1.

Introduction
Particle and Nuclear Physics

Prof. Tina Potter

Prof. Tina Potter 1. Introduction 1

In this section...

Course content
Practical information
Matter
Forces

Prof. Tina Potter 1. Introduction 2

 Course content
These lectures will cover the core topics of Particle and Nuclear physics.
Particle Physics is the study of Nuclear Physics is the study of
Matter: Elementary particles Matter: Complex nuclei
(protons & neutrons)
Forces: Basic forces in nature
Electroweak (EM & weak) Forces: Strong “nuclear” force
Strong (underlying strong force)
+ weak & EM decays
Current understanding is embodied
in the Complex many-body problem,
Standard Model requires semi-empirical approach.
which successfully describes all
current data∗. Many models of Nuclear Physics.
Historically, Nuclear Physics preceded and led to Particle Physics.
Our course will discuss Particle Physics first, and then Nuclear Physics.
∗
with some interesting exceptions!
Prof. Tina Potter 1. Introduction 3
 Practical information
Website holds course information, notes, appendices and problem sheets
[Link]/~chpotter/particleandnuclearphysics/[Link]

Books
Introduction to High Energy Physics, Perkins
Introductory Nuclear Physics, Krane

Lecturing material provided as three handouts.

Lectures will cover additional examples – please attend!!
Problem sets in 4 parts
Part 1, q. 1-10: Chapters 1-4
Part 2, q.11-22: Chapters 5-8
Part 3, q.23-30: Chapters 9-12
Part 4, q.31-44: Chapters 13-16

My availability: before/after lectures, via email (cp594@[Link]), in-person chats are

always welcome

Prof. Tina Potter 1. Introduction 4

Zooming into matter
Atom Binding energy ∼ Rydberg ∼ 10 eV
Electrons bound to atoms by EM force
Size: Atom ∼ 10−10m, e − < 10−19m
Charge: Atom is neutral, electron −e
Mass: Atom mass ∼ nucleus, me = 0.511MeV /c 2
Chemical properties depend of Atomic Number, Z

Nucleus Binding energy ∼ 10 MeV/nucleon

Nuclei held together by strong “nuclear” force
Size: Nucleus (medium Z ) ∼ 5 fm (1 fm= 10−15 m)

Nucleon Binding energy ∼ 1 GeV

Protons & neutrons held together by the strong force
Size: p, n ∼ 1 fm
Charge: proton +e, neutron is neutral
Mass: p, n = 939.57 MeV/c 2 ∼ 1836 me

Prof. Tina Potter 1. Introduction 5

 Matter
1
In the Standard Model, all matter is made of spin 2 fundamental particles.
There are two types, each with 3 generations:

Consequence of relativity and quantum mechanics (Dirac equation)

Antiparticle for every existing particle: identical mass, spin, energy,
momentum, but has the opposite sign of interaction (e.g. electric charge).
Particles and antiparticles
electron e − & positron e +
up quark u (Q = + 23 ) & antiup ū (Q = − 23 )
proton udu & antiproton ū d¯ū
Prof. Tina Potter 1. Introduction 6
 Matter The first generation
Almost all the matter in the universe is made up from just four of the fermions.

Particle Symbol Type Charge [e]

Electron e− lepton −1
Neutrino νe lepton 0
Up quark u quark + 23
Down quark d quark − 13

The proton and neutron are simply the lowest energy bound states of a system
of three quarks: essentially all an atomic or nuclear physicist needs.

Proton Neutron
(p) (n)

Prof. Tina Potter 1. Introduction 7

 Matter Three generations
Nature is not so simple.
There are 3 generations/families of fundamental fermions (and only 3).
1st generation 2nd generation 3rd generation

Electron e − Muon µ− Tau τ−

Electron Neutrino νe Muon Neutrino νµ Tau Neutrino ντ
Up quark u Charm quark c Top quark t
Down quark d Strange quark s Bottom quark b

Each generation is a replica of (e −, νe , u, d ).

The mass of the particles increases with each generation:
the first generation is lightest and the third generation is the heaviest.
The generations are distinct
i.e. µ is not an excited e, or µ− → e −γ would be allowed – this is not seen.
There is a symmetry between the generations,
but the origin of 3 generations is not understood!
Prof. Tina Potter 1. Introduction 8
 Matter Leptons

Leptons are fermions which do not interact via the strong interaction.
Flavour Charge [e] Mass Strong Weak EM
1st generation
Spin 12 fermions
e− −1 0.511 MeV/c 2
✗ ✓ ✓
νe 0 < 2 eV/c 2 ✗ ✓ ✗ 6 distinct flavours
2nd generation 3 charged leptons: e −, µ−, τ −.
µ− −1 105.7 MeV/c 2 ✗ ✓ ✓ 3 neutral leptons: νe , νµ, ντ .
νµ 0 < 0.19 MeV/c 2 ✗ ✓ ✗ Antimatter particles e +, ν¯e etc
3rd generation e is stable,
τ− −1 1777.0 MeV/c 2 ✗ ✓ ✓ µ and τ are unstable.
ντ 0 < 18.2 MeV/c 2 ✗ ✓ ✗

Neutrinos are stable and almost massless. Only know limits on ν masses, but have
measured mass differences to be < 1 eV/c 2. Not completely true, see later...
Charged leptons experience only the electromagnetic & weak forces.
Neutrinos experience only the weak force.

Prof. Tina Potter 1. Introduction 9

 Matter Quarks

Quarks experience all the forces (strong, electromagnetic, weak).

Flavour Charge [e] Mass Strong Weak EM

1st generation Spin 12 fermions

u + 23 2.3 MeV/c 2 ✓ ✓ ✓ 6 distinct flavours
d − 13 4.8 MeV/c 2 ✓ ✓ ✓ Fractional charge leptons:
2nd generation      2 
u c t +3
c + 23 1.3 GeV/c 2 ✓ ✓ ✓
d s b − 31
s − 13 95 MeV/c 2 ✓ ✓ ✓
rd Antiquarks ū, d¯ etc
3 generation
t + 23 173 GeV/c 2 ✓ ✓ ✓ Quarks are confined within hadrons,
b − 13 4.7 GeV/c 2 ✓ ✓ ✓ e.g. p=(uud ), π +=(u d¯)

Quarks come in three colours (colour charge) Red, Green, Blue.

Colour is a label for the charge of the strong interaction.
Unlike the electric charge (+−), the strong charge has three orthogonal colours (RGB).

Prof. Tina Potter 1. Introduction 10

 Matter Hadrons

Single, free quarks have never been observed. They are always confined in
bound states called hadrons.
Macroscopically, hadrons behave as almost point-like composite particles.
Hadrons have two types:
Mesons (q q̄): Bound states of a quark and an antiquark.
Mesons have integer spin 0, 1, 2... bosons.
e.g. π + ≡ (u d¯), charge = (+ 32 + + 13 )e = +1e
π − ≡ (ūd ), charge = (− 23 + − 13 )e = −1e; antiparticle of π +
√
0 ¯
π ≡ (u ū − d d )/ 2, charge = 0; is its own antiparticle.
Baryons (qqq): Bound states of three quarks.
Baryons have half-integer spin 12 , 32 ... fermions.
e.g. p ≡ (udu), charge = (+ 32 + − 13 + + 23 )e = +1e
n ≡ (dud ), charge = (− 13 + + 23 + − 13 )e = 0
Antibaryons e.g. p̄ ≡ (ū d¯ū), n̄ ≡ (d¯ū d¯)

Prof. Tina Potter 1. Introduction 11

 Matter Nuclei

A nucleus is a bound state of Z protons and N neutrons.

Protons and neutrons are generically referred to as nucleons.
A (mass number) = Z (atomic number) + N (neutron number).
A nuclide is a specific nucleus, characterised by Z , N.

Notation: Nuclide AZ X.
e.g. 11H or p: Z =1, N=0, A=1
2
1H or d : Z =1, N=1, A=2
4
2He or α: Z =2, N=2, A=4
208
82 Pb: Z =82, N=126, A=208

In principle, antinuclei and antiatoms can be made from antiprotons,

antineutrons and positrons – experimentally challenging!

Prof. Tina Potter 1. Introduction 12

 Matter The Periodic Table
Periodic table classifies elements according to their chemical properties.

Only hydrogen, helium and lithium were formed in the Big Bang.
All other elements are formed in stars.
Natural elements, H(Z =1) to U(Z =92).
Prof. Tina Potter 1. Introduction 13
 Matter Chart of the nuclides

Many more
nuclides
than
elements.

Colour
coded
according
to decay
mode.

Prof. Tina Potter 1. Introduction 14

 Forces Classical Picture

A force is ’something’ which pushes matter around and causes objects to

change their motion.
In classical physics, the electromagnetic forces arise via action at a distance
through the electric and magnetic fields, E⃗ and B.⃗

q1 q2⃗r
F⃗ = 2
r
Newton: “...that one body should act upon another at a distance, through a vacuum,
without the mediation of anything else, by and through which their force may be conveyed
from one to another, is to me so great an absurdity that I believe no man who has, in
philosophical matters, a competent faculty of thinking, can ever fall into it. Gravity must be
caused by an agent, acting constantly according to certain laws, but whether this agent be
material or immaterial, I leave to the consideration of my reader.”

Prof. Tina Potter 1. Introduction 15

 Forces Quantum Mechanics
Matter particles are quantised in QM, and the electromagnetic field should also
be quantised (as photons).
Forces arise through the exchange of virtual field quanta called Gauge
Bosons.
This process is called
“second quantisation”.

This process violates energy/momentum conservation (more later).

However, this is permissible for sufficiently short times owing to the
Uncertainty Principle
The exchanged particle is “virtual” – meaning it doesn’t satisfy
E 2 = p 2c 2 + m2c 4.
Uncertainty principle: ∆E ∆t ∼ ℏ ⇒ range R ∼ c∆t ∼ ℏc/∆E
i.e. larger energy transfer (larger force) ↔ smaller range.
Prob(emission of a quantum)∝ q1, Prob(absorption of a quanta)∝ q2
Coulomb’s law can be regarded as the resultant effect of all virtual exchanges.
Prof. Tina Potter 1. Introduction 16
 Forces The four forces

All known particle interactions can be explained by four fundamental forces.

Carried by the gluon. Carried by the W and

Holds atomic nuclei Z bosons. Responsible
together. for radioactive decay.

Carried by the photon. Carried by the graviton.

Acts between charged Acts between massive
particles. particles.

Prof. Tina Potter 1. Introduction 17

 Forces Gauge bosons

Gauge bosons mediate the fundamental forces

Spin 1 particles i.e. Vector Bosons
Interact in a similar way with all fermion generations
The exact way in which the Gauge Bosons interact with each type of
lepton or quark determines the nature of the fundamental forces.
This defines the Standard Model.
Force Boson Spin Strength Mass
Strong 8 gluons g 1 1 massless
Electromagnetic photon γ 1 10−2 massless
Weak W and Z W +, W −, Z 1 10−7 80, 91 GeV
Gravity graviton ? 2 10−39 massless

Gravity is not included in the Standard Model. The others are.

Prof. Tina Potter 1. Introduction 18

 Forces Range of forces
The maximum range of a force is inversely related to the mass of the
exchanged bosons.

∆E ∆t ∼ ℏ, E = mc 2
ℏ
2 ℏc ℏ
⇒ mc ∼ ∼ ⇒r ∼
∆t r mc

Force Range [m]

Strong inf
Strong (nuclear) 10−15
Electromagnetic inf
Weak 10−18
Gravity inf

Due to quark confinement, nucleons start to experience the strong interaction

at ∼2 fm.
Prof. Tina Potter 1. Introduction 19
 Summary

Particle vs nuclear physics

Matter: generations, quarks, leptons, hadrons, nuclei
Forces: classical vs QM, fundamental forces, gauge bosons, range

Problem Sheet: q.1

Up next...
Section 2: Kinematics, Decays and Reactions.

Prof. Tina Potter 1. Introduction 20

Glossary
Strong force - force which binds quarks into hadrons; mediated by gluons.
Electromagnetic Force - force between charged particles, mediated by photons.
Weak force - force responsible for β-decay. Mediated by W and Z bosons.
Gauge boson - particle which mediates a force.
Lepton - fermion which does not feel the strong interaction.
Neutrino - uncharged lepton which experiences only weak interactions.
Quark - fundamental fermion which experiences all forces.
Hadron - bound state of quarks and/or antiquarks.
Baryon - hadron formed from three quarks.
Meson - hadron formed from quark+antiquark.
Generations/Families - three replicas of the fundamental fermions.
Nucleus - massive bound state of neutrons and protons at centre of an atom.
Strong nuclear force - strong force between nucleons which binds atomic nucleus. Mediated by mesons,
such as the pion.
Nucleon - proton or neutron.
Nuclide - specific nuclear species with N neutrons and Z protons.
Mass number - total number of nucleons in nucleus, A.
Atomic Number - number of protons in nucleus, Z .
Neutron Number - number of neutrons in nucleus, N.
Isobars - nuclides with the same Mass Number A.
Isotopes - nuclides with the same Atomic Number Z .
Isotones - nuclides with the same Neutron Number N.
Prof. Tina Potter 1. Introduction 21