.

Water Deficit Basins

 Location:
Primarily in the southern and western parts of the country.
 Causes:
Drained by seasonal rivers that are highly dependent on the monsoon, which can be unreliable.
 Characteristics:
Water supply often fails to meet the demand, leading to drought conditions and water scarcity.
 Examples: Krishna, Pennar, Cauvery, and Vaigai basins are noted as deficit regions.

Equitable water distribution in India is a significant challenge addressed by government schemes like
the National Water Mission and the AMRUT 2.0 program for cities, aiming to ensure water access for
all citizens

Government Initiatives and Goals

 National Water Mission:
 Atal Mission for Rejuvenation and Urban Transformation (AMRUT):
 24x7 water supply with tap water facilities in cities.
 Focus on Specific Groups:
 Efforts are underway to ensure equitable drinking water access for villages.
 Demand-Side Management:
 Initiatives like the "Sahi Fasal" campaign encourage farmers to use less water-intensive crops and
improve water efficiency in agriculture.

Challenges to Equitable Distribution

 Geographical and Rainfall Variation:
 Outmoded/outdated Infrastructure:
 Socio-Economic and Political Dynamics:
 Urban vs. Rural Bias:
 Innovative Solutions and Approaches
 Integrated Water Resource Management:
 Grassroots Movements:
 Digital Technologies: (Eg. E-PAVAS stands for “Electronic Paani Vapar Sanstha”)
 AI and Partnerships:
 Right to Livelihood:

Department of Civil Engineering, MITE Page 10 of 19

 Conservation of Natural Resources-BCV755B| 7th Sem

Inter-basin water transfers/Interlinking of rivers

India is a diverse country not only in

terms of culture and traditions but
also in terms of geography, wherein
some regions have an excess of river
water and others face water scarcity.
Being a monsoon country the rainfall
is unsteady, unevenly distributed and
hence drought in some parts and
floods in other parts frequently occur.
The Rivers play a vital role in the
lives of the Indian people. Indian
agriculture largely depends upon Monsoon which is always uncertain. This problem of the irregular
distribution of water can be overcome to a greater extent by interlinking of rivers.

Background:
 The idea of interlinking of rivers was first proposed by Sir Arthur Cotton in 1850s. It was then
revived in 1972 by K.L. Rao, then India's minister of power and irrigation.
 Initiated in the 1980s under the National Perspective Plan (NPP) and in 1982 National Water
Development Agency (NWDA) was set up to study the feasibility of the river linking.
 In 2021, the Centre proposed National Interlinking of Rivers Authority (NIRA) as the apex
implementing body for NPP and to replace NWDA.
 Present Prime Minister ambitious Rs 5.5 lakh crore Rivers Inter-link plan is a large-scale civil
engineering project that aims to link rivers through a network of reservoirs and canals across India.
 PM has pushed through clearances for the first phase of the project despite opposition from
environmentalists. The Interlinking of River (ILR) programme, under the leadership of the Prime
Minister, has been taken up on high priority.

Under the National Perspective Plan for water resources development through inter basin transfer of
water, prepared by the then Ministry of Irrigation (now Ministry of Jal Shakti), for transferring water
from water surplus basins to water-deficit basins, NWDA has identified 30 links (16 under Peninsular
Component & 14 under Himalayan Component) for preparation of Feasibility Reports. India accounts
for 18% of the world population and about 4% of the world’s water resources. One of the solutions to
solve the country’s water woes is to Link Rivers and lakes.

Interlinking of Rivers (ILR) is a water management strategy involving the construction of canals,
reservoirs, and dams to transfer water from surplus river basins to deficit areas, primarily in India. The
goal of the National River Linking Project (NRLP) is to mitigate water scarcity, control floods,
improve irrigation, generate hydropower, and boost agricultural production across the nation. The
project, overseen by India's National Water Development Agency (NWDA).

Goals and Benefits:

 Flood and Drought Control:
 Water Security:
 Agricultural Productivity:
 Hydropower Generation:

Department of Civil Engineering, MITE Page 11 of 19

 Conservation of Natural Resources-BCV755B| 7th Sem

Projects in the Himalaya component:

Himalayan Rivers Development Component under which 14 links have been identified. This component
aims to construct storage reservoirs on the Ganga and Brahmaputra rivers, as well as their tributaries in
India and Nepal. The aim is to conserve monsoon flows for irrigation and hydropower generation, along
with flood control. The linkage will transfer surplus flows of the Kosi, Gandak and Ghagra to the west.
A link between the Ganga and Yamuna is also proposed to transfer the surplus water to drought-prone
areas of Haryana, Rajasthan and Gujarat.

Projects in the peninsular component:

Peninsular Rivers Development Component of the Southern Water Grid, which includes 16 links that
propose to connect the rivers of South India. It envisages linking the Mahanadi and Godavari to feed
the Krishna, Pennar, Cauvery, and Vaigai rivers. This linkage will require several large dams and major
canals to be constructed. Besides this, the Ken River will also be linked to the Betwa, Parbati, Kalisindh,
and Chambal rivers.

Major advantages/benefits of ILR:

 Create the potential to increase agricultural production by an additional 100 per cent over the next
five years;
 Unify the country by involving every Panchayat as a shareholder and implement agency;
 Provide for enhancing the security of the country by an additional waterline of defence;
 Employ the 10 lakh people for the next 10 years;
 Eradicate the flooding problems which recur in the north-east and the north every year;
 Solve the water crisis by providing alternative, perennial water resources;
 The large canals linking the rivers are expected to facilitate inland navigation too;
 Increasing food production from about 200m tonnes a year to 500m tonnes;
 Boost the annual average income of farmers;
 To solve the problem of the water crisis in cosmopolitan cities of India and Inter-state water
disputes.
 The rural areas of the country will get an all-out development on modern lines .it will boost the
rural economy and the lifestyle of the Indian village.
 Due to the interlinking of rivers, the overall economic activities of the country will be enhanced
resulting in an annual increase of GDP. Employment opportunities also increase.
 Not only the environment protection and pollution control shall be achieved but this creation of
“National Rivers Water Grid” shall also provide extra security to the country as a whole.
 Generate employment in agriculture, power, transport & construction sector.

Challenges/disadvantages of River Linking Projects

Environmental Impact
 Major disruption to wildlife habitats, with projects like Ken-Betwa submerging 98 sq. km. of
Panna Tiger Reserve, threatening tigers, gharials, and various species.
 Extensive deforestation causing local climate changes.
Economic Concerns
 High implementation costs (e.g., Ken-Betwa at ₹44,605 crore) raising questions about viability.
 Significant ongoing maintenance costs adding to financial burden.
Social Implications
 Large-scale displacement of local populations.
 Complex rehabilitation and compensation challenges affecting communities.
Department of Civil Engineering, MITE Page 12 of 19
 Conservation of Natural Resources-BCV755B| 7th Sem

 Disruption of traditional livelihoods and social structures.

Technical Challenges
 Uncertainty in water availability, especially with non-perennial rivers.
 Water quality concerns during transfer between river systems.
 Question of sustainable alternatives like rainwater harvesting versus large-scale linking.

GROUND WATER

Occurrence of Ground Water

The rainfall that percolates below the ground surface passes through the voids of the
rocks and joints the water table. These voids are generally interred connected permitting the
movements of the groundwater. Some of the rocks are not permitting the water inside, hence
the mode of occurrence of ground water depends largely upon the type of formation,
and hence upon the geology of the area.

The water storage capacity of the ground water is depend on,

 The porosity of the rocks
 The rate at which water is added to it by infiltration
 The rate at which water is lost from by evaporation, transpiration, seepage and
withdrawal by man.

Groundwater potential in India:

About 2/3rd of the total land area comprises of consolidated formations, remaining 1/3rd of the
land area is covered with both unconsolidated & consolidated formations like alluvial tracts.
Areas of GW potential in India are:
 Springs in the Himalayan highlands
 Freshwater sediments of Kashmir valley
 Indo-Gangetic alluvium
 Malabar & Coramandel coastal areas
 Tertiary sediments of Cauvery delta etc

The National Commission on Agriculture in 1976 estimated the GW resources are about
350km3, of which 260km3 was available for irrigation. The Groundwater Exploitation
Committee in 1979 suggested a suitable methodology for estimation of GW. Using the norms,
CGWB (Central Ground Water Board) in 1955 has estimated the total replenishable GW
potential of the country (dynamic) is about 431.89km3.

Groundwater Potential and Resources

Total Resources:
The annual replenishable groundwater resource for India is estimated to be around 433-449
BCM, with approximately 399-407 BCM being extractable annually.
Sources:
Rainfall contributes about two-thirds of the replenishable resource, with other sources like
canal seepage and artificial recharge contributing the remainder.
Department of Civil Engineering, MITE Page 13 of 19
 Conservation of Natural Resources-BCV755B| 7th Sem

Key Statistics and Trends

Recharge:
The total annual groundwater recharge for India was estimated at approximately 449 billion
cubic meters (bcm) in 2023.
Extractable Resource:
The annual extractable groundwater resource was assessed at around 407 bcm in 2023.
Stage of Development:
The overall stage of groundwater extraction in the country is around 59.26%.
Geographic Disparities:
States like Delhi, Haryana, Punjab, and Rajasthan show development levels exceeding 100%
(over-exploited).

Conjunctive use of water:

Conjunctive use of groundwater is a water management strategy that involves the integrated
and coordinated use of both surface water and groundwater resources within a river basin
to optimize water supply and meet demand more reliably.

Benefits
 Increased Water Availability: Maximizes the total usable water available for various
needs, such as agriculture, domestic, and industrial uses.
 Improved Water Security: Creates a reliable and stable water supply by using the
natural storage capacity of aquifers to buffer against the seasonal and annual variations
in surface water.
 Reduced Environmental Impacts: Prevents the depletion and overuse of groundwater
resources and can help control water logging and land subsidence associated with
excessive pumping.
 Economic Advantages: By integrating both sources, it can reduce the costs associated
with developing new water resources and storing water in expensive surface reservoirs.
 Flexibility: Provides a flexible water supply strategy that can adapt to changing rainfall
patterns and water demands.
Department of Civil Engineering, MITE Page 14 of 19
 Conservation of Natural Resources-BCV755B| 7th Sem

Recharge of Groundwater

Principles of Water Harvesting:

In deciding which techniques to use to make more efficient use of the available water, it is
important to consider how crops receive or lose water. Crops receive water through rainfall,
irrigation and stored soil water. They lose it through run off, evaporation and drainage.
 The term artificial recharge refers to transfer of surface water to the aquifer by human
interference.
 Artificial recharge is also defined as the process by which ground water is augmented at
a rate exceeding that under natural condition of replenishment.
 Therefore, any man-made facility that adds water to an aquifer considered as artificial
recharge.

The important advantages of artificial recharge are

 Subsurface storage space is available free of cost and inundation is avoided
 Evaporation losses are negligible
 Quality improvement by infiltration through the permeable media
 Biological purity is very high
 It has no adverse social impacts such as displacement of population, loss of scarce
agricultural lands etc
 Temperature variations are minimum
 It is environment friendly, controls soil erosion and flood and provides sufficient soil
moisture even during summer months
 Water stored underground is relatively immune to natural and man-made catastrophes
 It provides a natural distribution system between recharge and discharge points
 Results in energy saving due to reduction in suction and delivery head as a result of rise
water levels.

Implementation of Artificial Recharge Schemes

Successful implementation of artificial recharge schemes will essentially involve the following
major components
 Assessment of source water
 Planning of recharge structures
 Finalization of specific techniques and designs
 Monitoring and impact assessment
 Financial and economic evaluation
 Operation and maintenance

Rain Water Harvesting

 The rain water in urban area can be conserved through Roof Top Rain Water Harvesting
Techniques for artificial recharge to ground water.

Department of Civil Engineering, MITE Page 15 of 19

 Conservation of Natural Resources-BCV755B| 7th Sem

 Rainwater harvesting is the process of collecting rainwater and putting it to good use. There
are different ways in which this task can be accomplished.
 Rainwater harvesting refers to the trapping and storing of rainwater so that it can be used
at a later time when the need arises. As the rain falls, water is directed to a suitable
collection point.
 It can also mean collecting rainwater before it infiltrates into the ground and becomes
underground water. Harvesting mainly entails gathering something from its natural source.
 Rainwater harvesting, from the common definition of harvesting, is a process that involves
collecting rainwater and increasing its value by eliminating impurities or directing it to
places where its use is highly required.

Why It Is Required
 To meet ever increasing demand for water in urban area.
 To reduce the runoff, which is choking the storm drains.
 To avoid the flooding of roads.
 To augment the ground water
 To reduce the ground water pollution.
 To improve the quality of ground water.
 To reduce the soil erosion..

The advantages of Rain Water Harvesting are:

 Rainwater is bacteriologically pure, free from organic matter and soft in nature.
 It will help in reducing the flood hazard.
 To improve the quality of existing ground water through dilution.
 Rainwater may be harnessed at place of need and may be utilised at time of need.
 The structures required for harvesting the rainwater are simple, economical and eco-
friendly.
 This is an ideal solution of water problems where there is inadequate ground water supply
or surface resources are either lacking or insignificant.
 To utilise the rainfall runoff, which is going to sewer or storm drains.

Methods and Techniques:

In urban areas, rain water available from roof tops of
buildings, paved and unpaved areas goes waste. This
water can be recharged to aquifer and can be utilized
gainfully at the time of need. The rain water harvesting
system needs to be designed in a way that it does not
occupy large space for collection and recharge system.

Roof top rain water harvesting can be a very effective

tool to fight the problem of water shortage particularly
in urban areas. Roof top rain water harvesting depends
upon the amount of rainfall and the roof top area.

Department of Civil Engineering, MITE Page 16 of 19

 Conservation of Natural Resources-BCV755B| 7th Sem

 Roof Top Rainwater Harvesting through Recharge Pit:

 Roof Top Rain Water Harvesting through Recharge Trench:
 Roof Top Rain Water Harvesting through Existing Tube wells
 Roof Top Rain Water Harvesting through Trench with Recharge Well:
 Rain Water Harvesting through Gully Plug:
 Rain Water Harvesting through Contour Bund:
 Rain Water Harvesting through Gabion Structure:
 Rain Water Harvesting through Percolation Tank:
 Rain water harvesting through Check Dams/Cement Plugs/Nala Bunds:
 Rain Water Harvesting through Recharge Shaft:
 Rain Water Harvesting through Dug well Recharge:
 Ground Water Dams or Sub-surface Dykes

Groundwater Contamination/Pollution

Groundwater contamination is the pollution of underground water sources from human-made

(anthropogenic) activities like industrial discharge, agricultural runoff, landfill leachate, and
septic system leaks, as well as natural (geogenic) processes, such as naturally occurring arsenic
and fluoride in rocks. It introduces harmful substances, including chemicals, microbes, heavy
metals, and nutrients, compromising water quality and posing significant public health risks.

Sources of Groundwater pollution:

• Landfills
• Leaky underground storage tanks
• Mines
• Septic tanks
• Hazardous waste - deep well injection
• any pollutant in runoff that percolates

Groundwater Contaminants
How can we protect groundwater? Prevention and Mitigation
• Prevention is the key…
Monitor aquifers & landfills
– Requirements for old fuel tanks
• Leak detection system
• Liability insurance
– Strict regulations on toxic waste disposal
Department of Civil Engineering, MITE Page 17 of 19
 Conservation of Natural Resources-BCV755B| 7th Sem

• Above-ground storage of toxic waste...but then you have toxic mud

spills!
 Sustainable Agriculture: Using precision fertilization, crop rotation, and integrated pest
management reduces chemical use.
 Improved Waste Management: Proper handling of hazardous waste, secure landfill designs, and
routine inspections of septic systems are crucial.
 Industrial Best Practices: Secure storage of hazardous materials and regular site assessments
can prevent spills and leaks.
 Careful Urban Planning: Designing and maintaining leakage-free sewage systems prevents
contamination from municipal waste.
 Community Awareness: Promoting proper disposal of household waste and maintaining
vehicles helps reduce pollution from various sources.

Laws
• Clean Water Act – surface water
– 1972 – make water swimmable and fishable by regulating point sources
– 1977 and 1987 – storm water runoff
– Section 404 – requires permit for draining, dredging, filling wetlands
• Mitigation banking
– Safe Drinking Water Act (1974) – monitors levels of contaminants in
groundwater

Impacts of Contamination
Public Health Risks: Consuming contaminated groundwater can lead to illnesses from
exposure to heavy metals, microbes, and chemicals.
Degradation of Water Resources: The quality of groundwater is degraded, making it unsafe
for drinking and other uses.
Environmental Damage: Pollution can disrupt ecosystems and soil filtration processes.

Seawater Ingress in Coastal Aquifers

Seawater ingress, also known as seawater intrusion, is the landward movement of saltwater into
coastal freshwater aquifers, contaminating them and impacting fresh groundwater supplies.
This environmental problem is caused by factors like excessive groundwater pumping, sea level
rise, tidal effects, tsunamis, and storms. Seawater ingress has significant consequences,
including making water unfit for drinking and agriculture, increasing industrial operating costs,
and potentially altering coastal morphology.

Coastal aquifers in parts of Gujarat, Tamil Nadu and Andhra Pradesh are already suffering from
the problem of salinity ingress. Measures to prevent/control saline water intrusion into coastal
aquifers include…
 Regulation of ground water development in coastal areas.
 Formation of a freshwater ridge parallel to the coast through artificial recharge.
 Formation of a pumping trough through a series of pumping wells aligned parallel to the
coast

Department of Civil Engineering, MITE Page 18 of 19

 Conservation of Natural Resources-BCV755B| 7th Sem

Causes of Seawater Ingress

 Excessive Groundwater Pumping: Over-extraction of groundwater creates a lower
pressure in the aquifer, allowing seawater to move further inland.
 Sea Level Rise: A gradual or significant rise in sea level pushes the saltwater interface
further into coastal aquifers.
 Tidal and Estuarine Activity: High tides and saltwater intrusion into estuaries can lead
to the infiltration of saline water into adjacent aquifers.
 Catastrophic Events: Major natural events like tsunamis and storm surges can cause the
direct inundation of coastal areas with seawater, leading to significant contamination.
 Local Geomorphology: Characteristics of the local land and groundwater systems, such
as gentle hydraulic gradients, can facilitate seawater movement.

Impacts of Seawater Ingress

 Contamination of Fresh Water: The primary impact is the salinization of freshwater
aquifers, rendering them unsuitable for drinking, irrigation, and many industrial uses.
 Agricultural and Economic Losses: Deterioration of water quality affects agricultural
productivity and can lead to economic losses.
 Health Impacts: Contaminated water can also have adverse health effects on coastal
populations.

Examples and Management/ Control of sea-water intrusion in coastal areas

 Global and Local Examples: Seawater ingress is a widespread issue, with notable
examples in South Florida and coastal areas of India.
 Monitoring: Ongoing online monitoring of conductivity levels is a valuable tool for
tracking the success of interventions to reduce seawater intrusion.
 Management Strategies: Methods for managing and controlling seawater intrusion vary
but can include techniques for recharging coastal plain aquifers to restore freshwater
levels.

Control of sea-water
intrusion in coastal areas:
a line of injection wells
parallel to the coast inject
water into the aquifer. The
result is a ridge in the
potentiometric surface.
Water levels behind the
barrier could be drawn
down below sea level with
no fear of salt-water encroachment.

Department of Civil Engineering, MITE Page 19 of 19