Earthworms do not have well-developed eyes, ears, or nose like

higher animals, but they possess simple and specialized sense

organs to detect changes in their environment. These are located
mainly in the epidermis, prostomium, and anterior segments.

---
🔹 Types of Sense Organs in Earthworm

1. Tactile Receptors (Touch Organs)

Found in the epidermis and prostomium.

Help in sensing touch, vibrations, and movement in soil.

2. Photoreceptors (Light-sensitive Organs)

Scattered in the epidermis, especially in the dorsal surface of

anterior segments and prostomium.

Detect light intensity and direction (not clear images).

Earthworms avoid strong light (negatively phototactic).

3. Chemoreceptors (Taste & Smell Organs)

Present in buccal cavity and prostomium.

Help in detecting chemical nature of soil and food particles.

4. Thermoreceptors

Detect changes in temperature.

Help earthworm remain in moist, cool soil and avoid desiccation.

5. Moisture Receptors

Sensitive to humidity.

Important for cutaneous respiration, since earthworms need moist

skin to breathe.

(a) Sense organs of Earthworm

Earthworm has no eyes or ears, but it possesses simple sense

organs.

Types:

1. Tactile receptors – in epidermis; sensitive to touch and

vibrations.

2. Photoreceptors – scattered over body, more on anterior part;

detect light intensity.

3. Chemoreceptors – sense chemical stimuli (taste/smell).

4. Receptors in buccal cavity – help in food recognition.

These receptors help worm in burrowing, avoiding light, and finding

food.
---
(b) Female reproductive system of Earthworm

Earthworm is hermaphrodite but cross-fertilization occurs.

Female organs:

Ovaries in segment 12.

Oviduct funnels in segment 13, open to exterior on 14th segment

via female genital pores.

Spermathecae in segments 6–9 store sperms received from another

worm.

Function: Production of eggs and reception of sperms for

fertilization.
---

(c) Excretory system of Earthworm

Excretion mainly by nephridia.

Types:

1. Septal nephridia – on septa between segments.

2. Integumentary nephridia – on body wall.

3. Pharyngeal nephridia – near pharynx.

Each nephridium has a nephrostome (internal opening), a tubule,

and nephridiopore (external opening).

Wastes: ammonia, urea, and other nitrogenous compounds.

Q.2 (Optional)

(a) Oogenesis in Human

Formation of female gamete (ovum) in ovaries.

Stages:

1. Multiplication – oogonia (diploid) multiply by mitosis (in fetus).

2. Growth – oogonia grow into primary oocytes, arrested in

prophase I until puberty.

3. Maturation – primary oocyte undergoes meiosis:

First meiotic division → secondary oocyte + first polar body.

Second meiotic division → ovum + second polar body (only after

fertilization).

Significance: Ensures haploid gamete formation, introduces

variation.

(b) Structure of Nephron

Functional and structural unit of kidney (~1 million per kidney).

Parts:

1. Renal corpuscle = Bowman’s capsule + Glomerulus.

Bowman’s capsule filters blood plasma.

2. Proximal convoluted tubule – reabsorbs glucose, amino acids,
water, ions.

3. Loop of Henle – maintains osmotic gradient, helps in water

conservation.

4. Distal convoluted tubule – selective reabsorption, secretion of

ions.

5. Collecting duct – collects urine, passes to renal pelvis.

Function: Formation of urine by filtration, reabsorption and

secretion.

(c) Stomach of Pigeon

Bird stomach is divided into Proventriculus and Gizzard.

1. Proventriculus – glandular stomach secreting pepsin, HCl.

2. Gizzard (Ventriculus) – thick muscular walls, lined with horny

cuticle, grinds food with pebbles swallowed by bird.

Function: Efficient mechanical and chemical digestion of seeds and

grains.
Q.3 (Optional)

(a) Process of Invagination in Gastrulation

Gastrulation = transformation of blastula into gastrula with germ

layers.

Invagination = inward folding of blastula wall at vegetal pole.

Results in formation of archenteron (primitive gut) and blastopore.

Gives rise to ectoderm (outer layer), mesoderm (middle), and

endoderm (inner).

Importance: Establishes body axis and organogenic potential.

(b) Activation of Ovum

When sperm enters ovum, physiological and biochemical changes

occur:

1. Membrane depolarization – prevents polyspermy.

2. Completion of meiosis II in ovum.

3. Pronucleus formation – fusion with male pronucleus.

4. Metabolic activation – increase in protein synthesis, DNA

replication.

Leads to start of embryogenesis.

(c) Types of Eggs based on Yolk Content & Distribution

1. Microlecithal – very little yolk (e.g., Amphioxus, mammals).

2. Mesolecithal – moderate yolk, unevenly distributed (e.g.,

amphibians).

3. Macrolecithal – large amount of yolk, cytoplasm restricted (e.g.,

reptiles, birds).

4. Centrolecithal – yolk at center, cytoplasm peripheral (e.g.,

insects).

Q.4 (Optional)

(a) Classification & Body Wall of Earthworm

Classification:

Phylum – Annelida

Class – Oligochaeta

Order – Opisthopora

Genus – Pheretima

Body Wall:

Outer cuticle (non-cellular).

Epidermis with glandular and sensory cells.

Circular muscle layer.

Longitudinal muscle layer.

Inner coelomic epithelium.

Function: locomotion, secretion, protection.

(b) Gemmule Formation (Sponges)

Gemmules = asexual reproductive bodies in sponges, produced

during unfavorable conditions.

Structure:

Internal mass of archaeocytes.

Surrounded by resistant coat of spicules.

Function: withstand drought/frost, germinate into new sponge in

favorable conditions.

(c) Holoblastic Cleavage

Cleavage where whole egg divides completely. Occurs in eggs with

little/moderate yolk.

Types:

1. Equal holoblastic cleavage – blastomeres equal in size (e.g.,

Amphioxus).

2. Unequal holoblastic cleavage – blastomeres unequal due to yolk

(e.g., Frog).
Significance: Forms blastula → gastrula.
Q.1 (a) Digestive system of Earthworm (Long Answer)

The digestive system of earthworm (Pheretima posthuma) is a

straight tube running from mouth to anus. It is well-developed and
adapted for a detritivorous mode of feeding.

1. Mouth and Buccal cavity

The mouth is a crescent-shaped opening on the peristomium.

Buccal cavity lies in segments 1–3. It is muscular and protrusible,

used to ingest soil and organic matter.

2. Pharynx (Segments 4–5)

A thick, muscular organ which secretes mucin and proteolytic

enzymes.

Helps in swallowing and lubrication of food.

3. Oesophagus (Segments 5–7)

Narrow and tubular.

Serves as a passage for food from pharynx to crop.

4. Crop (Segments 8–9)

Thin-walled, sac-like chamber.

Acts as a temporary reservoir of food.

5. Gizzard (Segment 10–11)

A thick-walled, muscular organ.

Contains small stones that help in grinding the ingested soil and
plant matter.
Acts like a “teeth” substitute.

6. Stomach/Intestine (Segment 12–last but one)

Long and coiled tube where actual digestion and absorption occur.

The first part of intestine (12–14) secretes protease, amylase and

lipase.

From 26th segment onwards, a typhlosole (internal median fold)

increases the surface area for absorption.

7. Anus (last segment)

A vertical slit through which undigested matter is expelled as worm

castings.

Physiology

Digestion is extracellular. Enzymes break down carbohydrates,

proteins, and fats.

Absorbed nutrients diffuse into the blood, while undigested soil is

expelled.

Conclusion
The earthworm digestive system is simple but highly effective for
soil feeding, recycling nutrients back to the environment.

---
Q.1 (b) Nervous system of Earthworm (Three parts)

1. Central Nervous System (CNS)

Composed of a nerve ring surrounding the pharynx.

Cerebral ganglia (brain) are located dorsally in segment 3.

A double ventral nerve cord runs throughout the body with ganglia
in each segment.

2. Peripheral Nervous System (PNS)

Nerves arising from the CNS spread throughout the body wall and
internal organs.

Controls muscles, skin sensitivity, locomotion and glandular

activity.

3. Sympathetic Nervous System (SNS)

Nerve plexuses present in the gut wall and other viscera.

Controls involuntary actions like digestion and heartbeat-like

movements of crop and gizzard.

Overall function: Earthworm nervous system coordinates

movement, feeding, burrowing, and responses to environmental
stimuli.

---
Q.2 (a) Nutrition in Amoeba (Long Answer)

Amoeba shows holozoic nutrition (ingestion of solid food).

Steps:

1. Ingestion – Amoeba engulfs food with pseudopodia, enclosing it

in a food vacuole (phagocytosis).

2. Digestion – Enzymes from lysosomes break down complex food

into soluble forms.

3. Absorption – Digested food diffuses into the cytoplasm and is

used for energy and growth.

4. Assimilation – Nutrients are used in respiration, growth,

reproduction, and repair.

5. Egestion – Undigested matter is expelled outside by rupturing the

vacuole.

Conclusion: Amoeba’s nutrition is simple, but it illustrates basic

principles of animal digestion.

Q.2 (b) Excretion in Amoeba & Planaria

Amoeba

Excretion occurs mainly by contractile vacuole.

It collects excess water, salts and nitrogenous waste (ammonia).

Vacuole swells → moves to surface → bursts to release waste.

Maintains osmoregulation.

Planaria

Excretion by flame cells (protonephridia).

Flame cells have cilia which beat to drive fluid through excretory
canals.

Wastes are expelled via excretory pores.

Conclusion: While amoeba uses a single-cell structure, planaria

uses a primitive organ-system level excretion.
---

Q.3 (a) Fertilization

Fertilization = fusion of male and female gametes to form zygote.

External fertilization

Occurs outside body in water (e.g., frog).

Male and female release gametes simultaneously.

Disadvantage: Wastage of gametes, predation risk.

Advantage: Produces many zygotes.

Internal fertilization

Occurs inside female reproductive tract (e.g., mammals, birds,

reptiles).

Sperm enters female body, fertilizes ovum in oviduct.

Advantage: Protection of zygote, higher survival rate.

Conclusion: Fertilization ensures continuity of species, genetic

variation, and development of zygote.
---

Q.3 (b) Meroblastic Cleavage

Meroblastic = incomplete cleavage (only part of the egg divides due

to presence of much yolk).

Types:

1. Discoidal cleavage – restricted to small disc of cytoplasm above

yolk (birds, reptiles).

2. Superficial cleavage – occurs at the periphery of centrally placed

yolk (insects).

Importance: Cleavage initiates embryonic development and

establishes the body axis.
---

Q.4 (a) Coelom of Earthworm

Earthworm has a true schizocoelous coelom.

Coelom is fluid-filled and lined by coelomic epithelium.

Functions:

Acts as a hydrostatic skeleton for locomotion.

Provides space for internal organs.

Stores reproductive cells.

Helps in transport of gases and nutrients.

---

Q.4 (b) Respiration in Frog

Frog respires by three methods:

1. Cutaneous respiration – through moist skin, especially under

water.

2. Buccopharyngeal respiration – lining of buccal cavity acts as

respiratory surface.

3. Pulmonary respiration – through lungs during activity.

Conclusion: Frog shows dual respiration to survive both aquatic

and terrestrial life.
---

The nervous system of earthworm is well-developed, simple and of

ventral type. It helps the worm respond to stimuli and coordinate
movement.

---

🔹 Components of Nervous System

1. Central Nervous System (CNS)

Consists of nerve ring and ventral nerve cord.

Nerve Ring:

Found around the pharynx (3rd and 4th segments).

Made of:

Supra-pharyngeal ganglia (brain) – above the pharynx.

Sub-pharyngeal ganglia – below the pharynx.

Circum-pharyngeal connectives – connect supra- and sub-

pharyngeal ganglia, forming a ring.

Ventral Nerve Cord:

Runs along the length of the body.

Double, solid cord with segmental ganglia in each segment.

Controls muscles and body movement.

2. Peripheral Nervous System

Nerves arising from the ganglia to supply body wall, muscles, and
sense organs.

3. Sympathetic Nervous System

Present in the gut wall.

Controls movements and secretions of the alimentary canal.

Classification and Body Wall of Earthworm

---

🔹 Classification of Earthworm (Pheretima posthuma)

Kingdom: Animalia

Phylum: Annelida

Class: Oligochaeta

Order: Opisthopora

Family: Megascolecidae

Genus: Pheretima

Species: P. posthuma

👉 Thus, Pheretima posthuma belongs to phylum Annelida, which

includes segmented worms.
---

🔹 Body Wall of Earthworm

The body wall of earthworm is thin, moist, flexible and forms the
outer covering of the body. It helps in protection, locomotion and
respiration.

Structure of Body Wall (from outside to inside):

1. Cuticle

Thin, non-cellular layer made of scleroproteins.

Protects the body and prevents excessive water loss.

2. Epidermis

Single-layered epithelium just beneath the cuticle.

Contains 4 types of cells:

Supporting cells

Glandular cells (mucous secretion → keeps skin moist for

respiration)

Sensory cells

Basal cells

3. Circular Muscle Layer

Beneath epidermis.

Helps in contraction → body becomes long and thin.

4. Longitudinal Muscle Layer

Beneath circular muscles.

Helps in contraction → body becomes short and thick.

5. Coelomic Epithelium (Peritoneum)

Innermost layer lining the body cavity.

Economic Importance of Earthworms

Earthworms are called “friends of farmers” and “natural ploughmen

of the soil” because of their role in soil fertility and agriculture. They
also have other uses in medicine, fishing, and waste management.

---

🔹 1. Role in Agriculture (Soil Fertility)

Burrowing activity loosens and aerates the soil → improves root

growth.

Their castings (excreta) are rich in nitrogen, phosphorus,

potassium, and humus → make soil fertile.

They act as natural ploughmen, mixing organic matter with soil.

Increase water-holding capacity and drainage of soil.

---

🔹 2. Vermicomposting

Earthworms (like Eisenia fetida, Eudrilus eugeniae) are widely used

in vermicomposting.

They convert kitchen waste, farm residue, and organic matter into
nutrient-rich vermicompost.

Eco-friendly alternative to chemical fertilizers.

---
🔹 3. Waste Management

Help in disposal and recycling of agricultural, industrial, and

household organic waste.

Reduce solid waste pollution.

---
🔹 4. Food Source

Earthworms are used as food in some cultures (e.g., in parts of

Asia, Africa, and South America).

Rich in protein, calcium, and iron.

---

🔹 5. Fishing Industry

Earthworms are widely used as fish bait in fishing.

---

🔹 6. Medicine and Research

Used in pharmaceutical research for testing drugs.

Some species are used in ayurvedic and traditional medicine.

Their enzymes (like lumbrokinase) are studied for use in treating

blood clots.
---

🔹 7. Ecological Importance

Maintain the balance of ecosystems by recycling nutrients.

Serve as prey for birds, reptiles, amphibians, and mammals →

important in food chains
Hermaphrodite – Earthworm has both male and female reproductive
organs in the same body, but cross-fertilization occurs.

2. Testes – Two pairs, present in segments 10 & 11, produce

spermatogonia.

3. Seminal Funnels – Two pairs (in 10 & 11) collect sperms from
testes.

4. Testis Sacs – Enclose testes and seminal funnels.

5. Vasa Deferentia – Carry sperm from seminal funnels to male

genital pores (open in 18th segment).

6. Seminal Vesicles – Two pairs (in 11 & 12) store and nourish
developing sperms.

7. Prostate Glands – Large, paired glands in segments 17–19;

secrete fluid for sperm activation.

8. Male Genital Pores – One pair in 18th segment, through which

sperms are released.

9. Spermathecae – Four pairs in segments 6–9 (part of female

system, but important for storing sperm received from partner).

10. Fertilization – External, inside a cocoon formed by clitellum.

Female Reproductive System in Earthworm

Earthworm is hermaphrodite (bisexual), possessing both male and

female reproductive organs in the same individual. However, cross-
fertilization takes place. The female reproductive system is simple
and consists of one pair of ovaries, oviducts, female genital pores
and spermathecae.
---

🔹 Structure

1. Ovaries

A single pair of ovaries is present in the 13th segment.

Each ovary is whitish and lobed.

Ova (eggs) are produced here.

2. Oviducal Funnels

Located just below the ovaries in the 13th segment.

Collect the ova released from the ovaries.

3. Oviducts

Short tubes arising from the funnels.

Extend from the 13th to the 14th segment.

Open to the exterior through the female genital pores.

4. Female Genital Pores

One pair, situated ventrally in the 14th segment.

Eggs are discharged through these pores.

5. Spermathecae (Accessory structures)

Four pairs, present in segments 6–9.

These sacs store sperms received from another earthworm during

copulation.

They play a crucial role in cross-fertilization.

(a) Salient Features of Earthworm

1. Belongs to Phylum Annelida, Class Oligochaeta.

2. Body long, cylindrical, bilaterally symmetrical, segmented (100–

120 segments).

3. Body wall: cuticle, epidermis, circular & longitudinal muscles,

coelomic epithelium.

4. Segmentation – external and internal.

5. Locomotion by setae and peristaltic movements.

6. Digestive system: complete, with mouth → buccal cavity →
pharynx → gizzard → stomach → intestine → anus.

7. Circulatory system: closed type, with dorsal, ventral, lateral

hearts.

8. Nervous system: ventral nerve cord, paired ganglia, nerve ring.

9. Reproduction: Hermaphrodite, but cross-fertilization; fertilization

external in cocoon.

10. Economic importance: soil fertility, vermicomposting, waste

recycling.

---

(b) Circulatory System of Earthworm

Type: Closed circulatory system.

Blood: Red due to haemoglobin dissolved in plasma.

Main Vessels:

1. Dorsal vessel – runs mid-dorsally, carries blood anteriorly.

2. Ventral vessel – mid-ventral, carries blood posteriorly.

3. Lateral oesophageal vessels.

Hearts: 4 pairs (segments 7–13), pump blood dorsoventrally.

Capillaries: Supply body wall, gut, nephridia.

Circulation: Dorsal → hearts → ventral → organs → dorsal.

---

(c) Economic Importance of Earthworm

1. Soil fertility – loosen, aerate, enrich soil.

2. Vermicomposting – convert organic waste to compost.

3. Waste management – decompose farm & household waste.

4. Fishing bait – used in fisheries.

5. Medicine & research – enzymes (lumbrokinase), drug testing.

---

(d) Male Reproductive System of Earthworm

Earthworm is hermaphrodite, but male system is well developed.

Testes: 2 pairs in segments 10 & 11.

Testis sacs: enclose testes and seminal funnels.

Seminal vesicles: 2 pairs (11 & 12), store sperms.

Seminal funnels: collect sperms from testes.

Vasa deferentia: tubes from 10 & 11, open at 18th segment.

Prostate glands: in 17–19, secrete fluid.

Male genital pores: one pair in 18th segment.

During copulation, sperms pass into spermathecae of partner.

---

Q.2 (Any Two)

(a) Budding in Hydra

Hydra reproduces asexually by budding.

A bud develops as a small outgrowth from body wall.

Contains ectoderm, endoderm, and central cavity.

Tentacles and mouth form → bud separates → grows into new

Hydra.

Occurs in favorable conditions.

(b) Structure of Ruminant Stomach

Ruminants (cow, buffalo, goat) have 4-chambered stomach:

1. Rumen – largest, stores food, fermentation by microbes.

2. Reticulum – honeycomb-like, forms cud for regurgitation.

3. Omasum – many folds, absorbs water and nutrients.

4. Abomasum – true stomach, secretes gastric juice, digests

proteins. ---
(c) Respiration in Bony Fish

Bony fishes breathe through gills.

Each side has 4 pairs of gill arches with gill filaments.

Gill filaments have lamellae → large surface area for gas exchange.

Water enters mouth → passes over gills → exits through operculum.

Counter-current exchange between water and blood maximizes

oxygen uptake.
---

(d) Septal Nephridia in Earthworm

Septal nephridia: paired, present on intersegmental septa (segments

15–last).

Open into intestine (enteronephric).

Structure: nephrostome (ciliated funnel), body, terminal duct.

Function: excretion of nitrogenous waste (mainly urea and

ammonia) and osmoregulation.

---

Q.3 (Any Two)

(a) Blastula of Bird

After cleavage, bird embryo forms blastoderm on yolk.

Two layers:

1. Epiblast – gives rise to embryo proper.

2. Hypoblast – forms extra-embryonic structures.

Central cavity = blastocoel.

Blastula is discoidal due to large yolk.

---

(b) Gastrula of Frog

Gastrulation: process where blastula → gastrula.

Involves invagination, involution, epiboly, migration.

Blastopore forms at vegetal pole.

Three germ layers formed:

1. Ectoderm → skin, nervous system.

2. Mesoderm → muscles, skeleton, blood.

3. Endoderm → gut, liver, pancreas.

---

(c) Epiboly

Type of cell movement in gastrulation.

The ectodermal cells spread over yolk-laden endodermal cells.

Covers the yolk completely.

Common in telolecithal eggs (with large yolk, e.g., frog, bird).

---
(d) External Fertilization

Fertilization occurs outside the female body.

Male and female gametes released into water.

Sperm swims to reach eggs.

Found in amphibians (frog, toad) and most fishes.

Advantages: large number of gametes, wide dispersal.

Disadvantage: wastage of gametes, low survival rate.

---