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IT 206
Quantitative Methods

This course introduces the basic concepts of Statistics and use of quantitative
methods in research. Emphasis will be on achieving an understanding associated
mathematical tools and statistical research techniques that is relevant in solving
problems and making quality decisions across Information Technology discipline.
Students will gain experience on problem solving manually and using any statistical
tools on computers.

3 units
54 hours(lec)
IT 106
Danna Calas-Remojo
Contact Number: 09399231553
Email Address: [Link]@[Link]
Facebook/Messenger: Chikay Remojo

SLSU will:

✓ Develop Science, Technology and Innovation leaders and professionals;

✓ Produce high-impact technologies from research and innovations;
✓ Contribute to sustainable development through responsive community
engagement programs;
✓ Generate revenues to be self-sufficient and financially-viable;

A high quality corporate university of science and technology and innovation

At the end of the course, students should be able to:

1. Solve problems using a variety of mathematical and statistical techniques

relevant to Information Technology degree.

2. Demonstrate their understanding of descriptive and inferential statistics by

practical application of quantitative reasoning and data visualization

3. Greater appreciation for the importance of statistical literacy in today’s data

rich world in making important decisions.

4. Use a calculator and a spreadsheet program (Microsoft Excel) effectively to

perform calculations.

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The purpose of this course is to introduce you to the subject of statistics as a science
of data. There is data abound in this information age; how to extract useful
knowledge and gain a sound understanding of complex data sets has been more of
a challenge. In this course, we will focus on the fundamentals of statistics, which
may be broadly described as the techniques to collect, clarify, summarize, organize,
analyze, and interpret numerical information.

This course will begin with a brief overview of the discipline of statistics and will
then quickly focus on descriptive statistics, introducing graphical methods of
describing data. On the side of inference, we will focus on both estimation and
hypothesis testing issues. We will also examine statistical techniques to study the
relationship between two or more variables. By the end of this course, you should
gain a sound understanding of what statistics represent, how to use statistics to
organize and display data, and how to draw valid inferences based on data by using
appropriate statistical tools.

This course is composed of the following modules:

MODULE 1: STATISTICS AND RESEARCH METHODS

Lesson 1. Introduction to Statistics

Lesson 2. Research Methods

MODULE 2 STATISTICAL TECHNIQUES/TOOLS

Lesson 1. Descriptive Statistics

Lesson 2. Inferential Statistics

MODULE 3: PARAMETRIC TESTS

Lesson 1. Coefficient Correlation

Lesson 2. ANOVA (Analysis of Variance)
Lesson 2. Paired t-test

MODULE 4: NONPARAMETRIC TESTS

Lesson 1. Spearman’s rank correlation

Lesson 2. Chi-Square
Lesson 3 Mann-Whitney U-Test

It will take you 54 hours(lec) to finish the four (4) modules. In each module you will
answer the Pretest to test your pre-existing knowledge of the subject, after which
you may proceed with the lessons with activities, assessments, lab exercises and
Post Test at the end of each module.

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Lecture:
Performance Task (Assessment, Activities, 60%
Assignment, Post Test)
Output (Project/IDP) 40%
100%

Laboratory:

Lab Exercises 60%

Output (Project/IDP) 40%
100%

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Module 2

Overview

Statistics is an important field of math that is used to analyze, interpret, and

predict outcomes from data. Nearly everyone is involved in statistical works.
There are different statistical tools available that will help researchers to
examine their studied data to come up with a reliable result in solving
problems, some of them are simple, some complicated, and often very specific
for certain purposes. This module will introduce you descriptive and inferential
statistics to help us understand how these statistical techniques will be used
in providing us information and new knowledge based on the research that we
are intended to do.

Intended Learning Outcome:

At the end of this module, the students are expected to:

1. Demonstrate understanding of descriptive and inferential statistics

2. Use numerical and graphical ways to describe, display and interpret

quantitative data

3. Apply appropriate statistical concepts, methodologies and

technologies in organizing, analyzing and interpreting various real-
world situations and in coming up with relevant decisions.

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At the end of this lesson, you are expected to:

1. Demonstrate competence and confidence in using descriptive statistics

such as measures of central tendencies, variability, relative position
and shape
2. Use numerical and graphical ways to describe, display and interpret
data
3. Use appropriate statistical software that is helpful in analyzing and
presenting data

Do the following:

1. Input the data into Excel

2. Create histogram of the given data

3. Compute its mean
4. Submit file.

In the activity provided, were you able to describe the data? What can you say
about the data presented? By using charts and tables you can easily describe and
analyze the collected sets of data. There are different tools and software for you
to choose to help you do the task and one those is descriptive statistics. Lets us
see in the following discussions what appropriate statistical tool you can use to
present and interpret your data sets.

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Descriptive Statistics
- is a collection of methods for summarizing data and describe data (e.g.,
mean, median, mode, range, variance, graphs).

Frequency Distribution
- is a table or graph that organize and present the count of the number of times a
certain value or class of values occurs in a sample or population.

Frequency Tables

Frequency tables list categories of scores along with their corresponding

frequencies. A frequency table most often includes all of the following:

1. Absolute frequency (or just frequency): This tells you how many times a
particular category in your variable occurs. This is a tally, count, or
frequency of occurrence of each individual category/value in the table.

Group Frequency Distribution

Example:

Make a frequency distribution of Ms. Cruz exam scores.

97 90 86 83 84 78 73 73 69
65 98 90 88 83 81 79 78 72
69 60 93 98 85 82 80 78 77
71 68 59 91 89 84 82 80 77
75 70 62 55 91 89 84 82 78
77 72 70 63 54 65 89 90 81

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Steps:
a. Arrange data in ascending or descending order

54 55 59 60 62 63 65 65 68
69 69 70 70 71 72 72 73 75
77 77 77 77 78 78 78 78 79
80 80 81 81 82 82 82 83 83
84 84 84 85 86 88 89 89 89
90 90 90 91 91 93 97 98 98

b. Find the range ( R )

R = highest score-lowest score

=98-54
=44

c. Solve the number of classes (group of data)

Formula:

k= 1 + 3.322 log n
where:
n= number of scores or values
k = 1 + 3.322 log 54
k = 6.76 or 7

d. Solve for the class width.

Formula:

c = R/k

where:
r= range
k= number of classes

c = R/k
c = 44/ 6.76
= 6.51 or 7

e. Fill in the lower limit- upper limit (class width) in the interval column
starting from the lowest score. There should be no overlapping of
classes and all class should have the same width. The Class Boundary is
the half points that separate the classes.

f. Tally all the scores and write the frequency of scores in each class.

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g. For less than cumulative frequency (<cf) start from the lowest group of
frequency then add the frequency of each class for the succeeding
classes.

h. For greater than cumulative frequency (>cf) start from the highest group
of frequency then minus the frequency of each class for the succeeding
classes.

Frequency Distribution

Interval Class Frequency Less than greater than

(LL-UL) Boundaries (f) cumulative cumulative
(LB-UB) frequency frequency
(<cf) (>cf)
54- 60 53.5-60.5 4 4 54
61-67 60.5-67.5 4 8 50
68-74 67.5-74.5 9 17 46
75-81 74.5-81.5 14 31 37
82-88 81.5-88.5 11 42 23
89-95 88.5-95.5 9 51 12
96-102 95.5-102.5 3 54 3
N=54

2. Relative frequency (or percent): This tells you the percentage of each
category/value relative to the total number of cases.

Steps:
1. Count the total number of items in each category.
2. Divide the count (the frequency) by the total number. For example,
4/54 = .074 or 7.4%

Interval Class Frequency Less than greater Relative

(LL-UL) Boundaries (f) cumulative than Frequency
(LB-UB) frequency cumulative (rf)
(<cf) frequency
(>cf)
54- 60 53.5-60.5 4 4 54 7%
61-67 60.5-67.5 4 8 50 7%
68-74 67.5-74.5 9 17 46 17%
75-81 74.5-81.5 14 31 37 26%
82-88 81.5-88.5 11 42 23 20%
89-95 88.5-95.5 9 51 12 17%
96-102 95.5-102.5 3 54 3 6%
N=54

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3. Cumulative frequency: This is simply a cumulation of the relative frequency

for each category/value.

Interval Class Frequency Less than greater Relative Cumulative

(LL-UL) Boundaries (f) cumulative than Frequency Relative
(LB-UB) frequency cumulative (rf) Frequency
(<cf) frequency
(>cf)
54- 60 53.5-60.5 4 4 54 7% 7%
61-67 60.5-67.5 4 8 50 7% 14%
68-74 67.5-74.5 9 17 46 17% 31%
75-81 74.5-81.5 14 31 37 26% 57%
82-88 81.5-88.5 11 42 23 20% 77%
89-95 88.5-95.5 9 51 12 17% 94%
96-102 95.5-102.5 3 54 3 6% 100%
N=54

4. Crosstabulations: This is also referred to as a grouped frequency table for

two variables. A crosstab simply presents the absolute frequency broken
down by categories of two or more variables. It is also possible to find
percentages in these types of tables. For instance, using the example below,
we can find the percentage of young people that listen to music

Crosstab of Music Preference and Age

Measure of Central Tendencies

- The most useful ways of summarizing the given set of data is to find an
average of that set of data.

- Measures of central tendencies provide the most occurring or middle

value/category for each variable.

- There are three common ways of describing the center of a set of numbers-
mean, the median and the mode

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Mean

- The mean of a dataset is the average of the numbers.

- To calculate the mean, add all the data values together and divide by the
number of values.

Formula for ungrouped data:

X =ƩX/n
Where:
X- individual score
X- mean of all scores
n- number of scores

Example: The number of nuclear power stations in various countries in1989.

Based on the result, it shows that the average number of nuclear power in
various country in 1989 is 38.4

Formula for mean of Grouped Data:

Example:

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Solution:
1. Find the midpoint (x) of each class by adding the upper limit and
lower limit of the class then divide it by two
X= (UL + LL)/2

2. Compute the mean.

Median

- A median is the middle of a distribution.

- Half the scores are above the median and half are below the median.

Finding median:
1. Arrange the scores into ascending order
2. If there is an odd number of numbers, the median is the middle
number

Ex: the median of 5, 8, and 11 is 8

3. If there is an even number of numbers, the median is the mean of

the two middle numbers.

Ex: the median of the numbers 4, 8, 9, 13 is (8+9)/2 = 8.5

Example:

Data:
261, 160, 259, 223, 169, 127, 221, 190,224, 228, 229, 294, 204,
177, 199, 212,186, 207, 192, 241, 162, 249, 206, 210,200, 213,
185, 171, 189, 159
Sort:
127 159 160 162 169 171 177 185 186 189 190 192 199 200 204 206
207 210 212 213 221 223 224 228 229 241 249 259 261 294

Middle value: 204 and 206

Since there are two middle then compute the Median

Median = (204+206)/2=205

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Mode
- Mode is the most frequently occurring score in a distribution/data set.

Calculating the mode

1. Place the data in ascending order, count how many times
each score occurs
2. The score that occurs the most is the mode

Example:

15 18 19 20 20 20 21 23 23 24 24

Mode is 20 for it occurs the most.

Distributions can have more than one mode, called “multimodal.”

Note:
The best one to use in a given situation depends on the type of variable
given and the interest of the researcher.

Example:

Suppose a class of 20 students own among them a total of 17 pets as shown

in the following table. Which measure of central tendency should we use
here?

Type of Pet Number

Cat 5
Dog 4
Rabbit 3
Goldfish 1
Bird 4

If the interest of the researcher is the common pets owned by the students,
then the central tendency to use is Mode.

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Measure of Variability/Dispersion
- Measures of variability is defined as the dispersion (or deviation) away from
the mean for each variable.

- Measures of variability only exist for interval level variables.

- There are three measures of variability-range, standard deviation, and

variance.

1. Range: The range is found by taking the highest value of a variable

minus the lowest value of that variable.

Example:
Let’s consider the two distributions given below. They represent the
marks of a group of thirty students on two tests.

Marks on Test A
Range= 70-45 = 25

Marks on Test B
Range= 65- 45= 20

As computed, it is shown that the range in Test A is greater than the range
in Test B. Therefore, the marks on test A are more spread out than the marks
on test B

2. Standard deviation: It is the average distance of each value away from the
sample mean. The larger the standard deviation, the farther away the
values are from the mean; the smaller the standard deviation the closer,
the values are to the mean.

Take, for example, the following grades of 6 students:

56 48 63 60 51 52

1. Compute Mean.

Mean = (56+48+63+60+51+52)/6= 55

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2. Find how much observed values deviate from the mean by subtracting
the mean from value.

x (x-mean)
56 1
48 -7
63 8
60 5
51 -4
52 -3

3. Take the square of the deviations to get rid of the minus signs.

x (x-mean) (x-mean)2
56 1 1
48 -7 49
63 8 64
60 5 25
51 -4 16
52 -3 9

4. Compute the mean of these squared deviations. This is called the

variance.

Formula:

where:
X- individual score
X- mean of sample scores
μ -mean of population scores
N- population size
n- sample size

Population Variance:

σ 2 = Ʃ ( x- μ )2 /N
= (1 + 49 + 64 + 25 + 16 + 9)/6
= 27.33.

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Standard Deviation

- The standard deviation is the square root of the variance, i.e. measure of
spread in the original units. Often use Greek symbol sigma, σ for the
population standard deviation and s for the sample standard deviation.

Formula:

If variance is 27.33. The standard deviation is the following:

σ= Ʃ ( x- μ )2 /N

= (1 + 49 + 64 + 25 + 16 + 9)/(6)

= 27.33

= 5.228
Or
σ2 = 27.33
σ = 27.33
σ = 5.228

Measure of Relative Position

- It is the location/position of the value relative to other values in the data
set.

- The common measures of position are percentiles, quartiles, and standard

scores or z- scores

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Quartile

- This measure divides the observation in four equal parts. The Q1 is the
middle point between the smallest value and the center value (median) also
called Q2. The Q2 is called the median, Q3 is the middle value between the
median and the highest value of the data set.

Example:

The median of the lower half of a set of data is the lower quartile ( LQ) or Q1 .

The center value is median or Q2

The median of the upper half of a set of data is the upper quartile ( UQ )
or Q3 .

If the data is even always compute the median of the values to get the
quartile values.

Example:

The upper and lower quartiles can be used to find another measure of
variation call the interquartile range .

The interquartile range or IQR is the range of the middle half of a set of
data. It is the difference between the upper quartile and the lower quartile.

Interquartile range = Q3−Q1

In the above example, the lower quartile is 52 and the upper quartile is 58 .

The interquartile range is 58−52 or 6 .

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Percentile

- This divides the observation into 100 equal parts.

- is a number where a certain percentage of scores fall at or below a certain

observation

Example: If you know that your score is in the 90th percentile, that means
you scored better than 90% of people who took the test.

The 25th percentile is also called the first quartile.

The 50th percentile is generally the median.
The 75th percentile is also called the third quartile.

Example:

Consider the sugar levels of 20 students and look for the 40th percentile and
28th percentile.

80 90 91 100 120 122 123 125 201 90

88 98 130 124 111 109 140 102 85 91

Steps to find k-th percentile:

a. Arrange observation from highest to lowest

80 85 88 90 90 91 91 98 100 102
109 111 120 122 123 124 125 130 140 201

b. Compute the position

L=(K/100) * N

Note: If L is whole number, kth is midway between L and the next value. If L
is not a whole number, round it up to the next integer and that value is the
kth percentile.

40th percentile:
L=(40/100)*20=8

Thus, the 40th percentile is the value between 8th and 9th observation and it
is 99

28th percentile:
L=(28/100)*20=5.6

Thus, the 28th percentile is the 6th item in the observation which is 91

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Z-score

- Is also called standard score

- Indicates how many standard deviations an element is from the mean.

Formula:
z = (X - μ) / σ
where:
z - z-score
X- value of the element
μ - mean of the population
σ - standard deviation

Here is how to interpret z-scores:

▪ A z-score less than 0 represents an element less than the mean.

▪ A z-score greater than 0 represents an element greater than the mean.
▪ A z-score equal to 0 represents an element equal to the mean.
▪ A z-score equal to 1 represents an element that is 1 standard deviation
greater than the mean; a z-score equal to 2, 2 standard deviations greater
than the mean; etc.
▪ A z-score equal to -1 represents an element that is 1 standard deviation
less than the mean; a z-score equal to -2, 2 standard deviations less than
the mean;

Example:

Given a mean of 60 and standard deviation of 5, find the corresponding z-

score of 65

Solution:
z = (X - μ) / σ
z= (65-60)/5 = 1

The result shows that 65 is one standard deviation higher than the mean

Measure of Shape
- is a measure of the asymmetry of the probability distribution of a random
variable about its mean

- it help us to understand the patterns of the data once plotted in a graph.

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- This distribution can be Symmetrical Distribution (eg. Normal Distribution)

and Asymmetrical Distribution (Skewed Distribution).

Symmetrical Distribution

- distribution is symmetrical if the two sides of the distribution are a mirror

images of each other, so if you separate the distribution from the mean,
what you see on the left side of the distribution is exactly what you see on
the right side of the distribution.

- Normal Distribution is a kind of a Symmetric Distribution where the mean,

median and mode coincide with each other

median= mean= mode, →Skewness value is 0 (Not skewed in any direction)

Asymmetric Distribution

- In Asymmetric Distribution, the two sides do not mirror each other because
the collected sample data is systematically biased.

- Skew is a characteristic often used to describe the distribution of values in

Asymmetric Distributions. It tells you the amount and direction of skew
(departure from horizontal symmetry).

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- the distribution can be skewed either Positively or Negatively and this

happens when the more frequent values get cluttered around the high or
low ends of the x-axis. In such a situation, the mean, median and mode do
not coincide with each other.

Positively Skewed Distribution

- A distribution becomes Positively Skewed when the mean of the distribution

is higher than the median (making mean to be on the right of median) and
most of the scores occur at the lower end of the distribution while few
scores are at the higher end.

- Plotting such distribution on a histogram, the tail on the right side of the
histogram is longer than the left side with the mean being on the right and
median on the left and is the reason that Positively Skewed Distribution is
also known as Right Skewed Distribution.

Mode<median<mean

Negatively Skewed Distribution

- A distribution is Negatively Skewed when the median of the distribution is

higher than the mean (making mean to be on the left of median) and most
of the scores occur at the higher end of the distribution while few scores are
at the lower end.

- Plotting such a distribution on a histogram, the tail on the left side of the
histogram is longer than the right side with the mean being on the left and

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median on the right and is the reason that Negatively Skewed Distribution
is also known as Left Skewed Distribution.

mean<median<mode

Formula for Skewness:

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Example for Grouped Data

Steps:
1. Find the median of the class as x

x = (Upper limit- lower limit)/2

2. Find the mean for grouped data using the formula x = Ʃfx/N

x = Ʃfx/N = 52/2 =5.2

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3. Take the difference of the midpoint and mean (column 5)

4. Compute Standard Deviation of the sample

s= Ʃ ( x- x )2 /N-1

= 35.6/9

=1.9889

5. Calculate Skewness

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Skewness= Ʃ ( x – x )3
(n-1) s3
= 34.56
9 (1.9889)3
= 0.4881

Rule:

If skewness is less than -1 or greater than 1, the distribution is highly skewed.

If skewness is between -1 and -0.5 or between 0.5 and 1, the distribution is
moderately skewed.
If skewness is between -0.5 and 0.5, the distribution is approximately
symmetric.

Since the skewness value in the example is 0.4881 and it is less than 1,
therefore the distribution of data is negatively skewed (left)

Other Shapes of Distribution

Kurtosis

- Kurtosis is a descriptor of shape and it describes the shape of the of the

distribution in terms of height or flatness. Some of the types of Kurtosis
are Leptokurtic, Platykurtic and Mesokurtic.
-

Leptokurtic

- When there is a positive excess of kurtosis, the shape of the distribution is

called Leptokurtic.

- Leptokurtic has fatter tails and if compared to a normal distribution it has

a similar peak and has values clustered around the center (mean).

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Platykurtic

- When there is a negative excess of kurtosis, the shape of the distribution is

called Platykurtic.

- The data points are highly dispersed along the X-axis that results in thinner
tails when compared to a normal distribution and has very few values
clustered around the center (mean).

Mesokurtic

- This is when the distribution is normal.

- Here the tails of the distribution are neither too thin nor they are too thick
and also the scores are equally divided with scores neither being clustered
around the center nor being too scattered.

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Example (same given):

Kurtosis= Ʃ ( x – x )4
(n-1) s4
= 299.79
9 (1.9889)4
= 299.79
9 (15.6464)
= 2.1289

Rule:

A kurtosis value near zero indicates a shape close to normal.

A negative value indicates a distribution which is more peaked than normal
A positive kurtosis indicates a shape flatter than normal.

Since the kurtosis value in the example is 2.1289 which is greater than 1,
therefore the shape of distribution is Leptokurtic

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Charts, Graphs and Plots

- Collected data can be represented visually using charts, graphs or plots.

1. BAR GRAPH- is a graphical display of data using bars and can be plotted
vertically or horizontally.

- Bar graphs are used to compare and contrast numbers, frequencies or

other measures of distinct categories of data.

Source: [Link]

2. PIE CHART - is a statistical graph that displays data in a circular graph.

It is used to compare parts of a single data series to the whole

Source: [Link]

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3. LINE GRAPH- is a type of chart that uses lines to connect individual data
points displaying quantitative values over a specified time interval.

Source: [Link]

4. SCATTER PLOTS- is a chart type that is normally used to observe and

visually display the relationship between variables. The values are
represented by dots.

Source: [Link]

5. HISTOGRAPH. Is a graph that looks similar to a bar chart to display

continuous data. In a histogram, the bars touch each other, unlike the
bars in a bar chart.

Source: [Link]
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Collect quantitative information (age, height, weight, number of family members,

cost of the phone, allowance of students per week, pulse rate, grades etc.) from at
least 20 population or sample that you can easily ask with through messenger or
phone. You can also extract factual data from the internet such as Covid-19 cases
per town, population and others. Create frequency distribution and bar graph or
histogram in MS Excel. Then find the mean and standard deviation

Steps:

1. Type your data into a worksheet. Make sure you put your summarized data
into columns (category, frequency and relative frequency). Use column
headers and note that column headers will become the labels on the graph.

2. For ungroup data, simply highlight the category and frequency column and go
to insert menu then select the type of chart you want to use.

3. For grouped data, organized your data in the worksheet and to create the
chart, follow instructions provided from
[Link]

4. To find the mean and standard deviation in Excel, check

[Link] for the
steps.

Group activity:

Develop a questionnaire for your prepared research proposal in Module 1 Lesson 1.

Conduct the survey to at least 20 chosen respondents (please avoid face to face
contact with your respondents, collect data thru Facebook messenger or phone).
Summarize, organize and present your data using frequency table and chart. Find
also the mean, standard deviation, and its skewness.

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