.
Discussion
A. Nature and composition of crop plants:
Topic 1. Plant Cell: Parts and Function
Cell
The smallest structure in the universe capable of growth and reproduction
The basic unit of every living organism.
An autonomous living system capable of independent existence and
propagation
Fundamental morphological unit of plant body.
Differences between plant and animal cells
a. Plant cells contain chloroplast(s) that carry out photosynthesis
b. Plant cell is surrounded by a rigid cell wall. Each walled cell and
its adjacent wall are cemented together by middle lamella.
c. Plant cells develop a large central vacuole
d. Animal cells contain centrioles and lysosomes that involved in
cell division and digestion, respectively. Embryonic cell can
migrate from one location to another.
Plant cell has three main components:
a. Cell wall
b. Cytoplasm
c. Nucleus
Cell wall
Provides mechanical protection and rigidity
to the plant cell
Consists of cellulose that overcome pressure
due to its elastic property
Composed of cellulose, hemicellulose, pectic
substances, Organic and inorganic
substances, lignin, enzymes, protein and
water.
Three layers of Cell wall:
1. Middle lamella (where pectin cements
adjacent cells together);
2. Primary wall (thin, not rigid, stretched as
the cell grows layer formed before and
during growth of the plant cell, consists of
cellulose microfibril, have primary pit fields, thin areas that transversed by
numerous protoplasmic strands called plasmodesmata
3. Secondary wall (rigid, think, formed after cell completes growth)
Cytoplasm
All living matter of the cell apart from the nucleus
Gel-like maternal or fluid in which the cell's organelles and internal membrane
system are suspended
Supports the cell’s organelles. Stores some cellular materials
Distributes substances absorbed from outside and released by the nucleus and
other organelles (through cytoplasmic streaming/cyclosis - flowing movement
of cytoplasm)
Cytoplasm consists of the following:
1. Plasmalemma/plasma
membrane has selective
permeability
Functions:
Allows some
substances to cross
easily and completely
block substances
Accumulates the ions
or the molecules in
the cytosol through
the action of transport
proteins that
consumes metabolic
energy
Coordinates the formation of cell wall microfibrils
2. Endoplasmic Reticulum flattened disks or tubular sacs
Types:
o Rough endoplasmic reticulum (with numerous ribosomes)
o Smooth endoplasmic reticulum (lack ribosomes)
Functions:
Rough ER involved in the synthesis of lipid
Smooth ER involved in the synthesis of membrane proteins and
secretory proteins
3. Golgi Apparatus collective term for all dictyosomes (consists of stack of
flattened hollow disks called cistemae) or golgi bodies
Functions:
Involved in the synthesis of polysaccharides and glucose units for cell
wall formation.
Secretes protein and carbohydrates from the cell to the exterior part
(Ex. nectar coming out from the flower)
4. Mitochondria small cylindrical organelles enclosed by two unit membranes:
a. Outer membrane - permeable for smaller particles, contains the
respiratory chain Component and enzymes for the synthesis of ATP.
b. Inner membrane - impermeable and folded into numerous cristae
Function: sites of respiration (energy source for plants body maintenance,
growth and development
5. Plastids - differentiated into system of membrane (2 units) and ground
substance, the stroma.
Types:
a. Chloroplast
Function:
Site of photosynthesis
involved in amino and fatty acids synthesis
provides space for temporary storage of starch.
b. Chromoplast - responsible for the yellow, orange or red colors of many
flowers and other parts of the plants
Function:
Attracts insects and other animals
c. Leucoplasts - nonpigmented plastids but once exposed to light, it may
develop into chloroplasts
o Amyloplast- starch
o Proteinplast proteins
o Elaeioplast- fats and oils
e. Microbodies - spherical organelles bounded only by one
membrane, about 0.5 to 1.5 micrometer in diameter
Function:
Peroxisomes (terms to some microbodies) play an important role
in glycolytic acid metabolism associated with photorespiration.
Lyoxysomes (other microbodies) contain enzymes needed for the
conversion of fats into carbohydrates during germination in many
seeds.
f. Cytoskeleton – an organized cytosol into a three-dimension network
of fibrous protein.
Types:
i. Microtubules
o Long, thin, cylindrical structures about 24 mm in diameter
and of varying lengths.
o Each is made up of sub units of the protein called tubulin
Function
1. Involved in the orderly growth of the cell wall,
especially the control of cellulose microfibrils
alignment.
2. Formation of cell plate (the initial partition of
dividing cell)
3. Involved in the movement of flagella and celia in
which microtubules are important components of
it.
ii. Microfilaments consist of two actin chain (similar to that of
muscle tissue) that maintains in a helical fashion:
Function:
play a causative role in cytoplasmic streaming
g. Ribosomes - small particles about 17-23 NM in diameter Containing
an equal polyribosomes or polysomes.
h. Vacuoles - enclosed by a unit membrane called tonoplast
dumping house of the cell, contains water and other substances
Functions:
Absorb toxic products
Stores various metabolites
Breakdown macromolecules and the recycling of their
Components with in the cell.
Nucleus
o contain the genetic information indispensable for the cells life and metabolic
function.
Function:
Controls the activities of the cell by determining which protein molecules are
produced and when they are produced.
Stores the genetic information
Topic 2. The Anatomical Regions of a Plant Body
The plant body is composed of three organs: leaf for photosynthesis; stem for
support; and root for anchorage and absorption of water and minerals.
The flowering plants (angiosperm 250,000 species cover almost the earth's
vegetation.
The seed contains embryo and cotyledon (endosperm which are protected with
a seed coat.
The seed grows under favorable Condition (moisture, temperature, oxygen and
sometimes light).
From the embryo, the root and shoot develop.
The seedling grows due to cell division in the meristematic tissues.
After juvenile stage, plant produces flower and fruits (after pollination and
fertilization)
Fruits contain seeds thus completing the life cycle of the plant
Tissue - Composed of cells usually similar in structure and function.
It is simple if it contains one cell type
It is more complex it is made up of several types of cells.
Organ- composed of several tissues with distinct structures and functions
System - composed of interacting organs that coordinate as a functional complex
in the life of the organ.
Plant tissues and tissue system
1. Meristematic tissue - part of plant where cell division (mitosis) or
production of new cells occurs
a. Apical meristem tip of stem and roots (shoot or root
apical meristem); give rise to primary meristem
b. Lateral meristem stem and roots (Vascular cambium and Phellogen
c. Intercallary meristem internodes and bases of young
leaves
Permanent tissue - derived from meristems which have attained
maturity form thus perform their specific function or functions.
a. Epidermis
Outermost layer of cells of the primary plant body
Contain stomata, trichomes (appendages)
b. Parenchyma
Found in the cortical regions of stems and roots and in the mesophyll
of the leaves.
These are living cells that have diverse functions ranging from
storage and Support to photosynthesis and phloem loading
Apart from xylem and phloem its vascular bundles, eaves are
composed mainly of parenchyma cells
Some parenchyma cells, as in the epidermis, are specialized for light
penetration and focusing or regulation of gas
exchange.
c. Collenchyma
Thickened tissue found in the cortex of the stem and petioles or along
the veins of the leaves.
Collenchyma cells are alive at maturity and have only a primary wall.
These cells mature from meristem derivatives that initially
resemble parenchyma, but differences quickly become apparent.
d. Sclerenchyma
Sclerenchyma cells (from the Greek skleros, hard) are hard and tough
cells with a function in mechanical support.
Scattered throughout the plant, found in both primary and secondary
tissues.
Types of Sclerenchyma
a. Fibers - known as bast fibers
long, thin cells with very thick walls often
dead at maturity
b. Schleroids or stone cells similar with fibers
thick wall and lignified; may be living ordeed
at maturity.
e. Cork
Outermost tissue; impregnated with suberin (waxy substance)
Complex Permanent tissue /Types of vascular tissues
1. Xylem
o Conduct water and mineral salts upward the plant body
o Consist of tracheids, vessel membrane xylem fibers and xylem
parenchyma
2. Phloem
o Distributes the dissolved food materials between the source and sinks;
o Consist of:
a. Sieve tube element – chief food conducting element
b. Companion cells parenchyma cells always found besides the sieve
tubes; moves food in and out of the sieve-tube member.
c. Phloem parenchyma -like ordinary parenchyma cells
d. Phloem fibers like sclerenchyma cells
Major plant tissue system
1. Ground
This packing and supportive tissue accounts for much of the bulk of the
young plants
It also functions in food manufacture and storage
It contains three main cell types: parenchyma, collenchymas, and
sclerenchyma
2. Dermal tissue
This is plant's protective outer covering in contact with the environment
It facilitates water and ion uptake in roots and regulates gas exchange in
leaves and stems
3. Vascular tissue
Together the phloem and xylem form a continuous vascular system
throughout the plant.
This tissue conducts water and solutes between organs and also provides
mechanical support
Topic 3. The Plant Organ
ROOT
Function:
absorb water
store food
anchor plants
Regions of the R0ot
Root cap - protects the tender apex (absent in aquatic plants)
Region of cell division- 1 to few mm above the root cap
cap; have small cells with thin walls, dense with protoplasm; undergo
repeated cell division (meristematic region)
Region of elongation - lies above meristematic region; extends
to 1-5 mm; undergo rapid elongation and enlargement; responsible
for growth in length of the root
Region of maturation - lies above meristematic region of
elongation, this region produces root hairs
Types of Roots
1) Tap root system
o primary root grows vertical downward
o branches grow downward or horizontally
outwards
Functions
absorb water, mineral, salts from soil,
anchorage
2) Adventitious root system
o Roots that grow from any part of the plant of
the plant body other than radicle
3) Fibrous root system
o In monocots (With all adventitious roots)
4) Foliar root system
o From leaves mainly petiole or vein
(spontaneous or due to injury
STEM
- supporting and conducting organ initially developed from the epicotyl
Major parts: Bark, pith and wood (composed of xylem made up of
vessels, fibers, and parenchyma cells)
Types of stem:
o bulb - short, erect underground stem
culm- flowering stem of grasses and sedges
o offset-like runner originates from leaf axil as a short and thickened
branch away from the mother plant
o rhizome - horizontal underground stem
runner or stolon - indeterminate aboveground stem with internodes
and new plantlet at the tip
o sucker - shoot arising below the ground from old stem
tendril - slender coiling branch for climbing
o tiller - shoot produced from the base of the stem or Culm
tuber - thick scorm - enlarged solid fleshy basetorage underground stem
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o runner or stolon - indeterminate aboveground stem with internodes
and new plantlet at the tip
o sucker - shoot arising below the ground from old stem
o tendril - slender coiling branch for climbing
o tiller - shoot produced from the base of the stem or Culm
o tuber - thick storage underground stem
o corm - enlarged solid fleshy base
Forms
Erect or strong stems
Unbranched; erect; cylindrical; stout; slim jointed stem with solid
nodes and hollow internodes
Weak stems:
Weak trailing stem- on ground without rooting at the nodes
Creeping stem- runner, stolon, offset or sucker
Climbing stem- attaches or climbs objects (vines)
LEAF
Functions
Food manufacture (PS)
Exchange of gases (PS and RN)
Evaporative of water (Transpiration)
Parts of Leaf
o Leaf base - part attached to stem
o Petiole - stalk of leaf
o Leaf blade or lamina - green expanded
portion of the leaf
Types of Leaves
o Simple Leaf – leaf that has only one blade on its petiole, most plants have
simple leaves
Compound Leaf – leaf that has multiple blades.
Two common types:
Palmately compound – leaf has all its leaflets attached to a
common point.
Pinnately compound – leaf has multiple leaflets attached
along rachis, or axis.
Leaf Venations
o Reticulate - network-type of veins
o Parallel - veins parallel to each other
Leaf Arrangements
Types of leaf arrangement include:
Phyllotaxy – The spiral arrangement of leaves on the stem
o Leaves spiral around the stem in a regular pattern. It can be described as
fraction with the numerator being the number of turns around the stem
and the denominator being the number of leaves it takes to return to
original leaf position.
Alternate – single leaf per node – a single leaf is attached at each node.
The leaves may be arranged in straight rows or spiral around the stem.
here are few plants that occur only on one side of the stem. Usually the
leaves are held on a gently curved stem.
o This pattern is called monostichous.
Distichous leaves arranged in two rows on opposite sides of the stem.
Traveler’s palm (Ravenala madagascariensis) has a spectacular
distichous leaf form.
Opposite – two leaves per node – opposite is where a pair of leaves
occur each node. Sub-opposite is when some of the leaves are not
perfectly paired but the distance between the nodes are not too far
enough apart to be considered alternate in arrangement.
Whorled – three or more leaves per node – three or more leaves arising
from the same node to form whorls of leaves along the stem.
Equitant – leaves are overlapping as is typical in some Iris.
Decussate – leaves are arranged opposite at each node, but each pair
of leaves is oriented at right angles to the pair at the next node.
Basal – all leaves arises from the base (crown) of the plant
Rosette – leaves arranged in a dense, radiating cluster. Rosettes usually
from near the base of the plant
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4. Petal: the second whorl of leaves, typically brightly colored and and assist in
attracting pollinators, collectively called the corolla [CO]
5. Perianth: collective term for sepals and petals [P]; if perianth parts cannot be
differentiated into sepals and petals, that is, they look so much alike, then they
are called tepals
6. Filament: slender stalk of the stamen supporting the anther; permits exsertion
of pollen out of flower
7. Anther: fertile portion of stamen that dehisces to release pollen grains;
composed of anther sacs
8. Stamen: the male structure of flower comprising filament and anther;
collectively, all the stamens are referred to as the androecium (= ‘house of
males’) (A)
9. Ovary: basal portion of pistil that contains ovules; at maturity becomes fruit
with seeds
10. Ovules: fertile portions of pistil that contain female gametophyte (embryo
sac); develop into seeds after fertilization
11. Style: slender stalk of pistil above ovary that the pollen tubes must pass
through to reach eggs in ovules
12. Stigma: receptive portion at top of style that receives and recognizes pollen
13. Pistil: flask-shaped, female structure comprising three main parts; often
referred to as carpel(s); all pistils (1 or more) are referred to as the gynoecium
(= ‘house of females’) [G]
Complete Flower- has all four parts of the flower (sepals, petals, pistil and
stamen)
Incomplete Flower – a flower lacking sepals, petals, pistil or stamen
SEED
a ripened ovule which when shed from the parent plant consist of embryo and
stored food supply both of which are enclosed in a seed coat or covering.
Dicotyledon - embryo lies within an axis of two cotyledons
Monocotyledon - Consist of seed coat, endosperm and embryo
Parts of a seed:
a) Embryo - developing
plant still inside the seed.
The embryo has
cotyledons (embryonic
leaves), a root cap, a food
source and a plumule
(shoot)
b) Hilum - the Scar on a
seed coat at the location
where it was attached to
the plant's stalk during
development
c) Micropyle - the small pore in a seed that allows water absorption
d) Root (Hypocotyl) - the part of the stem of a sprouting plant that is above the
root and below the stalk of the cotyledon (seed leaves)
e) Seed Coat (Testa) - seed coat is the outer, protective layer covering the seed
f) Seed leaf (Cotyledon) - the embryonic leaf within a seed
g) Plumule - the shoot of an embryo
Types of seed
1. Orthodox
Dries out naturally on mother plant to a low MC (≤ 20%)
can be dried to low MC (< 5%) without damage
can be stored at low temperature
Ex. rice, corn, beans, vegetable seeds, pili, etc.
2. Recalcitrant
Do not dry out normally on mother plant, shed in moist condition (50-
70%MC)
Seed larger than orthodox-embryo is only 15% of the orthodox
Killed if MC is reduced below critical values (12-30%)
Susceptible to freezing (below 0° C) or chilling (10- 15°C)
Ex. seeds of aquatic species, large seeded species, wild rice, tropical fruit
crops, jackfruit, cacao, rambutan, lanzones, etc.
3. Intermediate
Can withstand desiccation to about 10-12% MC and can be stored under
hermetic condition
Lose viability more rapidly at low temperature (<10°C) than at warm temp
(12-21 °C)
Ex. coffee, oil palm, papaya, citrus sp., star apple, chico, etc.
RUITS
It is a mature, ripened ovary
Contain the seed (ripened ovules) and pericarp (the tissue
that surrounds the seeds)
Classifying Fruit
a. Simple fruit -One fruit develop from single ovary of a flower with or
without accessory parts. Ex. Corn, Peanut
Aggregate fruits - Collection of simple fruit developing from apocarpus
pistil of a flower. Ex. Strawberry
Multiple or composite - fruits develop from a number of flower from an
inflorescence. Ex. Pineapple, Peach fruit
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c. Multiple or composite - fruits develop from a number of flower from an
inflorescence. Ex. Pineapple, Peach fruit
Types of fruits
1. Fleshy fruit are juicy
a) Berry - has an entirely fleshy ovary. Ex. tomatoes,
dates, blueberries, bananas, peppers, and
cranberries.
b) Pepo - is a type of fruit defined by hard rind and a
fleshy inner matrix. Ex. watermelons, cantaloupe,
squash, and pumpkins.
c) Hesperidium - have a leathery rind. Examples include
oranges, grapefruits, lemons, and limes.
d) Drupe - is a fruit with a fleshy exterior and a single hard,
stony pit surrounding the seed. Ex. cherries, peaches,
olives, mango, raspberry coconut, plums.
e) Pomes - have a fleshy exterior and a center with
papery carpels. Apples and pears.
f) Hip (accessory fruit): several separate carpels
enclosed within the fleshy or semi-fleshy receptacle
2. Dry fruits may be indehiscent or dehiscent
a) Indehiscent fruits - are those that do not split open at maturity
and are usually one- or two-seeded
1. Achene - is a single-seeded fruit with seed attached at only one
place to the pericarp
Ex. Sunflower, strawberry, buckwheat
2. Caryopsis (grains)- a fruit is
similar to an achene; however, the
pericarp sticks or clings to the seed.
Ex. Corn, rice, barley, rye, amaranth,
sorghum, oat, and wheat.
3. Samara - is usually single-seeded with a membranous
Wing
Ex. maple, elm, and ash
Nut - is a hard, one-seeded fruit.
Ex. Oak, walnut, filbert, and hickory.
Uricle - is like an achene, but the ovary wall fits loosely
around the seed.
Ex. Finger millet and pigweed.
6. Nutlet - is a small version of a nut.
Ex. Birch and hornbeam.
Dehiscent fruits - are fruits that split open upon maturation
Legume (pod) - is composed of a single carpel and has
two longitudinal sutures
Ex. Soybeans, green beans, and peas
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b) Dehiscent fruits - are fruits that split open upon maturation.
1. Legume (pod) - is composed of a single carpel and has
two longitudinal sutures
Ex. Soybeans, green beans, and peas
2. Follicle - is composed of a single carpel and splits open along one
suture.
Ex. Milkweed
3. Capsule - is composed of more than one
carpel that are united and form many-
seeded fruits.
Ex. Okra and cotton
*silique - a specialized form of capsule n the
mustard
Types of capsules
o Septicidal: dehiscing along the line of carpel union
o Loculicidal: dehiscing along the middle of each carpel
o Poricidal: deshiscing by pores at the top of each carpel
o Circumscissile: dehiscing along a circular, horizontal lin
4. Pyxis - is a type of capsule with a lid that falls from the fruit.
Ex. Purslane
Parthenocarpy
Greek parthenos, virgin and karpos, fruit
literally means virgin fruit
The production of fruit without fertilization. Fruit is therefore seedless
Ancient origin oldest parthenocarpic fig first grown at least 11, 200 years ago.
Types of Parthenocarpy
Stimulative parthenocarpy
Pollination or other stimulation is required for parthenocarpy
Banana and watermelon
Vegetative parthenocarpy
Do not require pollination or other stimulation to produce
parthenocarpic fruit
Cucumber, citrus and pineapple