Unit 2: Solar radiation and atmospheric temperature

Lecture by: Dr. Sujatha H. T., Assistant Professor (Agronomy), School of Agriculture, Lovely Professional
University, Phagwara, Punjab
Solar radiation
 The transfer of energy in the form of electromagnetic waves with the speed of light is called
radiation. The heat energy received from sun is called solar radiation.
 The flux of radiant energy from the sun is solar radiation measured in Calorie or Joule or Watt
 Heavenly bodies emit – short wave radiation
 Near surfaces including earth emit - long wave radiation
 Radiation flux: The amount of radiant energy emitted, received, transmitted across a particular area
(measured in Calorie/cm2/min or Joule/cm2/min or Watt/cm2)

Factors affecting solar radiation

 Distance from the sun
 Duration of daily sunlight period
 Solar inclination of the solar rays to the horizon.
 Transparency of the atmosphere
 Output of solar radiation
Spectrum of Radiation
 Radiant energy - electromagnetic waves
 The energy from the sun is spread over a very broad band of wavelengths known as solar
spectrum/electromagnetic spectrum.
 Does not constitute only one band but a combination of different waves
 The electromagnetic spectrum

Wavelength and frequency are inversely related to one another

Wavelength (1/λ)= (v) Frequency

 Ultraviolet radiation: Consists of the shorter wavelengths band (390 nm), it has a lot of energy and
interacts with the molecular bonds. These waves are absorbed by the upper atmosphere, especially
by the ozone layer.
 Visible Light: This radiation band corresponds to the visible area with wavelengths between 390 nm
(violet) and 760 nm (red), it has a great influence on living beings.
 Infrared radiation: Consists of wavelengths between 760 and 4000 nm, it corresponds to the longer
wavelengths and it has little energy associated with it. Its absorption increases molecular agitation,
causing the increase of temperature.
 Units of measurements of wavelength: micron (μ), nanometer (n m) and Angstrom (A)
 Micron 1μ = 10-6 m = 10-4 cm
 Milli micron 1 mμ = 10-9 m = 10-7 cm
 Angstrom A = 10-10 m = 10-8 cm
Modes of energy transmission
Heat energy is transmitted by three processes.
1 Conduction: This is the process of heat transfer through matter without the actual movement of
molecules of the substances or matter. Heat flows from the warmer to cooler part of the body so that the
temperature between them are equalized. Example: The energy transmission through an iron rod which is
made warmer at one end.
2 Convection: This is the process of transmission of heat through actual movement of molecules of the
medium. This is the predominant form of transmission of energy on the earth as all the weather related
processes involve this process. Example: Boiling of water in a beaker .
3 Radiation: This is the process of transmission of energy from one body to another without the aid of a
medium (solid, liquid, or gas). Example: The energy transmission through space from the sun to the earth.

Terminologies
 Direct radiation: Radiation comes directly from the sun without any change in its direction. It is
bright and casts shadow.
 Diffuse radiation: This radiation comes from all over the atmosphere as a result of reflection and
scattering by clouds, particles in atmosphere, dust, mountains, trees, buildings and ground.
 Global radiation: Sum of short wave radiation directly from the sun and indirectly from sky.
 Insolation: Incoming solar radiation from the sun that strikes the earths surface over a finite time
period such as day.
 Ultraviolet radiation: Part of solar spectrum having wavelengths shorter than visible segment and
range from 0.0005 to 0.4 microns.
 Infrared/thermal radiation: Part of solar spectrum having wavelengths higher than visible segment
and range from 0.7 to 50 microns.
 Net radiation: It is the balance of energy after gain of solar radiation and loss of long wave terrestrial
radiation. It represents amount of energy used for various kinds of activities of biosphere.
 Radiation flux: The amount of radiant energy emitted, received or transmitted across a particular
area per unit time. The radiant flux divided by the area across which the radiation is transmitted is
called radiation flux density. The radiant flux density emitted by a source is called emissive power.
 Emissivity: Ratio of emittance of a given surface at a specified wavelength and temperature to the
emittance of an ideal black body at same wavelength and temperature.
  Absorptivity: Ratio of amount of radiant energy absorbed to the total amount incident upon the
surface.
 Transmissivity: Ratio of transmitted radiation to the total incident upon the surface.
 Atmospheric window: This refers to the outgoing long wave radiation from the earth in the
wavelength of 8.5 to 11 microns, which escapes into the space without absorption.
Solar constant
 It is the energy received on unit area at the outermost boundary of the earth (atmosphere) surface
held perpendicular to the suns direction, at the mean distance between the sun and the earth.
 Its value is 1.94 cal/cm2/min (± 0.3) or 1367 W/m2 (± 7).
 Blue colour of sky: Scattering from very small particles is largely responsible for blue colour of the sky
(Rayleigh scattering). Scattering is more in short wavelength(blue) than longer wavelength(red).
 Red colour of the sky at sunset & sunrise is because of increased path length in the atmosphere. % of
solar energy in the visible part decreases. Within the visible part, the ratio of the blue to the red part
decreases with increased path length.
Energy balance or Heat balance
The net radiation is the difference between total incoming and outgoing radiations and is a measure
of energy available at the ground surface, this energy is utilized for various functions such as heating
the air called as sensible heat(H), for evaporation & transpiration(LE) i.e. latent heat. Some of the
heat is stored in soil(S) and miscellaneous(M) including photosynthesis.
Rn = G + H + LE + PS + M
Rn = Net radiation
G = Soil heat flux, 5 to 15 % of Rn.
H = Sensible heat flux, 10 to 15 % of Rn.
LE = Latent heat flux,75 to 85 % of Rn.
PS = Energy used in photosynthesis, 5 to 10 % of Rn.
M = metabolic heat and energy sored in plants, 5 % of Rn.
The water present in soil, vegetation and seasons controls the magnitude of different components of
energy balance.
Disposition of Solar radiation
A. 25% of solar radiation is reflected back to the space by clouds (more by middle and high latitudes
and less in the sub tropics)
B. 6% reflected back by air, dust and water vapour.
C. 30% scatted downwards (more in the form of shorter wavelengths able) them that in longer wave
length (red).
 D. 17% of solar radiation is absorbed by the atmosphere (Mostly by Oxygen, O3, CO2 & H2O vapour).
 O2 – absorb the extreme UV wavelengths (0.12 to 0.6 μ)
 O3 – UV (0.2 to 0.32 μ) and Visible part of radiation (0.44 to 0.7 μ)
 H2O vapour – Near infrared (0.93, 1.13, 1.42 μ)
 CO2 - IR band 2.7 μ.
E. About 50% of solar radiation reaches earth‘s surface, after reflection, scattering and absorption.

Radiation balance

Radiation laws
 The direct transfer of heat from the sun to the earth through the space and atmosphere indicates
that radiation of heat from one place to other occurs in the form of electromagnetic waves in the
same manner and with same speed of as light.
 The wavelength of electromagnetic radiation is given by the equation λ = c/v
 Where, λ = Wavelength (The shortest distance between consecutive crests in the wave trance)
 C = Velocity of light (3x1010 cm sec-1)
 V = Frequency means number of vibrations of cycles per second
Radiation laws
1. Plank’s law
 2. Kirchoff’s law
3. Stefan-Boltzmann’s law
4. Wein’s Displacement laws
5. Lambert’s Law
1. Plank’s law : Plank introduced the ‘particle concept‘.
 The law states that greater the frequency (shorter wave length) greater is the energy of quantum.
 E= h v
 Where, Energy of each quantum, h= Plank‘s constant (6.62x10-34 J sec-1 and v= Frequency
2. Kirchoff’s law: This law states that the absorptivity ‘a’ of an object for radiation of a specific wavelength
is equal to the emissivity ‘e’ for the same wavelength.
 a (λ) = e (λ)
3. Stefan-Boltzmann’s law : The intensity of radiation emitted (E) by a radiating body is directly
proportional to the fourth power of the absolute temperature of that body.
(Emissivity of black body = 1)
 E = σ T4
 Where, T= temperature in Kelvins
 σ = Stefan-Boltzmann‘s constant (5.673 x 10-8 W m-2 K-4)
 Wein’s Displacement laws: The wavelength of the maximum intensity of emission (λmax) from a
radiating black body is inversely proportional to its absolute temperature
 λmax = 2897 T-1 μ = 2897/T μ
Problem- The earth surface temperature is equal to 270C, sun temp. is 60000k. Find out the wavelength of
maximum radiation intensity?
 Ans-
Earth temp. = 270C
=27+273=3000k
For earth,
λmax=2897/300
=9.66μm
For sun,
λmax =2897/6000
=0.48μm
Role of radiation in Agriculture
 Main source of energy to plant and animal life.
 Photosynthesis process.
  Photoperiodic effects on flowering.
 Distribution of temp. and crop distribution on earth surface.
 Crop development stages influenced by radiation.
 Influences assimilation of nutrients and dry matter production in plants.

Photoperiodism
The response of plants to day length for floral initiation is known as photoperiodism.
Most angiosperms (flowering plants) use photoperiodism to determine when to flower. To do that they use
one of the photoreceptor proteins present in their bodies, such as cryptochrome or phytochrome.
• Based length of photoperiod required for floral initiation, plants can be categorized into three
categories:
Long Day Plants
The plants which require more exposure to light (day length is >14 hours) are called long-day plants (LDP).
For example – Barley, oat, carrot, cabbage, radish, spinach, sugar beet etc.
Short Day Plants
• Those plants which require less exposure to light (Day length is <10 hours) are called short-day
plants (SDP). For example- Rice, soybeans, tobacco and etc.
Day Neutral Plants
• Plants in which the flowering occur irrespective of the day lengths are called
day-neutral plants (DNP). For example- buckwheat, tomatoes, sunflower, maize, cotton etc.
Phototropism
• One important light response in plants is phototropism, which involves growth toward or away
from a light source.

• Eg. Sunflower

• Positive phototropism is growth towards a light source; negative phototropism is growth away
from light.
Thermoperiodism

• The response of plants to diurnal or seasonal fluctuation in temperature is known as thermo

periodism.

• Example- The Tomato is found to be sensitive to night temperature. Tomato grow mainly at night
temperatures above 180C.

• Based on the response to light intensities the plants are classified as follows.

• (i) Sciophytes (shade loving plants): The plants grow better under partially shaded conditions. (eg)
Betel vine, buck wheat etc.

• (ii) Hetrophytes (Sun loving): Many species of plants produce maximum dry matter under high light
intensities when the moisture is available at the optimum level. (eg) Maize, sorghum, rice etc.

• Heat Units

• It is a measure of relative warmth of growing season of a given length. Normally it is indicated as

Growing Degree Days (GDD). A heat unit is the departure from the mean daily temperature above
the minimum threshold temperature.

• The minimum threshold temperature is the temperature below which no growth takes place.

• Usually ranges from 4.5 to 12.5 ºC for different crops (Most commonly used value is 6.0ºC)

• Growing Degree Day (GDD)

• A degree day is obtained by subtracting the threshold temperature from daily mean temperature.
Summation of the daily values over the growth period gives degree days of the crops.

• Base temperature of the crop- below which there is no growth

Advantages / Importance of growing degree Day Concept

1. In guiding the agricultural operations and planting land use.

2. To forecast crop harvest dates, yield and quality

3. In forecasting labour required for agricultural operations

 4. Introduction of new crops and new varieties in new areas

5. In predicting the likelihood of successful growth of a crop in an area.

Air Temperature

 The degree of hotness or coldness of a air is called as temperature.

 It is a measure of intensity of heat.
 Primary source of heat is sun.

Measurement of air temperature

 Temperature is measured using three type of scales namely Fahrenheit, Celsius and Kelvin.
 The melting point of ice on the three scales is 32°, 0° and 273° and boiling point of water is 212°,
100° and 373°, respectively.
 The relations between three scales are
K = ͦ C + 273 C
ͦ C = 5/9(F – 32)
F = (9/5 ͦ C) +32
Factors affecting temperature

Latitude:-
 Distance from the equator
 Influences temperature of a place
 Sunrays perpendicular at equator and more inclined towards the poles.
 Highest temp. at equator and lowest at poles
 Temp. decreases with increase in latitude.
Altitude:-
 height from mean sea level
 temp. decreases by 6.5o c/km from MSL
Cloudiness
 acts as a barrier for heat from sun
 thick cloud reflects much of radiation.
 lower clouds trap outgoing terrestrial radiation increasing night temp.
Soil type:-
 soil colour affects absorption, storage and reflection of heat.
 white colour reflects while black colour absorbs more radiation.
 black soil area – max. temp.
 red soil area – min. temp.
Topography:-

 wind velocity changes with topography

Land and water:-

 land heat quickly and cool down quickly.
 water heat slowly and cool down slowly.
 no difference between max. and min. air temp. on sea.
 coastal areas having less variation in seasons.
Ocean currents:-

 - warm currents

 -cold currents

Mountains:-

 - acts as a barrier to free flow of wind

Convection and turbulence:-

 - heated air expands, becomes lighter and goes upward.

 - cold heavy air takes its place.

 - it is the most active vertical heat transfer mechanism.

Importance of air temperature

 for each species there is limit of max. and min. temp.

 any biochemical reaction increase with increase in temp.
 every 10OC increase in temp. rate of reaction doubles which is called as Q 10.
 influences all stages of crop.
 if temperature goes beyond optimum there will be decrease in uptake of CO2 due to stomatal and
mesophyll resistance.
 rate of photosynthesis reduced with decrease in temp.
 at low temp. leaves become yellow due to degradation of chlorophyll.
 affects enzymatic activity in plants.
 dry matter production decrease in wheat with increase in temp.
 in maize time to tassel initiation decreases with increase in temp. also rate of flowering increase
with increase in temp.
  higher temp. inhibits starch synthesis.
 at high temp. with high humidity increase in pest and disease incidence.
 high night temp. increases respiration and metabolism.
 temp. affects grain formation, grain filling and grain yield of crop.
 temp. and solar radiation accounts 91 % variation in yield of maize under unlimited moisture supply.

Cardinal temperatures:
There are three points of temperature (Minimum, optimum and maximum temperature) which influence the
growth of crop plants. These are termed as "cardinal points" and the synonymous term is `cardinal
temperature’.
1. A minimum temperature below which growth ceases (minimum cardinal temperature).
2. An optimum temperature at which the plant growth proceeds with greatest rapidly (optimum cardinal
temperature).
3. A maximum temperature above which plant growth ceases (maximum cardinal temperature).
 Cardinal temperature for different crops

 Crop  Minimum  Optimum  Maximum

temp oC temp oC temp oC

 Sorghum  8-10  32-35  40

 Sugarcane  18.8  26.1  42.2

 Cotton  15.5  32.2  43.3

 Groundnut  15.5  25  40.5

 Rice  10-12  30-32  36-38

 Maize  8-10  32-35  40-44

 Wheat  3-4.4  25  30-32

 Barley  3-4.5  20  38-40

 Oat  4.5  25  30

 Linseed  5.0  30.5  43.3

 Mustard  0.0  27.2  37.2

  lentil  4-5  30  36

Horizontal temperature distribution

 The rate of change of temp. with a horizontal distance is called as temperature gradient.
 Isotherm- The line connecting places of equal temp.
 Decrease in temp. from equator towards poles.
 cooling and heating of land and water.
 mountains barrier.
Vertical temperature distribution

• In troposphere, there is a decrease of temperature with increasing elevation at a mean lapse rate of
about 6.5°C per km.
• The temperature of this layer increases with height and also depends upon the troposphere because
the troposphere is higher at the equator than at the poles.
• Mesosphere is the coldest region in the atmosphere with temperature reaching the lowest value of
nearly -95°C at the mesopause (80km)
Above the mesosphere the temperature increases again and is in the order of 1000°C.

Lapse rate
 The atmospheric lapse rate is the change in temperature with height. For example, on average the
temperature cools 6.5oC for every kilometer.
 The decrease in temperature with height is at the rate of 6.5oC/km in troposphere, known as
the normal lapse rate or environmental lapse rate. always vary with time and place.
 Normal lapse rate- 6.5oC per kilometer or 3.6oF per 1,000 feet

• The rate of change of temperature in an ascending or descending air mass through adiabatic
processes called the adiabatic lapse rate.
• In the adiabatic process, no heat is added to or subtracted from an ascending or descending
air parcel. In this process, its temperature changes at a constant rate.
• In unsaturated air the rate of change in temperature with height is about 9.8oC/km. this is known
as dry adiabatic lapse rate which is constant if the air parcel is lifted adiabatically.
• In saturated air, the rate of change in temperature with height is 5 to 9oC/km depending upon the
moisture content. This is known as wet adiabatic or saturation adiabatic lapse rate.
• The rate of change of temperature in an ascending or descending air mass through adiabatic
processes called the adiabatic lapse rate.
Temperature inversion :- Certain special condition in lower atmosphere may produce a reversal of the
normal lapse rate so that the temp. actually increases with increase in altitude. It happens due to-
A. When the air near ground cools off faster than the overlying layer because of heat loss during
cooling nights.
B. when an actual warm layer passing over a lower cold layer.
C. cold air from hill tops and slopes tend to flow downward and replaced by warm air.
D. Base temperature
Diurnal temp. variation :- minimum temp. occurs at about sunrise and reaches maximum at 2 p.m.
though maximum amount of radiation receives at noon (12 hrs).
Seasonal temp. variation:- gives rise to seasons. In northern hemisphere min. temp. in January and max.
temp. in July while in southern hemisphere vice-versa.
SEASONAL VARIATION
• In addition to its daily rotation, the Earth revolves in a complete orbit around the sun once each
year.
• Since the axis of the Earth tilts to the plane of orbit, the angle of incident solar radiation varies
seasonally between hemispheres.
• The Northern Hemisphere is warmer in June, July, and August because it receives more solar energy
than does the Southern Hemisphere.
• During December, January, and February, the opposite is true; the Southern Hemisphere
receives more solar energy and is warmer