LECTURE 01

1.1 PHYSICAL QUANTITIES

• A physical quantity is one that can be measured and consists of a magnitude and unit.
• Physical quantities are properties of physical systems that can be measured or quantified.
• They provide a way to describe and understand the physical world around us.
• Physical quantities can be classified into two main categories: scalar quantities and vector quantities.

Scalar Quantities
A scalar quantity is defined by its magnitude only. It does not have a direction associated with it. Scalars
can be represented by a single numerical value along with its unit.
Example:
1. Temperature: Measured in degrees Celsius (°C) or Kelvin (K). For example, temp of 25°C has no direction.
2. Mass: Measured in kilograms (kg). For example, an object weighing 10 kg has only its weight specified,
with no directional component.
3. Distance: The total movement of an object regardless of direction, measured in meters (m). For instance,
walking 5 meters from a starting point.
4. Speed: The rate of motion, measured in meters per second (m/s). A car traveling at 60 km/h moves at that
speed without indicating a direction.
Vector Quantities
A vector quantity has both magnitude and direction. Vectors are usually represented graphically with
arrows, where the length of the arrow indicates the magnitude and the arrowhead indicates the direction.

Example:
1. Displacement: The shortest distance from the initial to the final position of an object, along with a specific
direction. For instance, if you walk 3 meters east, your displacement is 3 m east.
2. Velocity: The rate of change of displacement, measured in meters per second (m/s) and includes direction.
For example, if a car travels 60 km/h north, that’s its velocity.
3. Force: An influence that causes an object to change its velocity, measured in newtons (N). For example, a
force of 10 N applied to the east indicates both the strength of the force and its direction.
4. Acceleration: The rate of change of velocity over time, measured in meters per second squared (m/s²). For
instance, an acceleration of 5 m/s² to the south indicates an increase in speed in that direction.

Key Differences
Feature Scalar Quantities Vector Quantities
Magnitude Yes Yes
Direction No Yes
Addition Simple arithmetic (e.g., 2 + 3) Requires vector addition rules (e.g., tip-to-tail method)
Examples Temp, mass, distance, speed Displacement, velocity, force, acceleration
Applications
 Scalars are used in everyday calculations and measurements, like cooking (temperature), shopping
(weight) or travel (distance).
 Vectors are essential in physics and engineering, especially in analyzing motion, forces, and fields. For
instance, understanding how forces act on structures or how vehicles navigate.
Physical Quantities Are classified into two types:
Base Quantities Derived Quantities
Base quantities are the fundamental physical Derived quantities are those that are obtained by
quantities that cannot be expressed in terms of other combining base quantities. They often involve
quantities. They serve as the foundation for defining mathematical operations such as multiplication or
other measurements. The International System of division.
Units (SI) recognizes seven base quantities: 1. Area: square meter (m²) derived from length (m)
1. Length (meter, m) 2. Volume: cubic meter (m³) derived from length (m)
2. Mass (kilogram, kg) 3. Speed: meter per second (m/s) derived from length
3. Time (second, s) (m) and time (s)
4. Electric Current (ampere, A) 4. Force: newton (N) derived from mass (kg), length
5. Thermodynamic Temperature (kelvin, K) (m), and time (s) using the formula F=maF =
6. Amount of Substance (mole, mol) maF=ma (where a is acceleration in m/s²)
7. Luminous Intensity (candela, cd) 5. Pressure: pascal (Pa) — derived from force (N)
and area (m²).

QUANTITATIVE VERSUS QUALITATIVE

Quantitative Research
Quantitative research involves collecting numerical data that can be quantified and analyzed
statistically. It focuses on measurable variables and aims to identify patterns, relationships, or causal effects.
Examples:
 Surveys: Asking participants to rate their satisfaction on a scale from 1 to 10.
 Experiments: Measuring the impact of different fertilizers on crop yield in terms of kilograms per
hectare.
 Observational Studies: Counting the number of cars passing through a traffic signal in an hour.
Qualitative Research
Qualitative research involves collecting non-numerical data to understand concepts, thoughts, or
experiences. It focuses on understanding the meanings, themes, and patterns within the data.
Examples:
 Interviews: Conducting open-ended interviews to explore people's experiences with mental health.
  Focus Groups: Gathering a group to discuss perceptions of a new product, analyzing the themes that
emerge.
 Observations: Watching and recording behaviors in a natural setting to understand social interactions.

1.2 SI UNITS
SI Units – International System of Units
The International System of Units (SI) is a globally accepted system of measurement that provides a standard
for scientific and technical communication.

Base Units: The SI system consists of seven base units, each associated with a specific physical quantity:
1. Length: Unit: Meter (m)
Definition: The meter is defined as the distance light travels in a vacuum in 1/299,792,458 seconds.
Example: The height of a door is typically about 2 meters.
2. Mass: Unit: Kilogram (kg)
Definition: The kilogram is defined by the mass of a specific platinum-iridium cylinder kept at the
International Bureau of Weights and Measures.
Example: A bag of flour might weigh 1 kilogram.
3. Time: Unit: Second (s)
Definition: The second is defined based on vibrations of cesium atoms, specifically 9,192,631,770
cycles of radiation corresponding to a transition b/w two hyperfine levels of ground state of cesium-133 atom.
Example: A minute has 60 seconds, so a minute is 60 seconds.
4. Electric Current: Unit: Ampere (A)
Definition: The ampere is defined by the constant flow of electric charge; specifically, one ampere is
the current that flows when one coulomb of charge passes through a point in a circuit in one second.
Example: A typical household light bulb might use around 0.5 to 1 ampere.
5. Thermodynamic Temperature: Unit: Kelvin (K)
Definition: The kelvin is defined based on the absolute zero of temperature, where 0 K is absolute zero,
the point at which molecular motion ceases.
Example: The freezing point of water is 273.15 K.
6. Amount of Substance: Unit: Mole (mol)
Definition: One mole is defined as the amount of substance that contains as many elementary entities
(atoms, molecules, etc.) as there are atoms in 0.012 kg of carbon-12.
Example: One mole of water contains approximately 6.022 x 10²³ water molecules.
7. Luminous Intensity: Unit: Candela (cd)
Definition: The candela is defined as the luminous intensity of a source emitting monochromatic
radiation of frequency 540 x 10¹² hertz and having a radiant intensity of 1/683 watt per steradian.
Example: A standard candle emits about 1 candela of luminous intensity.
 BASE QUANTITIES NAME OF UNIT SYMBOL OF UNIT
Length meter m
Mass kilogram kg
Time second s
Electric current ampere A
Thermodynamic temperature kelvin K
Amount of substance mole mol
Luminous intensity candela cd

Derived Units: Derived units are formed from the base units and represent physical quantities that result
from combining base quantities.
1. Area: Unit: Square meter (m²)
Example: The area of a rectangular garden that is 5 meters long and 3 meters wide.
2. Volume: Unit: Cubic meter (m³)
Example: A fish tank that is 2 meters long, 1 meter wide, and 0.5 meters high has a volume.
3. Speed: Unit: Meter per second (m/s)
Example: If a car travels 100 meters in 5 seconds, its speed is \ (100 \, m / 5 \, s = 20 \, m/s \).
4. Force: Unit: Newton (N) Definition: 1 N = 1 kg·m/s²
Example: A force of 10 N can accelerate a 1 kg mass at 10 m/s².
5. Pressure: Unit: Pascal (Pa) Definition: 1 Pa = 1 N/m²
Example: If a force of 100 N is applied over an area of 2 m², Pressure is \ (100 \, N / 2 \, m² = 50 \, Pa \).
6. Energy: Unit: Joule (J) Definition: 1 J = 1 N·m
Example: Lifting a 1 kg object 1 meter against gravity requires approximately 9.81 J of energy.
Additional Derived Units
Frequency: Hertz (Hz) — cycles per second (s⁻¹) Power: Watt (W) — joules per second (J/s)
Electric Charge: Coulomb (C) — ampere-seconds (A·s)

DERIVED QUANTITIES NAME OF UNIT SYMBOL OF UNIT

Area Square Meter m²
Volume Cubic Meter m³
Speed Meter Per Second m/s
Force Newton N
Energy Joule J
Pressure Pascal Pa
Power Watt W
Systems of Units
• Kinetic Units: length, time, mass, and force.
• International System of Units (SI):
The basic units are length, time, and mass which are arbitrarily defined as the meter
(m), second (s), and kilogram (kg). Force is the derived unit,

• Three of the kinetic units, referred to as basic units, may be defined arbitrarily. The
fourth unit, referred to as a derived unit, must have a definition compatible with
Newton’s 2nd Law,

Importance of Physical Quantities

Physical quantities play a crucial role in science, engineering, and everyday life. Here are some key reasons
highlighting their importance:
1. Measurement and Quantification
 Objective Assessment: Physical quantities allow us to measure and quantify various aspects of the
world, such as length, mass, time, and temperature. This leads to objective understanding rather than
subjective interpretation.
 Standardization: Establishing standard units (like meters, kilograms, and seconds) provides
consistency in measurements across different contexts and disciplines.
2. Scientific Communication
 Universal Language: Physical quantities provide a common framework for scientists and engineers to
communicate findings and concepts clearly and effectively, regardless of language or cultural
differences.
 Data Sharing: Quantities facilitate the sharing of experimental data and theoretical results, which is
essential for collaboration and advancement in research.
3. Understanding Physical Laws
 Foundation of Theories: Physical quantities are essential in formulating and expressing physical laws.
For example, Newton's laws of motion rely on quantities like force, mass, and acceleration.
 Predictive Power: By understanding and manipulating physical quantities, scientists can make
predictions about the behavior of systems (e.g., predicting the trajectory of a projectile).
4. Engineering and Technology
 Design and Analysis: Engineers use physical quantities to design structures, machines, and systems,
ensuring they function correctly and safely under specified conditions.
  Performance Measurement: In technology, physical quantities help in evaluating the performance of
products, such as fuel efficiency in vehicles or the strength of materials.

1.3 PREFIXES
Prefixes in the context of physical quantities and SI (International System of Units) units are used to denote
specific factors of ten, making it easier to express large or small values.
Purpose of Prefixes
These prefixes help simplify the expression of very large or very small quantities in scientific and engineering
contexts, making communication clearer and more efficient. For instance, rather than saying "0.000001
meters," you can say "1 micrometer."

1. A physical quantity is a quantity that can be measured and consists of a numerical magnitude and a unit.
2. The physical quantities can be classified into base quantities and derived quantities.
3. Seven base quantities: length, mass, time, current, temperature, amount of substance and luminous intensity.
4. The SI units for length, mass and time are meter, kilogram and second respectively.
5. Prefixes are used to denote very big or very small numbers.
 1.4 SCALARS AND VECTORS QUANTITIES
Scalars and vectors are fundamental concepts in physics and mathematics used to describe quantities.

SCALARS QUANTITIES
Scalars are quantities that have only magnitude (size) and no direction. They are described completely by a
numerical value and an appropriate unit.
Characteristics:
No direction: Scalars are unaffected by direction; they only have a value.
Can be positive, negative or zero.
Can be added, subtracted, multiplied and divided using basic arithmetic.
Examples of Scalars:
1. Temperature: 25 degrees Celsius (°C) or 300 Kelvin (K) have no directional component.
2. Mass: 10 kilograms (kg) represents the amount of matter in an object, independent of its orientation.
3. Speed: 60 kilometers per hour (km/h) describes how fast something is moving but does not specify the
direction of the movement.
4. Distance: 5 m simply indicates how far an object has traveled; with no indication of which way, it went.
5. Time: 30 seconds (s) is a scalar quantity representing duration without any directional context.

VECTORS QUANTITIES
Vectors are quantities that have both magnitude and direction. They are often represented graphically as arrows,
where the length of the arrow indicates the magnitude and the arrowhead points in the direction of the vector.
Characteristics:
Directional: Vectors have a specific direction, which is essential for their definition.
Can be represented graphically and algebraically.
When combining vectors, both magnitude and direction must be considered (vector addition).
Examples of Scalars:
1. Displacement: A displacement of 5m to east indicates both distance and direction from the starting point.
2. Velocity: 60 kilometers per hour to the north specifies not only the speed but also the direction of travel.
3. Force: A force of 10 Newtons acting at an angle of 30 degrees to the horizontal describes both how strong
the force is and the direction in which it acts.
4. Acceleration: An acceleration of 9.8 meters per second squared (m/s²) downward indicates the rate of
change of velocity in a specific direction (e.g., gravity).
5. Momentum: Momentum is defined as the product of mass and velocity (vector), so it has both magnitude
and direction, e.g., 10 kg·m/s to the southeast.
 Operations with Scalars and Vectors
Addition of Scalars: Simply add or subtract their values.
Example: If you have 5 kg and 3 kg, the total mass is \ (5 \, \text{kg} + 3 \, \text{kg} = 8 \, \text{kg}\).
Addition of Vectors: Vectors must be added using vector addition, which takes into account both their
magnitudes and directions. This can be done graphically (using the head-to-tail method) or mathematically
(using components).
Example: If one vector is 5 m to the east and another is 3 m to the north, the resultant vector can be found
using the Pythagorean theorem, resulting in a displacement of about \ (\sqrt {5^2 + 3^2} = \sqrt {34} \approx.
5.83 \, \text{m} \) at an angle determined by trigonometric functions.
Multiplication: Scalars can be multiplied by each other or by vectors (which affects magnitude of the vector).
- Example: If a vector representing velocity is \ (10 \, \text{m/s} \) and you multiply it by a scalar \ (2 \), the
new velocity is \ (20 \, \text{m/s} \) in the same direction.

Adding Vectors using Graphical Method

 Non-parallel vectors are added by graphical means
using the parallelogram law
 Vectors can be represented graphically by arrows
 The length of the arrow represents the magnitude of the vector
 The direction of the arrow represents the direction of the vector
 The magnitude and direction of the resultant vector can be found using an accurate scale drawing
 The parallelogram law of vector addition states that if two vectors acting at a point are represented
by the sides of a parallelogram drawn from that point, their resultant is represented by the diagonal
which passes through that point of the parallelogram
Another method of Adding Vectors
 To add vectors A and B
 place the starting point of B at the ending point of A
 The vector sum or resultant R is vector joining the
starting point of vector A to ending point of B
 Conversely, R can also be obtained by placing the
starting point of A at the ending point of B
 Now the resultant is represented by the vector joining the starting point of B to ending point of A

1. Scalar quantities are quantities that only have magnitudes

2. Vector quantities are quantities that have both magnitude and direction
3. Parallel vectors can be added arithmetically
4. Non-parallel vectors are added by graphical means using the parallelogram law
 1.5 MEASUREMENT OF LENGTH AND TIME
Accurate Measurement
 No measurement is perfectly accurate
 Some error is inevitable even with high precision instruments. Two main types of errors:
 Random errors occur in all measurements.
 Arise when observers estimate the last figure of an instrument reading
 Also contributed by background noise or mechanical vibrations in the laboratory.
 Called random errors because they are unpredictable
 Minimize such errors by averaging a large number of readings
 Freak results discarded before averaging
 Systematic errors are not random but constant
 Cause an experimenter to consistently underestimate or overestimate a reading
 They Due to the equipment being used – e.g. a ruler with zero error
 may be due to environmental factors – e.g. weather conditions on a particular day
 Cannot be reduced by averaging, but they can be eliminated if sources of errors are known

Length
 Measuring tape is used to measure relatively long lengths
 For shorter length, a meter rule or a shorter rule will be more accurate
 Correct way to read the scale on a ruler
 Position eye perpendicularly at mark on scale to avoids parallax errors
 Another reason for error: object not aligns or arranged parallel to the scale
 Many instruments don’t read exactly zero when nothing is being measured
 Add or subtract the zero error from the reading shown on the scale to
obtain accurate readings
 Vernier calipers or micrometer screw gauge give more accurate
measurements
The range and precision of some measuring instruments
Vernier Calipers
 Allows measurements up to 0.01 cm
 Consists of a 9 mm long scale divided into 10 divisions
 The object being measured is between 2.4 cm and 2.5 cm long.
 The second decimal number is the marking on the vernier scale which
coincides with a marking on the main scale
 Here the eighth marking on the vernier scale coincides with the
marking at C on the main scale
 Therefore, the distance AB is 0.08 cm, i.e. the length of the object is 2.48 cm
 The reading shown is 3.15 cm.
 The instrument also has inside jaws for measuring internal diameters of tubes and containers.
 The rod at the end is used to measure depth of containers.

Micrometer Screw Gauge

 To measure diameter of wires, thickness of paper and small lengths, micrometer screw gauge is used
 The micrometer has two scales:
 Main scale on the sleeve
 Circular scale on the thimble
 There are 50 divisions on the thimble
 One complete turn of the thimble moves the spindle by 0.50 mm
 Each division on the circular scale = 0.01 mm
Precautions when using a micrometer
1. Never tighten thimble too much
 Modern micrometers have a ratchet to avoid this
2. Clean the ends of the anvil and spindle before making a measurement
 Any dirt on either of surfaces could affect the reading
3. Check for zero error by closing the micrometer when there is nothing between the anvil and spindle
 The reading should be zero, but it is common to find a small zero error
 Correct zero error by adjusting the final measurement

Time
 Measured in years, months, days, hours, minutes and seconds
 SI unit for time is the second (s).
 Clocks use a process which depends on a repeating motion termed oscillation.
 Oscillation of simple pendulum is example of a regularly repeating motion.
 Time for 1 complete oscillation is referred to as period of the oscillation.

Pendulum Clock
 Measures long intervals of time
 Hours, minutes and seconds
 Mass at the end of the chain attached to the clock is allowed to fall
 Gravitational potential energy from descending mass is used to keep
the pendulum swinging
 In clocks that are wound up, this energy is stored in coiled springs as
elastic potential energy.

Watch
 Watch used to measure long intervals of time
 Most depend on the vibration of quartz crystals to keep accurate time
 Energy from a battery keeps quartz crystals vibrating. Some watches
also make use of coiled springs to supply the needed energy

Stopwatch
 Measure short intervals of time
 Two types: digital stopwatch, analogue stopwatch
 Digital stopwatch more accurate as it can measure time in
intervals of 0.01 seconds.
  Analogue stopwatch measures time in intervals of 0.1 seconds.

Errors occur in measuring time

 If digital stopwatch is use to time a race, should not record time to nearest .01s.
 Reaction time in starting and stopping the watch will be more than a few
hundredths of a second
 An analogue stopwatch would be just as useful

Ticker-tape Timer
 Electrical device making use of the oscillations of a steel strip to mark
short intervals of time
 Steel strip vibrates 50 times a second and makes 50 dots a second on a
paper tape being pulled past it
 Used only in certain physics experiments
 Time interval between two consecutive dots is 0.02 s
 If there are 10 spaces on a piece of tape, time taken is 10 × 0.02 s = 0.20 s.
 Counting of the dots starts from zero. A 10-dot tape is shown below.

1. The meter rule and half-meter rule are used to measure lengths accurately to 0.1 cm.
2. Vernier calipers are used to measure lengths to a precision of 0.01 cm.
3. Micrometer are used to measure length to a precision of 0.01 mm.
4. Parallax error is due to:
(a) incorrect positioning of the eye
(b) object not being at the same level as the marking on the scale
5. Zero error is due to instruments that do not read exactly zero when there is nothing being measured.
6. The time for one complete swing of a pendulum is called its period of oscillation.
7. As the length of the pendulum increases, the period of oscillation increases as well.
 LECTURE 02
MECHANICS
Mechanics is a branch of the physical science that deal the state of rest or motion of bodies that are subjected
to the action of forces. It deals with the effect of forces upon material bodies.

Division of Mechanics
Mechanics Of Fluids
The mechanics of fluids, also known as fluid mechanics, studies the behavior of liquids and gases in motion
and at rest. It encompasses several key concepts:
1. Fluid Statics: Examines fluids at rest.
o Pressure: The force exerted by a fluid per unit area.
o Buoyancy: The upward force exerted by a fluid on an object.
2. Fluid Dynamics: Focuses on fluids in motion.
o Continuity Equation: Relates the flow rates of fluid in different sections of a pipe.
o Viscosity: A measure of a fluid's resistance to flow, affecting how fluids behave in motion.
3. Applications: Fluid mechanics is critical in various fields, including hydraulics, aerodynamics, and
meteorology.
Mechanics Of Materials
The mechanics of materials, also known as strength of materials, studies how solid materials deform and
fail under various types of stress and loading.
1. Stress and Strain:
o Stress: The internal force per unit area within materials (e.g., tensile, compressive, shear stress).
o Strain: The deformation experienced by a material in response to stress (e.g., elongation,
compression).
2. Elasticity and Plasticity:
o Elasticity: The ability of a material to return to its original shape after the stress is removed
(described by Hooke's Law).
o Plasticity: The behavior of materials that undergo permanent deformation when the applied
stress exceeds a certain limit (yield strength).
Analytic Mechanics or Mechanics of Engineering , a study of external forces on bodies,
ordinarily rigid bodies or bodies considered to be rigid, and of the effects of these forces on the motions of
bodies.
 Analytic mechanics includes the study of:
 Statics, which deals with the forces acting on bodies or structures which are at rest relative to the
earth or which are moving with a constant velocity
 Dynamics, which deals with the accelerated motion of bodies.
Base of Analytical Mechanics:
Analytical mechanics based on Newton's three laws of motion
1. Newton’s First Law Of Motion: Law Of Inertia
The law describes an object’s tendency to resist changes in a state of motion.
Objects at rest stay at rest: If object isn’t moving, it will remain the same unless a force pushes or pulls it.
Objects in motion stay in motion: If an object is already moving, it will continue moving at the same speed
and in a straight line unless a force acts on it.
Some everyday examples and applications of this first law of motion are:
 Passengers lurch forward when a bus suddenly breaks because their bodies tend to stay in motion while
the bus slows down.
 Wearing a seat belt in the car while driving is an example of Newton’s first law of motion.

2. Newton’s Second Law Of Motion: Law Of Acceleration

The law is all about how the forces affect the objects' motion. It talks about the acceleration of motion that
depends on the net force acting and the object's mass.
Well, if we talk about law in an equation then it is F=ma. Here, F is force, m is mass and a is acceleration.
Examples and applications of the second law of motion are:
 Kicking a ball- When you kick a ball, the force exerted is on the foot that causes the ball to accelerate
in that direction.
 Sports: Kicking a soccer ball - The harder you kick the ball (apply more force), the faster and farther
it travels (greater acceleration).
3. Newton’s Third Law Of Motion- Law Of Action-Reaction or The Law Of Opposing
Forces
You must have heard of this line, for every action there is an equal and opposite reaction. This is what the third
law of motion talks about.
It can be explained in a way- If Object A exerts a force on Object B, then Object B will also exert an equal and
opposite force on Object A and that too in the opposite direction.
The equation form for the third law of motion is as follows: FA = -FB
Examples and applications are as follows:
Swimming pool: While swimming, when you push back on the water with your arms and legs, the water
pushes back on you with an equal force, that propels you forward.
A book lying on the table: The weight of books is acting in the downward direction on the table. While the
reaction acts in the upward direction on the books.

Application of Newton’s Laws

 Law 1 define the condition of equilibrium and from it develops the first part of the work- Statics.
 Law 3 applies to both Statics and Dynamics.
 The study of Dynamics is developed from Law 2.
Analytic Mechanics: Deals with Forces
 In mechanics, a force arises out of the interaction of two bodies and causes or tends to cause the motion
of the bodies. A body which is at rest or is moving with a constant velocity is said to be in equilibrium.
 Force is a vector quantity. The characteristics of a force vector are that it has (1) magnitude (2) sense
or direction and (3) line of action.
Cosine Law and Sine Law

Vector Addition & Subtraction

 Vector quantities, such as force, acceleration, velocity and momentum, cannot be added or subtracted
as are scalar quantities, which possess magnitude only.

Resultant of Forces
The resultant of forces is the single force that represents the combined effect of two or more individual forces
acting on an object.
 Parallelogram Law: If two coplanar force vectors are laid out to scale from their point of
intersection, both pointing away from the point of intersection, and if a parallelogram is completed
with these force vectors as two sides, then the diagonal of the parallelogram that passes through the
point of intersection represents the resultant in magnitude and direction.
 Triangle Law: If two coplanar force vectors are laid out to scale with the tail of one at the point of
other, the third side of a triangle of which these two vectors are two sides represents the resultant in
magnitude with a sense from the tail of the first vector to the point of the second vector.
Laws of Cosine
The Law of Cosines is a useful formula in trigonometry that relates the lengths of the sides of a triangle to
the cosine of one of its angles.
 R2 = F12 + F22 – 2F1F2 cos (180 - α)
 or, R2 = F12 + F22 + 2F1F2 cos α …… (1)
[Since, cos (180 - α) = -cosα]
 Where, α is the angle between the vectors F1 and F2. Also, from Fig. (a)
 tan θ = F2 sin α / (F1 + F2 cos α) …… (2)
Rectangular components
 For α = 90º, we get the special case of components which are perpendicular to each other. Since cos
90º = 0, we have from equation (1) and also from the right triangle AKB of Fig. (c)
 R2 = F12 + F22 or, R = (F12 + F22)1/2 …………. (3)
 Components of a resultant that are at right angles to each other are called rectangular components.
 Fx = F cosθ and Fy = F sinθ.…………………. (4)
 And, tanθ = Fy / Fx
 The process of finding components of a force is called resolution.
Classification of Force System
 Based on the planes, Force System may be classified as:
 Coplanar force system: The force vectors are all in the same plane.
 Non-coplanar force system: The forces are not all in the same plane.
Classification of Force System
 Based on Line of Action, Force system may also be classified as:
 Collinear force systems: All the forces act along the same line of action. A collinear system is
necessarily coplanar.
 Concurrent force system: All lines of action intersect at one point. A concurrent force system may
be either coplanar or non-coplanar provided that there are more than two forces.
 Non-concurrent force system: The lines of action of the force vectors do not intersect at a point. A
non-concurrent system may be either coplanar or non-coplanar.
 Parallel force system: The lines of action of all force vectors are parallel. A parallel force system
may be either coplanar or non-coplanar.