VIRUSES, VIROIDS, PROTOZOA, ALGAE, PHANEROGAMETIC PLANT

PARASITES

The term virus has long been used for any slimy liquid, poison, venom or
infectious matter. M.W. Beijerinck used the term virus for addressing
Tobacco mosaic virus to distinguish it from bacteria. When these agents
were found to pass through filters they were termed as “filterable agents”
to distinguish them from bacteria.

Viruses has be defined as “entities whose genomes are elements of

nucleic acid that replicate inside living cells using cellular synthetic
machinery (host ribosomes) and causing synthesis of specialized elements
(complete virions or virus particles) that can transfer the viral genome to
other cells.” (Luria et al., 1978)

Bos et al., 1983 defined virus as having the following salient features:

1. An infectious agent often causing diseases

2. Invisible with the optical microscope
3. Small enough to pass through a bacteria filter
4. Lacking a metabolism of its own
5. Dependent on living host for its multiplication
6. Small packages of host alien genetic information of one type (RNA
or DNA)
7. Genetic information is either in one strand or in a few segments
8. Encapsulated together or separately
9. Enclosed in a coat of one or more types of protein
10. Sometimes with an extra coat (envelope) and some other
constituents.

VIRAL PARASITISM

Parasite is defined as “an organism which derives the materials it needs

for growth from living cells”. Living at the expense of another living being
is parasitism. But viruses are not cellular organisms then how do they
qualify to be parasites? During replication inside their host cells viruses do
use the internal cellular environment. This internal cellular environment is
created by the immediate function of genes and consists of such
subcellular organelles such as nuclei, ribosomes, mitochondria and
cytoplasmic components. This environment inside host cell is the place
where the virus displays characteristics of reproduction and growth at the
expense of cellular machinery of host and at this level it behaves as an
organism and a parasite. Thus viral parasitism is at the genetic level.
Morphology of plant viruses:

Mature particle of a plant virus is called a virion, it is nucleocapsid by

nature. The particle consists of two components nucleic acid and protein
coat/capsid.

Nucleic acid:

All organisms have two types of nucleic acid, DNA (Deoxyribonucleic acid)
the chromosomal nucleic acid of genome and RNA (Ribonucleic acid)
which is present in cytoplasm as a work bench for protein synthesis. In
case of viruses, either RNA or DNA (never both) is present as nucleic
acid in the virus particle. Nucleic acid may be in single stranded or double
stranded, nucleic acid may be as a single molecule or divided into
separate parts and the parts may be enclosed either in a single
particle or in different particles. When the divided genome is present
in separate particles such viruses are known as multipartite viruses.
These virus particles are not infectious on their own and all types of
particles with different segments of the genome must be present for
successful infection and production of typical symptoms.

Types of plant viruses on basis of nucleic acid are listed below.

1. Linear single stranded ssRNA in one piece eg. TMV (Tobacco mosaic
virus), Tomato Bushy stunt virus, Potato virus X

2. Linear ssRNA in more than one piece contained inside same particle.
Eg. Turnip yellow virus, Potato leaf roll virus

Potato leaf Roll Virus

 3. Linear ssRNA in more than one piece, each piece in a separate
particle eg. Cucumber Mosaic Virus (CMV), Cowpea mosaic virus
Cucumber mosaic
virus

4. Linear double stranded dsRNA in many pieces but in one particle eg.
sugarcane Fiji disease virus.

5. Circular ssDNA as in geminivirus (Mungbean yellow mosaic virus,

Maize streak virus)

6. Circular ds DNA as in caulimoviruses (Cauliflower mosaic virus)

The Virus protein and capsid structure:

Protein coat of virus particle is composed of amino acids arranged in

different sequence. These amino acids are linked up by peptide bonds.
The protein subunits are known as structural units (Su) or capsomeres.
Capsomeres are arranged around nucleic acid to give structure to capid of
virus. Capsid shapes found in viruses are of two types, elongated rods
and polyhedral (icosahedral or octahedral) or isometric particles.

The elongated or rod shaped capsids can be compared with a cylinder

which is made up of a series of rings placed one above the other. These
rods may be rigid or long flexuous particles. Examples of rigid tubular
viruses are Tobacco Mosaic Virus and Potato Virus S. Examples of
flexuous tubular particles are Potato Virus Y, Potato Virus X.

Important viral diseases of plants:

1. Rice tungro Virus (a rice tungro dsDNA badnavirus, and rice tungro
spherical virus RTSV, an ssRNA ). Transmitted by: Nephotettix virescens
 Symptoms include stunting, yellowing of leaves sometimes
accompanied by orange colouration of leaves. Reduced tillering
along with non formation of panicles or formation of small, sterile
panicles.

2. Barley yellow dwarf , disease complex of ssRNA viruses

Affected plants show a yellowing or reddening of leaves (on oats

and some wheats), stunting, an upright posture of thickened stiff
leaves, reduced root growth, delayed (or no) heading, and a
reduction in yield. Vector are aphids like Sitobion avenae

3. Banana Bunchy top nano virus (BBTV) ssDNA.

Symptoms include appearance of green streaks on veins of leaves,

lamina, midrib and petioles. Plants are stunted, newly appearing
leaves have a bunched appearance due to extremely shortened
petioles and internodes giving the disease its name. Vector:
Pentalonia nigronervosa

4. Cucumber mosaic virus, ssRNA

Icosahedral particles, Vector Aphis gossypii, Myzus persicae.

Symptoms include appearance of alternate patches of yellow and

green tissue (mottled leaf), leaves are small, deformed at times
curled downward. Fruits are smaller in size, rough, mottled and
deformed.
5. Potato Leaf Roll Virus , ssRNA.

Genome divided into many small ssRNA parts, all parts enclosed in
one capsid. Particle is icosahedral.

Disease is characterized by curling of leaflet margins inward,

forming a trough in which the midrib is at the bottom. Virus is
restricted to phloem, transmitted by Myzus persicae

6. Tomato leaf curl, ssDNA Geminivirus-

A single ssDNA, circular enclosed in two incomplete icosahedral

particles. Severe stunting of plants due to shortening of internodes,
downward rolling and crinkling of leaves. Transmitted by : Bemisia
tabaci

7. Papaya Ring spot virus

Genome has ssRNA, Particle is flexous rod shaped

In papaya, leaves develop prominent mosaic and chlorosis on

the leaf lamina, and water soaked oily streaks on the petioles and
upper part of the trunk. Severe symptoms often include a
distortion of young leaves which also result in the development of a
shoestring appearance. Fruits have blotches and ring spot
symptoms.

8. Mungbean yellow mosaic

 Genome has ssDNA, two joined isometric particles. Vector: Bemisia
tabaci. Symptoms include development of patches of yellow and
green tissue known as yellow mottle and severe symptom is
necrotic mottle, which includes development of patches of green
and dead brown tissue on plant.

9. Yellow vein mosaic of Okra: ssDNA, Geminiviridae. Vein clearing

and veinal chlorosis of leaves. Yellow network of veins becomes
visible, veins and veinlets are thickened. Transmitted by Bemisia
tabaci

VIROIDS:

These are the smallest known pathogens, composed of only a single

stranded circular RNA, lacking a protein coat. These are very small in size
about 250-400 nucleotides and therefore lack sufficient information to
code for enzymes. It replicates via rolling circle mechanism using RNA
polymerase II of host for replication.

The first plant pathogenic viroid was identified by Theodor Otto Diener. He
discovered Potato Spindle Tuber disease and its causal agents are known
as Viroids. Viroids are transmitted through plant sap, no definite vector is
known. It moves within the plant from cell to cell through
plasmodesmata.

Eg: Potato spindle tuber viroid (PSTVd), Citrus exocortis viroid,

There are two families found in viroids like Avsunviroidae, Pospiviroidae

1. Pospiviroidae: Potato spindle tuber viroid. Affected plants appear

erect, dwarfed, leaves are small and erect, leaflets are dark green
and sometimes showing rolling and twisting, Tubers are elongated
with cylindrical middle and tapering ends.
Phanerogamic plant parasites:

Over 3000 species of flowering plants obtain nutrients as plant parasites.

They are classified as stem and root parasites.

Stem parasites

1. Holoparasites (entirely dependent on host plant): Cuscuta spp.

There are over 150 species of dodders (Cuscuta spp.) worldwide.

Belonging to the Convolvulaceae plant family, dodders are annual
parasitic plants that reproduce by seed and do not have any leaves
or chlorophyll to live from-they therefore must obtain all of their
growth requirements (water, minerals, carbohydrates) by
attaching themselves to other living green plants (host plants).
Host plants include those grown for agricultural purpose,
ornamental plants, range plants, and weeds. Cuscuta spp. thrive in
regions with a warm and more humid climate where the highest
Cuscuta-dependent crop yield losses also occurs. Agriculturally, the
most important Cuscuta species are C. pentagona and C.
campestris, which show an almost worldwide distribution and have
a wide host spectrum.
In the spring, dodder seeds germinate near the soil surface and
send up slender, thread-like twining stems varying in color from
pale green to yellow or orange and without any cotyledons (seed
leaves). The slender, leafless, thread-like stem sways or rotates
slowly until it touches the stem or leaf of another plant and begins
to wind around it. On a host plant, the dodder stem will
immediately form small appendages called haustoria (tiny sucker-
like roots), which penetrate the stems or leaves so that dodder can
extract its necessary growth requirements. Soon after attaching to
a host plant, the lower end of the dodder withers and breaks its
connection with the ground, while the upper part of the stem
grows rapidly, often forming dense stringy masses. However, if the
dodder seedlings are unable to contact a susceptible host plant
soon after germination, they will not survive.

Dodder flowers are numerous, tiny, whitish to pinkish, and form in

small clusters along the stems. Each flower forms a small, globular
seedpod with 2 to 4 seeds. A single plant may be produce 3000
seeds. The seeds have rough coats and vary in size, depending on
the species, and may be able to survive over 20 years in the soil.
 Control Measure:

1. Cuscuta can be pulled out and buried. Cuscuta can be controlled

by proper crop rotation.

2. Paraquat 1% spray with a high volume sprayer will kill dodder.

(In case of lucerne 0.05 to 0.1 %)

3. The seed of lucerne are to be treated with 5 to 10% solution of

common salt for five minutes. The light seeds of Cuscuta will float
on the surface of water

2. Semi-parasites (partially dependent): Loranthus spp, now

known as Dendrophthoe spp

Loranthus spp.

It is a partial parasite of tree trunks and branches with brown stem, dark
green leaves but no roots. Mistletoes are the semiparasitic plants because
they normally grow on various host trees and shrubs and they are
dependent on their respective host for mineral nutrition and water. They
posses chlorophyll produce their own carbohydrates through
photosynthesis.

Loranthus Dendro-phthae falcate, the most common species in India. It is

common parasites of mango trees. In Northern India 60-90% of mango
trees and large no of other trees are heavily or moderately infected by
these parasites.

1. Stem is thick and flattened of the node, appear in clusters at the point
of attack which can be easily spotted on the trees.

2. At the point of attachment with the tree, it shows swellings or

tumourous growth where the haustoria are produced. It produces flowers
which are long, tabular, greenish, white or red colour and found in
clusters. It produces fleshy berries with single seed.

3. Since the parasite attacks the aerial part of host tree, situated far
above the soil level and as such devoid of root system of its own

4. The parasite attacks, the aerial parts of the host trees, by developing
haustoria and obtain its nourishment directly from the vascular system of
the host plant.

3. The affected host plant becomes stunted in growth and dispersal of

seed is mostly through the birds and animals. It attacks mango, citrus,
apple, guava.

4. The fruit is fleshy and contains a solitary seed. It is sweet eaten by

birds and animals.

5. The parasite is spread by dispersal of its seed, mostly through birds

and to some extent by other animals.

6. The damage done by the parasite is most marked in production of new

growth of the host. The quantity and yield of fruit is considerably lowered.
Leaves are reduced in size and show unhealthy green colour.

Control Measures of Loranthus spp.:

1. Scrapping of parasite before seedling from the infected bunches.

2. Sowing of branches sufficient low to the tumours.

3. Injection of CuSo4 or 2-4-D into the infected branches has been found
effectively in eradicating the parasite from mango.

3. Paraquat 1% spray will be helpful to kill the foliage of this parasitic

weed

4. Paraquat + 2,4-D @ 3.5 kg each in 160 litre water/ha sprayed with

rocker sprayer on the infested area can kill Loranthus by both contact and
translocations to be taken to protect the host tree.

Root parasites:

1. Holoparasites –Orobanche spp

 Fig: Orobanche spp

Broomrapes (Orobanche spp.)are aggressive root parasitic weeds,

which attack strategic food crops, such as legumes and vegetables, and
threaten the livelihood of many nations. The continuous spread
of Orobanche limits the choice of rotational crops and often force
farmers to give up growing the most profitable host crops. Many farmers
in the areas infested abandon agriculture altogether, forced to migrate
and seek other means of income outside the rural domains.
Heavy Orobanche infestation does not only lead to a complete crop
failure, but make field soils Orobanche-sick over a long period of time,
preventing the reasonable production of legumes and vegetables in the
infested fields for many years to come. Failure of containing this parasite
will be [Link] is a total root parasitic weed observed on different
hosts like tobacco, eggplant, tomato, cabbage, cauliflower and other
Solanaceous and Cruciferous crops. It is specially destructive to tobacco
in certain areas where it can cause 10 – 70% crop loss. Plants attacked
by broomrapes occur in small patches in field and look stunted. The
parasite consists of a stout, fleshy stem, 15- 50 cm tall, stem is pale
yellow or brownish red in colour and covered by small, thin and brown
scaly leaves about 1 cm long. The base of the stem below ground is
swollen and tuberous. The inflorescence occupies upto half the length of
the stem and carries many acropetally developing flowers. The seeds are
produced in ovoid pods about 8-10 mm long, and are very small 0.2-0.4
mm and black. A single plant carries 10 to 100 flowers (depending upon
species) and hence may produce 10000 or more seeds.
Seeds may remain viable viable for more than 10 years in soil. Seeds
germinate only when roots of certain plants host or nonhost are present
near them. In addition to chemical stimulus, moist environment and a
suitable temperature of 15 to 20 ° C is required for germination of seeds.
After germination seeds produce radical which grows a few mm long
towards root of host plants, becomes attached to it and produces a
shallow disc or cup like appressorium which surrounds the host root,
penetrates it with a mass of undifferentiated polymorphic cells that
extend into the xylem of the host root and absorbs nutrients and water
from it. Some cells absorb nutrients from the phloem and transport it
back to the parasite. The penetration process through the cortex is
assisted by the exudation of pectolytic enzymes.

Control Measure:

1. Proper rotation with chilli, linseed, sunhemp, sorghum, cowpea etc for
tobacco area as trap crops will eradicate the weed.
2. Glyphosate @ 0.5 kg ai/ha is found effective.
3. Orobanche growing outside the crop field should be destroyed by
frequent tillage before seed setting.

4. Spraying soil with 25% copper sulphate as a broad spectrum

management technique.

Semi Root parasites- Striga spp

BIOLOGY
Most Striga spp are annual hemi-parasites of monocotyledonous plants
(e.g. S. lutea, S. hermonthica). They reproduce by seeds, and a single
plant produces as many as 50,000 minute seeds 0.15-0.2 mm in size.
These seeds remain dormant in the soil in great numbers. Given suitable
conditions of temperature and moisture, they are stimulated to germinate
by exudates from the roots of host plants, and the seedlings grow
towards them and parasitize them by formation of haustoria. The young
plants are entirely parasitic on the host until they emerge, when the
shoots develop normal green leaves which sustain further growth. The
witchweed remains dependent on the host for mineral substances and
water. Some species remain fully parasitic till maturity, and may even
hardly emerge above the surface of the soil. The Striga spp. which infect
dicotyledonous plants belong in this category (e.g. S. gesnerioides), and
resemble members of the related genus Orobanche (familiar root
parasites of many plants in Europe). The development cycle typically lasts
90-120 days, and requires a temperature of at least 20°C, but is optimal
at 25-30°C . When the conditions for the germination are lacking, the
seeds can remain viable in soil for a period up to 20 years.
 Control Measure:

1. The host plants are rotated with cotton, sunflower, cow pea,
groundnut, certain beans, and castor to minimize the infestation of
Striga.

2. In heavily infested areas, both parasitic weed and the crop

should be ploughed down at early stage.

3. Hand weeding can reduce the weed population

4. Soil may be fumigated with methyl bromide.

5. Increase dose of Nitrogen may help good growth of host crop and
suppress the parasitic weed.

6. Use of resistant variety.

7. Herbicidal spray of 2,4-D (amine) @ 1.2 kg ai/ha on flowers of

Striga or pre-planting application of Dicanba or Fenac @ 2 kg ai/ha
are very effective.

ALGAE AS PLANT PATHOGENS :

Cephaleuros spp:

Cephaleuros virescens are a group of plant parasitic filamentous green

algae commonly found as phytopathogens. This pathogen causes Red
rust disease in Mango.

Disease symptoms
  Red rust disease, caused by an alga, has been observed in mango
growing areas. The algal attack causes reduction in photosynthetic
activity and defoliation of leaves thereby lowering vitality of the
host plant.

 The disease can easily be recognized by the rusty red spots mainly
on leaves and sometimes on petioles and bark of young twigs and is
epiphytic in nature.

 The spots are greenish grey in colour and velvety in texture. Later,
they turn reddish brown. The circular and slightly elevated spots
sometimes coalesce to form larger and irregular spots. The disease
is more common in closely planted orchards.

Survival and spread

 The pathogens reproduce and survive in spots on leaves or stems

and in fallen plant host debris.

Favourable conditions

 Frequent rains and warm weather are favorable conditions for these
pathogens. For hosts, poor plant nutrition, poor soil drainage, and
stagnant air are predisposing factors to infection by the algae.

Management

It is controlled by spraying with Bordeaux mixture (Mixture of Copper

sulphate and slaked lime) 1.2% or limesulphur.