MODULE 2 Pharmacognosy

MODULE 2
BIOCHEMISTRY

BIOCHEMISTRY- study of chemicals and physicochemical processes occurring in a living system

THE CELL
• Basic unit of ____________________
• Structural unit of LIFE

CLASSIFICATION OF ORGANISMS
THREE DOMAIN SYSTEM FIVE KINGDOM SYSTEM
Carl Woese, et al RH Whittaker
B____________________ A________________ (animals, humans, insects,
E____________________ helminths)
• Animalia P________________ (plants)
• Plantae P________________ (protozoans)
• Protista F________________ (yeasts, molds, mushrooms)
• Fungi M_______________ (bacteria)
A____________________

THE CELL WALL

Organisms Chemical Composition Classification
Fungi
Plants
Bacteria

PARTS OF AN ANIMAL CELL

1. CELL MEMBRANE
2. ORGANELLES
3. CYTOSOL OR CYTOPLASM

CELL MEMBRANE
• Aka PLASMA membrane
• outermost part of an animal cell

CELL MEMBRANE LIPIDS

1. The 2 faces of biological membranes are _________________ the same

2. Membrane lipids spontaneously form closed bimolecular sheets in aqueous media that form barriers
to the flow of _________________ molecules

Too much water enter the cell: __________________

Too much water go out of the cell: ____________________

3. Membrane potential plays a vital role in transport, energy conversion and excitability
EXAMPLE:
Na+ K+ ATPase Pump
Role: Transport _____ Na+ (out) and _____K+ (in)
Goal: Achieve Resting Membrane Potential (intracellular region is SLIGHTLY negative)

4. The 3 major kinds of membrane lipid are phospholipids, glycolipids and cholesterol

PHOSPHOLIPIDS
• Major class of membrane lipids
• Consists of one or more fatty acids, a platform to
which fatty acids are attached, a phosphate and an
alcohol attached to the phosphate
2 TYPES:
1. Phosphoglycerides (Phospholipids derived from Glycerol)
a. _________________
b. 2 Fatty acids
c. Alcohol
d. Phosphate
2. Sphingolipids (Phospholipids derived from Sphingosine)
a. _________________
b. 1 Fatty acid
c. Alcohol
d. Phosphate

GLYCOLIPIDS CHOLESTEROL
1. Cerebrosides Controls membrane _________________
Lipid: _________________
Sugar: Glucose or Galactose
Simplest glycolipids
2. Globosides
Lipid: _________________
Sugar: Glucose and Galactose Too fluid: cannot maintain cell ___________
3. Gangliosides Too rigid: tends to _______________ easily
Lipid: _________________
Sugar: Oligosaccharides and ______________
acid derivatives (Neuraminic acid)

CELL MEMBRANE PROTEINS

• Membrane permeability is conferred by 3 classes of membrane proteins: pumps, carriers and
channels
• The transport of molecules across a membrane is NOT always by active transport

Differences Passive Active

Flow of substances

Energy requirement

Carrier-mediated
MODULE 2 Pharmacognosy

PUMPS
• _________________ Transport Example:
• Uses energy (_________________ or light Na+-K+ ATPase Pump or Na+-K+ Pump
absorption)
• Drives _________________ (low concentration to Function:
high concentration) transport of substances Pumps Na+ out of the cell and K+ in the cell

CHANNELS
• _________________ Transport GABA RECEPTOR MODULATORS
Provide a membrane pore to which ions can 1. _____________________
flow very rapidly in a _________________ prolong the opening of GABA receptors
direction (high concentration to low CNS Depressants
concentration) 2. _____________________
increase the frequency of opening of
GABA receptors
CNS Depressants
3. Ethanol

VOLTAGE-GATED ION CHANNELS

CARRIERS
• Both Active and Passive Transport Glucose Transporters
• Active: Active Transport
• Passive: _________________ Diffusion
• Saturable

CELL MEMBRANE FLUIDITY

• Membrane fluidity is controlled by fatty acid composition and cholesterol content

Cholesterol
• Control is bidirectional
• At high temperatures, cholesterol decreases membrane fluidity
• At low temperatures, cholesterol increases membrane fluidity

Too fluid: Cholesterol increases _________________________ of the membrane

Too rigid: Cholesterol intercalates between phospholipids preventing them from clumping together
and stiffening.
 Temperature
• High Temperature: CM is _________________
• Low Temperature: CM is _________________
The transition from fluid to rigid state takes place abruptly as the temperature is lowered below the
melting temperature

Fatty Acids (in Phospholipids)

• Fatty acids exist as
• ordered, rigid state
• disordered, fluid state

• The presence of saturated fatty acids favors the _________________ state because their straight HC
chain interact favorably with one another

ORGANELLES
• Highly specialized parts of the cell that perform specific functions
• Suspended in a gel-like matrix known as ______________________ or CYTOPLASM

GOLGI BODIES
receives and acts on _________________ and membrane _________________ to further _________________
them and then passes these on to other parts of the cell through budding vesicles

LYSOSOMES
have digestive vesicles and contain _________________or ______________________ that degrade proteins
and nucleic acids

MICROTUBULES
component of the cytoskeleton that undergo continual _________________ and _________________
determine cell shape and in a variety of cell movements
a. cell locomotion
b. intracellular transport of organelles
c. separation of _________________ during mitosis

CELL DIVISION
MITOSIS MEIOSIS

SOMATIC CELLS GERM CELLS

MODULE 2 Pharmacognosy

CANCER CHEMOTHERAPY
Cancer Cells are abnormal cells

TAXANES
Prevents depolymerization of microtubules VINCA ALKALOIDS
Prototype: Paclitaxel (Taxus Inhibit tubulin polymerization
_________________ ) Vincristine and Vinblastine (Catharanthus
Others: Docetaxel and Cabazitaxel _________________ )

_______________________
generation of metabolic energy from macromolecules, via oxidative phosphorylation, in eukaryotic
cells
site of ATP synthesis via ________________________ _______________________
site of cellular _______________________
site of Krebs Cycle, Electron Transport Chain and Oxidative Phosphorylation

_______________________
carry out oxidation reactions leading to the production of hydrogen peroxide
H202 à

_______________________
network of membrane-enclosed tubules and sacs (cisternae) that extends from the nuclear
membrane throughout the cytoplasm
ROUGH: _________________
SMOOTH: _________________

_______________________
Site of Protein Synthesis
Protein Synthesis Inhibitors
30s 50s
_________________ _________________
_________________ _________________
_________________

NOT Aminoglycosides:
1. Vancomycin
2. Clindamycin
3. Aureomycin

_______________________ _______________________
Site of rRNA transcription and processing, Control center of the cell
and of ribosome assembly Initial steps of protein synthesis occur

DNA à mRNA à proteins

CHLOROPLAST
Site of photosynthesis
Synthesis of chlorophyll (green pigment)
General Formula of Photosynthesis

2 REACTIONS
LIGHT DEPENDENT REACTION LIGHT INDEPENDENT REACTION
Occurs in Thylakoid Membrane Occurs in the Stroma
Light is absorbed Aka CALVIN CYCLE
Products: ATP, NADPH and O2 CO2 is fixed with water to form Glucose

TOPIC QUIZ
1. This organelle, found near the endoplasmic reticulum, that receives and acts on proteins and
membrane lipids to further modify them and then transports these on to other parts of the cell
through budding vesicles.
A. Lysosomes
B. Golgi Apparatus
C. Nucleus
D. Mitochondria
2. These organelles have digestive vesicles and contain enzymes that break down proteins and nucleic
acids.
A. Mitochondria
B. Ribosomes
C. Nucleus
D. Lysosomes
3. The initial stage of protein synthesis, known as transcription, the unfolding of DNA and the
production of mRNA, occurs in the ______________.
A. Cytoplasm
B. Golgi apparatus
C. Ribosomes
MODULE 2 Pharmacognosy

D. Nucleus
4. Which of the following is true about Taxanes?
A. Taxol, a naturally occurring Taxane, is an antimalarial drug
B. Taxanes were isolated from plants of the genus Taxus
C. Taxanes bind to the microtubules and enhance their depolymerization.
D. Paclitaxel, Docetaxel, Sinigrin, Prunasin, Cabazitaxel are examples of Taxanes.
5. What are the anticancer agents that are derived from the bark of Pacific Yew. These agents stabilize
the microtubule polymer and protect it from disassembly.
A. Podophyllotoxins
B. Camptothecins
C. Vinca alkaloids
D. Taxanes
6. Which of the following antibiotics are protein synthesis inhibitors?
A. Nystatin, Polymyxin. Amphotericin B
B. Chloramphenicol, Clindamycin, Gentamicin
C. Rifampin, Actinomycin D, Mitomycin C
D. Bacitracin, cephalosporins, Penicllins
7. Paclitaxel is an antineoplastic agent isolated from the bark of a plant. What is the biological source
of Paclitaxel?
A. Taxus brevifolia
B. Camptotheca acuminata
C. Catharantus roseus
D. Vinca rosea
8. Choose the organelle where biosynthesis of ribosomes occur
A. Smooth Endoplasmic reticulum
B. Nucleus
C. Nucleolus
D. Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum
9. Choose the organelle where biosynthesis of fats occur
A. Smooth Endoplasmic reticulum
B. Nucleus
C. Nucleolus
D. Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum
10. What are the alkaloids derived from Catharanthus roseus?
A. Etoposide and Teniposide
B. Irinotecan and Topotecan
C. Vincristine and Vinblastine
D. Paclitaxel and Docetaxel
11. Site of Calvin Cycle
A. Cytosol
B. Mitochondria
C. Nucleus
D. Chloroplast
12. What are the products of Light Reaction?
A. ADP and NADH
B. ATP and Glucose
C. ATP and NADPH
D. ADP and NADPH
13. Glycolysis: EMP, Photosynthesis: ____________________
A. Calvin Cycle
B. Tricarboxylic acid cycle
C. HMP Shunt
D. Krebs Cycle
14. Which of the following is NOT a membrane lipid?
A. Triglycerides
B. Cholesterol
C. Glycolipids
D. Phospholipids
15. Somatic cells undergo
A. Meiosis
B. Mitosis
C. Meiosis and mitosis
D. Binary fission
16. Which of the following is a voltage-gated ion channel?
A. Na+, K+
B. Na+, Cl-
C. K+, Na+, Cl-
D. Cl-, Ca++
17. Which of the following is present on fungi and mollusk subshell?
A. Ergosterol
B. Chitin
C. Cellulose
D. Peptidoglycan
18. Which of the following has a carbon fixation step?
A. Krebs Cycle
B. Cori Cycle
C. Calvin Cycle
D. Urea Cycle

MORSE TYPE
Membrane Fluidity
I. Membrane fluidity is controlled by fatty acids compositions and cholesterol content.
II. Fatty acid chains in membrane bilayers can exist as an ordered rigid state or in a relatively
disordered, fluid state.
III. The transition from rigid fluid state takes place abruptly as the temperature is lowered below the
melting temperature
IV. The presence of saturated fatty acid residues favors the fluid state because their straight chain HC
chains interact favorably with one another.
A. I, III, IV
B. I, II
C. I, II, III, IV
D. II, III, IV
Membrane Channels
I. Membrane permeability is conferred by 3 classes of membrane proteins: pumps, carriers and
channels.
II. Pump action is an example of passive transport
III. Channels provide a membrane pore through which ions can flow very rapidly in a
thermodynamically downhill direction
IV. The transport of molecules across a membrane is always by active transport.
A. I, II, III, IV
B. II, III, IV
C. I, III
D. II, IV
Select the statements that best characterize cell membranes
I. The two faces of biological membranes are always the same
II. Membrane potential plays a vital role in transport, energy conversion, and excitability
III. Membrane lipid spontaneously form closed bimolecular sheets in aqueous media that form barriers
to the flow of polar molecules
IV. Glycolipids are the major class of membrane lipids.
A. II, III, IV
B. II, III
C. I, II, III, IV
D. I, II, III
 MODULE 2 Pharmacognosy

CARBOHYDRATES
• Polyhydroxyaldehydes or polyhyroxyketones
• Aldehyde or ketone alcohols that contain C,H, O

Glucose Fructose

GENERAL PROPERTIES
_________________ Phosphoglyceraldehyde is the first carbohydrate formed in photosynthesis.

_________________ Sugars are amorphous powders, water soluble, and sweet tasting substances.

SUGARS POLYSACCHARIDES
Crystalline or amorphous powders, water soluble
and sweet tasting
1. Monosaccharides 1. Homoglycans
2. Disacharrides 2. Heteroglycans
3. Oligosaccharides

_________________ The more complex, high-molecular-weight heteroglycans are represented by starch,

inulin and cellobiose.

HOMOGLYCANS HETEROGLYCANS
Polysaccharides, when hydrolyzed, are Polysaccharides, when hydrolyzed, are
converted to _________________type of sugar unit converted to _________________types of sugar
units
Examples: Example:
Starch Dextran Carrageenan
Inulin Chitin (_________________,_________________,
_________________ _________________,_________________)
 _________________Cellulose is composed of glucose and fructose units, forms the primary cell walls in
plants

CORRECT:
Cellulose is composed of _________________units linked by beta 1,4-glycosidic bonds

SUGARS
Monosaccharides 5C or Pentoses
• Xylose, ____________________
• Ribose, ____________________
• Arabinose
6C or Hexoses
• Glucose
• Fructose
• Galactose
• _______________________
Disaccharides Sucrose (Table Sugar)
Maltose (Malt Sugar)
Lactose (Milk Sugar)

Others:
1. ___________________
2. ___________________
3. ___________________
Oligosaccharides Raffinose
_____________________
Gentianose
Maltotriose
Melezitose

MONOSACCHARIDES
a. 2 types based on functional groups present
ALDOSES KETOSES
Examples Examples
_________________ _________________
_________________ _________________
_________________ _________________
_________________ _________________

b. Isomerism of Monosaccharides

1. D and L isomerism
DEXTROROTATORY- rotate plane polarized light to the _____________
LEVOROTATORY- rotate plane polarized light to the ______________
MODULE 2 Pharmacognosy

• When the OH group of carbon 5 of glucose is on the right, the sugar is _________________
• Most monosaccharides in mammals are of _________________configuration
• The asymmetric carbon atom confers _________________to the sugar
• Sugars of the D series rotate plane polarized light to the _________________
• Sugars of the L series rotate plane polarized light to the _________________
DEXTRO LEVO

2. Epimers
• D-glucose and D-mannose are _________________EPIMERS
• D-glucose and D-galactose are _________________EPIMERS

Chemical Tests for Carbohydrates

Test Notes
Seliwanoff’s Test Test for: _________________
Principle:
_________________dehydrates ketohexoses to form 5-hydroxymethylfurfural.
5-hydroxymethylfurfural further reacts with r _________________ to produce a
red product within two minutes
Tollens Test for: _________________
Phloroglucinol Test Principle: Pentoses react with _________________which leads to the formation
of furfural derivatives with characteristic red color
Keller-Killiani Test Test for: _________________
Principle: 2-deoxy sugars such as Digitoxose, transform to furfural in
concentrated acids, which give _________________colour in acetic acid
Molisch Test Test for: _________________ (general)
Principle: Carbohydrates when treated with concentrated
_________________forms furfurals, which condense with
_________________forming a _________________or violet ring at the junction
Fehling’s Test and Test for: _________________
Benedict’s Test Principle: Addition of reducing sugars to _________________reduces it to
Cuprous oxide, producing a yellow to brick red precipitate upon heating
 Reducing sugars in urine:
__________________________
Barfoed’s Test Test for: _________________
Principle: Based on the reduction of _________________to cuprous oxide by
reducing monosaccharides and disaccharides which yields a brick red
precipitate. Monosaccharides react more rapidly than disaccharides
Tollens Silver Mirror Test for: _________________
Test Principle: Tollens reagent, ammoniacal _________________is reduced to
metallic silver by sugars containing an _________________ functional group
Maillard Reaction Test for: _________________
Principle: chemical reaction between amino acids and _________________that
gives browned food its distinctive flavor.
Osazone Test Test for: _________________ (Monosaccharides and Disaccharides)
Principle: A solution of sugar forms yellow Osazone Crystals upon addition of
phenylhydrazine

Maltose- Sunflower shape

Lactose- powder puff or hedgehog or cotton ball shape
Galactose- rhombic plates
Glucose, Fructose and Mannose- needle shape

CARBOHYDRATE DERIVATIVES: GLYCOSAMINOGLYCANS (GAG’s)

AMINO SUGAR URONIC ACID DERIVATIVE

Disaccharide Unit: • Glucuronic Acid
• GlcNAc • ________________
• GalNAc • ________________

CHONDROITIN SULFATE STRUCTURE

Disaccharide • N- _________________ (GalNAc)
Unit • Glucuronic acid
Sulfate Groups C4 or C6 of GalNAc
Function Found in cartilage, tendons, ligaments
and aorta
Notes Most ________________GAG

KERATAN SULFATE STRUCTURE

Disaccharide • N- _________________ (GlcNAc)
Unit • Galactose
Sulfate Groups C5 of each sugar
Function KS I: cornea
KS II: loose connective tissues
Notes Most ________________GAG

HYALURONIC ACID STRUCTURE

Disaccharide • N-acetylglucosamine
Unit • Glucuronic acid
Sulfate Groups None
Function Lubricant and shock absorber in
______________. Also found in vitreous
humor, umbilical cord, loose connective
tissues and cartilage
Notes ________________GAG
MODULE 2 Pharmacognosy

DERMATAN SULFATE STRUCTURE

Disaccharide • N- _________________ (GalNAc)
Unit • L-iduronic acid
Sulfate Groups C4 of GalNAc
Function Skin, blood vessels and heart valves

HEPARIN SULFATE STRUCTURE

Disaccharide • Glucosamine
Unit • Glucuronic or
_________________acid
Sulfate Groups C3 or C6 or Glucosamine
C2 of uronic acid`
Function Anticoagulant present in mast cells that
line arteries
(MOA: binds to anti-thrombin III)
Notes • Heavily sulfated
• Intracellular component
• A fraction of Heparan Sulfate
• Prepared from _____________mucosa

HEPARAN SULFATE
• Same as Heparin Sulfate but not as sulfated
• Extracellular component

CARBOHYDRATES USED IN PHARMACY

_________________ acidulant, especially in infant, feeding formula.
_________________ self-binding tablet diluent and disintegrating agent
_________________ Soft, fluffy staple fiber that grows around the seeds of plants of the genus
Gossypium in the family Malvaceae
_________________ A flammable mixture of cellulose nitrate, usually with less than 12.5% Nitrogen,
or that is soluble in a mixture of ether and alcohol
_________________
_________________ A member of the genus Linum, which is a food and fiber crop cultivated in
cooler regions of the world
_________________ The fiber in seeds of Cannabis sativa
_________________ Fibers are natural polymers extracted from brown seaweeds (Macrocystis
pyrifera)

TOPIC QUIZ
1. D-glucose and D-mannose are both hexoses. What type of isomers are they?
A. Enantiomers
B. Epimers
C. Aldose-ketose
D. diastereomers
2. Starch, Cellulose, and Inulin are complex sugars hydrolyzed by certain enzymes to form simple
sugars. They are classified as ________________.
A. Heteroglycans
B. Trisaccharides
C. Homoglycans
D. Disaccharides
3. Which of the following complex sugars are homoglycans?
A. Cellulose, starch, inulin
B. Heparin, agarose
C. Cellobiose, hyaluronic acid
D. Glycogen, agar
4. This metabolic product is used as an acidulant, especially in infant, feeding formula.
A. High-fructose sweeteners
 B. Xylose
C. Lactic acid
D. mannitol

5. This carbohydrate is used as a self-binding tablet diluent and disintegrating agent.

A. Xylose
B. High-fructose sweeteners
C. Powdered cellulose
D. Lactic acid
6. Which complex carbohydrates are characterized by their amino and uronic acid contents?
A. Glucosamine
B. Glycosaminoglycans
C. Glycoproteins
D. Neuramines
7. Carbohydrates are our body’s immediate source of metabolic energy. Select the statement that
BEST describes carbohydrates.
A. Phosphoglyceraldehyde is the first carbohydrate formed in photosynthesis.
B. Sugars are amorphous powders, water-soluble, and sweet tasting substances.
C. The more complex, high-molecular-weight heteroglycans are represented by starch, inulin
and cellobiose.
D. Cellulose compose of glucose and fructose units, forms the primary cell walls in plants
8. Soft, fluffy staple fiber that grows around the seeds of plants of the genus Gossypium in the family
Malvaceae
A. Pyroxylin
B. Cotton
C. Flax
D. Hemp
9. A flammable mixture of cellulose nitrate, usually with less than 12.5% Nitrogen, that is soluble in a
mixture of ether and alcohol
A. Pyroxylin
B. Cotton
C. Flax
D. Hemp
10. The fiber in seeds of Cannabis sativa
A. Pyroxylin
B. Cotton
C. Flax
D. Hemp
11. A member of the genus Linum, which is a food and fiber crop cultivated in cooler regions of the
world
A. Pyroxylin
B. Cotton
C. Flax
D. Hemp
12. The fibers are made from a natural polymer extracted from brown seaweeds.
A. Absorbent wool
B. Flax
C. Pyroxylin
D. Alginate Fibers
13. Select the carbohydrate that is administered as an intra-articular injection in cases of
osteoarthritis.
A. Keratin sulfate
B. Hyaluronic acid
C. Heparin
D. Beta-D-hexossaminidase-A
14. What is the mechanism of action of malt extract as an aid in digesting starch?
A. Converts into water-soluble sugars NOT less than 5 times its weight of starch.
B. Contains papain that hydrolyzes starch
MODULE 2 Pharmacognosy

C. Contains emulsin that hydrolyzes starch.

D. Contains lactase that converts 50 times its weight of potato starch into sugar.
15. Which of the following statements best describe D and L isomerism in sugar?
I. When the OH group in carbon-5 of glucose is on the right, the sugar is dextrorotatory
II. Most monosaccharides in mammals are of the D configuration.
III. The asymmetric carbon atom confers optical activity on the sugars
IV. Sugars of the D series rotate olane polarized light to the left
A. I, II, III
B. I, II, IV
C. I, III, IV
D. II, III, IV
16. Select the glycosaminoglycan present in cornea.
A. Keratin I sulfate
B. Keratin II sulfate
C. Keratan I sulfate
D. Keratan II sulfate
17. What chemical test is employed for the detection of reducing sugar in urine?
A. Fehling’s
B. Benedict’s
C. Barfoed’s
D. Tollens Silver Nitrate
18. Xylose is?
A. Aldohexose
B. Ketohexose
C. Aldopentose
D. Ketopentose
19. Heparin vs Heparan
I. Heparin is a fraction of Heparan
II. Heparin consists of repeating disaccharide of glucosamine and iduronate, that is heavily
sulfated
III. Heparin has a great affinity to antithrombin III, a plasma protein that inhibits proteases
involved in the formation of blood clots
IV. Heparin is prepared from intestinal mucosa, which is rich in Heparan sulfate proteoglycans
A. 2 statements are correct
B. All statements are incorrect
C. 3 statements are correct
D. All statements are correct
20. Animal source of Heparin Sulfate.
A. Cow
B. Monkey
C. Pig
D. Horse
21. Which of the following is composed of 100% Glucose?
A. Chitin
B. Cellulose
C. Inulin
D. Carrageenan
22. Which of the following is a heteroglycan?
A. Cellobiose
B. Cellulose
C. Agar
D. Starch
23. Which of the following is a keto sugar?
A. Xylose
B. Glucose
C. Xylulose
D. Galactose
MATCHING TYPE
Column A Column B
1. Ketoses A. Phloroglucinol Test
2. Pentoses B. Keller-Killiani Test
3. Deoxysugars C. Seliwanoff’s Test
4. All carbohydrates D. Molisch Test
5. All monosaccharides E. Osazone Test
F. Fehling’s Test

GLYCOLYSIS

3 PARTS OF GLYCOLYSIS

PART 1: Preparatory Phase or Investment

Phase
• Glucose is being prepared for
oxidation

PART 2: Cleavage
• The 6C molecule splits up forming 2,
3-carbon fragments

PART 3: Oxidative Phase

• Glyceraldehyde-3-Phosphate is
oxidized to generate energy for the
cell

_________________One glucose molecule generates 2 molecules of pyruvate and 2 units of ATP

End product: Pyruvate

_________________The first part is Preparatory Phase (works on the six-carbon molecule,

preparing it for oxidation)

_________________The second part is the splitting of the 6-carbon molecule into 3 two-carbon
fragments

CORRECT:
The second part is the splitting of the 6-carbon molecule into _________________fragments
(GLUCOSEàGlyceraldehyde-3-phosphate and Dihydroxyacetone phosphate)

_________________The third part operates on one of the glyceraldehyde 3-phosphare molecules,

oxidizing it to yield energy
MODULE 2 Pharmacognosy

STEPS IN GLYCOLYSIS
PART 1: PREPARATORY PHASE
STEPS Enzyme Reaction
Glucose to Glucose-6-Phosphate
Glucose-6-Phosphate to Fructose-
6-Phosphate
Fructose-6-Phosphate to
Fructose-1,6-Bisphosphate

PART 2: CLEAVAGE
STEPS Enzyme Reaction
Fructose-1,6-bisphosphate to
Glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate and
Dihydroxyacetone-phosphate
Dihydroxyacetone phosphate to
Glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate

PART 3: OXIDATIVE PHASE

STEPS Enzyme Reaction
Glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate to 1,3-
bisphosphoglycerate
1,3-bisphosphoglycerate to 3-
phosphoglycerate
3-phosphoglycerate to 2-
phosphpglycerate
2-phosphoglycerate to
phosphoenolpyruvate
Phosphoenolpyruvate to pyruvate
 KREBS CYCLE
Aka ___________________, __________________

STEP ENZYME REACTION

Oxaloacetate + Acetyl coA à Citrate

Citrate à Isocitrate

Isocitrate àalpha-ketoglutarate

Alpha-ketoglutarate à Succinyl coA

Succinyl coA à Succinate

Succinate à Fumarate

Fumarate à Malate

Malate à Oxaloacetate

*Pyruvate à Oxaloacetate

GLUCONEOGENESIS
DEFINITION
Definition: formation of new _________________ from non-carbohydrate precursors
Precursors:
_________________
_________________
_________________
_________________

GLYCOGEN METABOLISM
GLYCOGENESIS GLYCOGENOLYSIS
• Generation or formation of • Breakdown of _________________to form
_________________ from _________________
_________________ units

HORMONES THAT REGULATE GLYCOGEN METABOLISM

• _________________
• _________________
• _________________
MODULE 2 Pharmacognosy

PENTOSE PHOSPHATE PATHWAY

PRODUCTS:
NADPH- reduced form of Nicotinamide Adenine Dinucleotide PHOSPHATE
PENTOSES- ribose

CARBOHYDRATE METABOLISM DISORDERS

DISORDER DESCRIPTION
Develops when the body is starved with glucose during prolonged fasting
or starvation
Beta cells of the pancreas are gone. No insulin is produced. This condition is
controlled by daily injections of insulin
A normal amount of insulin is produced, either it is not released fast enough
when blood sugar rises or the target tissues have a reduced responsiveness
A pituitary disorder that directly affects kidney function; no unusual level of
glucose in the urine is observed
Absence of antidiuretic hormone or vasopressin

TOPIC QUIZ
1. The enzyme in the Tricarboxylic Acid Cycle that catalyzes the condensation of oxaloacetate and
acetyl-CoA.
A. Citrate synthase
B. Pyruvate carboxylase
C. Aconitase
D. Pyruvate dehydrogenase
2. The enzyme in the Tricarboxylic Acid Cycle that catalyzes the carboxylation of pyruvate to give
oxaloacetate.
A. Citrate synthase
B. Pyruvate carboxylase
C. Fumarase
D. Pyruvate dehydrogenase
3. Which of the following is false about Glycolysis?
A. The first part of glycolysis works on the six-carbon molecule, preparing it for oxidation.
B. The third part involves the oxidation of glyceraldehyde -3-phosphate molecules to yield
energy.
C. The second part of glycolysis splits the six-carbon molecule into three two-carbon
fragments.
D. One glucose molecule generates two molecules of pyruvate and two units of ATP.
4. What is the chemical reaction involved in the conversion of glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate to 1,3-
bis-phosphoglycerate.
A. Phosphoryl shift
B. Aldol cleavage
C. Isomerization
D. Reduction-oxidation
5. What is the chemical reaction involved in the conversion of 3-phosphpglycerate to 2-
phosphoglycerate?
 A. Phosphoryl shift
B. Aldol cleavage
C. Isomerization
D. Reduction-oxidation
6. What is the chemical reaction involved in the conversion of fructose-1,6-bis-phosphate to
glyceraldehyde-3-P and dihydroxyacetone phosphate.
A. Aldol cleavage
B. Phosphoryl shift
C. Isomerization
D. Reduction-oxidation
7. What are the end product of Glycolysis?
A. Phosphoenolpyruvate
B. Pyruvate
C. Fructose-6-phosphate
D. glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate
8. In Gluconeogenesis, non-sugar precursors are converted to glucose. These precursors are:
A. Glycerol, lactic acid, pyruvic acid
B. Glycerol, lactate, pyruvate, glycogenic amino acids
C. Pyruvic acid, lactic acid, acetic acid
D. Sucrose, lactic acid, pyruvic acid
9. Glycogen metabolism is controlled by certain hormones. These hormones are:
A. Epinephrine, insulin
B. Epinephrine, glucagon
C. Epinephrine, glucagon, insulin
D. Insulin, glucagon
10. Develops when the body is starved with glucose during prolonged fasting or starvation
A. Ketosis
B. Diabetes Insipidus
C. Wilson’s Disease
D. Wernicke-Korsakoff Syndrome
11. Beta cells of the pancreas are gone. No insulin is produced. This condition is controlled by daily
injections of insulin
A. Diabetes Mellitus Type II
B. Diabetes Insipidus
C. Wilson’s Disease
D. Diabetes Mellitus Type I
12. A normal amount of insulin is produced, either it is not released fast enough when blood sugar
rises or the target tissues have a reduced responsiveness
A. Diabetes Mellitus Type I
B. Diabetes Insipidus
C. Ketosis
D. Diabetes Mellitus Type II
13. Select the site of pyruvate formation during glycolysis.
A. Liver
B. Muscles
C. Heart
D. Lungs
14. A pituitary disorder that directly affects kidney function, NO unusual level of glucose in the urine
observed.
A. Diabetes mellitus, Type I
B. Diabetes mellitus, Type II
C. Diabetes Insipidus
D. Wolman Disease
15. Which of the following are products of Pentose Phosphate Pathway?
I. NADH
II. NADPH
III. Ribose
A. I and II
MODULE 2 Pharmacognosy

B. II and III
C. I and III
D. I, II and III
14. Insulin is mostly classified as a
A. Protein
B. Enzyme
C. Hormone
D. Peptide
15. The process of synthesis of glucose and other carbohydrate molecules from simple precursors
A. Glycogenesis
B. Gluconeogenesis
C. Photosynthesis
D. Lipolysis
16. The following are products of the Krebs Cycle
A. 3 NADH, 1 FADH2, 1 ADP
B. 3 NADH, 1 FADH2, 1 GTP
C. 2 NADH, 2 FADH2, 2 ADP
D. 3 NADH, 1 FADH2, 2 GTP

LIPIDS
CLASSIFICATION:
FATTY ACIDS
Saturated Fatty Acids
Ca_________________ Unsaturated Fatty Acids
• Oleic Acid
La_________________
• Linoleic Acid (omega- _________________)
My_________________ • Alpha-Linolenic Acid (omega-
Pa_________________ _________________)
St_________________ • Arachidonic Acid
Eicosanoids
A_________________
• Prostaglandins
• Leukotrienes

GLYCERYL ESTERS SPHINGOLIPIDS

Acylglycerols Sphingomyelin
• Triglycerides- Glycosphingolipids
major_________________form of fatty • Cerebrosides
acids • Globosides
• Phosphoglycerides • Gangliosides

STEROLS
Cholesterol
• Ergosterol
• Phytosterol
• Stigmasterol
Cholesteryl esters
Bile acids
• Cholic acid
Steroid Hormones
• Sex Hormones: Estrogen, Progesterone, Testosterone
 • Aldosterone, Cortisone
Vitamin D
• Vitamin D2: Ergocalciferol (precursor: _________________)
Vitamin D3: Cholecalciferol (precursor: _________________)

TERPENES
Vitamin _________________ (Retinol)
Vitamin _________________
Vitamin _________________

ASSAY OF LIPIDS
Number of mg of potassium hydroxide required to neutralize the free acids and
hydrolyze the esters in 1g sample
Refers to the difference between saponification and acid value
Number of mg of potassium hydroxide required to neutralize the acetic acid freed by
the hydrolysis of acetylated fat
Number of mg of potassium hydroxide required to neutralize the acid combined by
acylation of the sample
Measures the degree of unsaturation of the oil

FATTY ACID METABOLISM

IMPORTANT CONCEPTS
• catabolic pathways of lipids are connected to the glucose catabolism pathways
• L- Carnitine: carrier molecule that transports fatty acids across the inner mitochondrial
membrane
• Fatty acid catabolism under hormonal control
• The release of fatty acids and their subsequent Beta-oxidation is a primary source of
metabolic energy for the cell

TOPIC QUIZ
1. Classify: Prostaglandins
A. Sphingolipid
B. Fatty acid
C. Glyceryl ester
D. Terpene
2. Which of the following is the major storage form of fatty acids?
A. Ester of a long chain alcohol.
B. Ester of a monohydric alcohol
C. Triglyceride
D. Ester of polyhydric alcohol
3. Essential fatty acids are vital but are not synthesized in the body. Identify the essential fatty acids
for humans.
A. Linolenic acid (omega-6) and Linoleic acid (omega-3)
B. Linoleic acid (omega-6) and alpha-Linolenic acid (omega-3)
C. Oleic acid, Linolenic acid
D. Stearic acid, Linoleic acid
4. Which of the following is an omega-3 fatty acid?
A. Alpha-linoleic acid
B. Beta-linolenic acid
C. Oleic acid
D. Alpha-linolenic acid
5. This carrier molecule transports activated fatty acids across the inner mitochondrial membrane.
A. Carnitine
B. Chylomicron
C. Aldimine
D. GLUT
MODULE 2 Pharmacognosy

6. Lipids are biomolecules with diverse functions. Which of the following is true about lipids and
lipid-derivatives?
A. Thromboxanes prevent clotting
B. Prostaglandins stimulate gastric acid secretion
C. Eicosanoids act as messenger inside cells and between neighboring cells.
D. Linoleoyl-CoA is derived from archidonyl-CoA
7. Which of the following statements best describes fatty acid metabolism?
A. Fatty acid metabolism is not related to carbohydrate metabolism.
B. Fatty acids and their CoA esters are able to freely cross the inner mitochondrial membrane
C. The release of fatty acids and their subsequent beta-oxidation is a primary source of
metabolic energy for the cell.
D. Fatty acid catabolism is not under hormonal control.
8. Determine the intermediate product formed in the biosynthesis of fatty acids, when malonyl-CoA
reacts with Acetyl-CoA the product undergoes reduction and elimination of carbon dioxide.
A. Caproyl-CoA
B. Butyryl-CoA
C. Acetyl-CoA
D. Glycerophosphate