MODULE 2 Pharmacognosy

MODULE 2
BIOCHEMISTRY

PROTEINS
AMINO ACIDS
• Building blocks or monomer units of proteins
GENERAL FORMULA OF AMINO ACIDS: PROPERTIES
1. Amino acids are optically active
2. They have 2 distinct functional groups:
__________________, __________________
3. Varied R groups
4. Most naturally occurring amino acids are
___________________
5. Proteins are made up of a repertoire of
_______________ amino acids

PEPTIDE BOND
IMPORTANT CONCEPTS:
• Amino acids are linked by ______________ to
form polypeptide chains
• The peptide bond is formed between the
______________ of one amino acid and
______________ of the next amino acid
• The peptide bond is electrically
______________
• The peptide bond is______________ easily
hydrolyzed

CLASSIFICATION OF AMINO ACIDS

Classification Amino Acid 3-letter Abbreviation 1-letter Abbreviation

Simple or Aliphatic Glycine
Alanine
Branched Chain Leucine
Isoleucine
Valine
Amidic Asparagine
Glutamine
Basic Histidine
Arginine
Lysine
Imino Proline
Acidic Aspartic Acid
(Aspartate)
Glutamic Acid
(Glutamate)
Aromatic Phenylalanine
Tyrosine
Tryptophan
Alcohol- Serine
containing/Hydroxy- Threonine
containing
Sulfur-containing Cysteine
Methionine
Important Amino Acids
1. Tyrosine
• Converted to ______________, ______________ and ______________ (Catecholamines)
• Converted to ______________
2. Tryptophan
• Converted to ______________, ______________, ______________
3. Glycine
• Converted to ______________
4. Glutamic Acid
• Converted to GABA (enzyme: ______________)

LEVELS OF STRUCTURE OF PROTEINS

Primary
• Shows the amino acid Alterations to the primary structure leads to
____________________ disorders
• The ____________________ of amino
acids determine the protein’s 3- Ex. Sickle Cell Anemia
dimensional structure

Secondary
§ Conformation adopted by the ____________________ regions of the polypeptide chain
§ Folded segments (alpha helices and beta sheets) are formed by a regular pattern of H-bonds
between the peptide N-H and C=O groups that are _______________________________________in a
linear sequence
ALPHA HELIX
§ Alpha helix is stabilized by____________________ H-bonds
§ NOT all amino acids are accommodated in an alpha helix

§ Branching at the beta carbon tends to ____________________

the alpha helix
MODULE 2 Pharmacognosy

BETA SHEETS
§ Beta sheet is stabilized by interchain H-bonds

§ Composed of 2 or more polypeptide chains called beta ____________________

§ Strands can run in the ____________________ or ____________________ direction
§ More diverse than alpha helix

Tertiary
§ Shows the ____________________ of the polypeptide chain

§ Beta strands and alpha helices are amphipathic. They fold so

that their hydrophobic side chains are buried (points to the
protein interior) and its polar charged chains are on the surface
(points into the solution)

§ Pairing all the NH and CO groups by hydrogen bonding is the

secret of burying a segment of the main chain in a hydrophobic
environment
Quaternary
• Spatial arrangement of subunits in a multi-chain protein

Glycosylated Hemoglobin
§ The extent of glycosylation of hemoglobin in RBC’s depends on
the concentration of free ____________________
§ Glucose level is unusually high for patients with
____________________, so that hemoglobin becomes glycosylated
(HbA)
§ The major sugar derivative, ____________________ is formed from
the reaction of glucose with the amino terminal group on the
beta subunit of hemoglobin
§ The life span of a typical RBC is ____________________ so the
amount of HBA1c is a record of the average level of glucose in
the blood over the previous couple of months

CLASSIFICATION OF PROTEINS (based on Biological Functions)

Classification Examples
1. Transport Proteins • Hemoglobin- _______________transport
• Serum Albumin- transports ____________ and ______________
drugs
• Alpha-1-acid glycoprotein- transports ______________ drugs
2. Storage Proteins • Ovalbumin- major protein in ________________
• Casein- major protein in _________________
• Myoglobin- stores Oxygen in _________________
3. Catalytic Proteins • Ribonuclease
 • Hexokinase
• Monoamine Oxidase (MAO)
4. Contractile Proteins • Actin- _______________ and moving filament
• Myosin- _________________ and stationary filament
5. Structural Proteins • Keratin- hair and _________________
• Elastin- dermis, tendons and __________________
• Collagen- skin and _________________
6. Protective Proteins/ • Fibrinogen- converted to fibrin (traps platelets and other plasma
Defensive Proteins proteins to form a hemostatic plug)

• Antibodies/Immunoglobulin
7. Regulatory Proteins • Insulin- regulates ______________ and _______________
• Growth Hormone

Antibodies/Immunoglobulins

IgG Most abundant in ____________________

Crosses the placenta
IgM Main antibody in the ____________________ response
____________________: cannot cross the placenta
IgA Present in ____________________; prevents the attachment of bacteria and viruses in the
mucous membranes
IgE Mediates ____________________ (Type ____________________)hypersensitivity reactions by
causing the release of mediators from ____________________ and ____________________
IgD Found on the surface of B cells where it acts as a receptor for antigens

TESTS FOR AMINO ACIDS

Biuret Test
Based on the reaction of cupric ions of the reagent with the N
of____________________ bonds, forming a purple or violet colored
complex.

Ninhydrin Test
Based on the reaction between the reagent and the
___________________
group of the free amino acid of the test sample, which leads to the
oxidation of the compound and its deamination and resulting in
the formation of a deep blue colored solution.
Xanthoproteic Test
Based on the nitration of proteins, which leads to the formation of
a ____________________ precipitate that turns to orange on
treatment with an alkali
MODULE 2 Pharmacognosy

MIllon’s Test
Based on the reaction between the ____________________group of a
protein with mercuric sulfate in the presence of sodium nitrite and
sulfuric acid resulting in the formation of a red colored solution

OTHERS:
Test For
Sakaguchi Test for: ____________________
Test Principle:
Under alkaline condition, α- naphthol reacts with ____________________ group of
arginine, which upon treatment with hypobromite or hypochlorite, produces a
characteristic red color.
Hopkins-Cole Test for: ____________________
Test Principle: The ____________________ group of tryptophan reacts with glyoxylic acid
in the presence of concentrated H2S04 to give a purple color.
Sodium Test for: ____________________
Nitroprusside Principle: cysteine is the only amino acid containing a ____________________ group
Test (—SH). The group reacts with nitroprusside in alkaline solution to yield a red
complex.
Pauly diazo Test for: ____________________ and ___________________
Test Principle: Diazotization of sulphanilic acid produces diazonium salt, which reacts
with histidine or tyrosine yielding a red colored compound

TRANSAMINATION, DEAMINATION AND UREA CYCLE

Transamination Deamination
Oxidative

Non-oxidative
 Urea Cycle

TOPIC QUIZ
I. MULTIPLE CHOICE. Select the letter of the BEST ANSWER.
Questions
1. Amino acids are classified based on their side chains. Classify Glutamine and Aspartic acid.
A. Sulfur-containing side chain
B. Aromatic side chain
C. Carboxylic acid
D. Basic side chain
2. Proteins are composed of monomer units called amino acids. The amino acids are linked
together by __________ bonds.
A. Peptide
B. H-bonds
C. Ionic bonds
D. Dipole-dipole
3. Identify the chemical bond that joins amino acids together in a protein molecule.
A. Peptide
B. H-bonds
C. Ionic bonds
D. Dipole-dipole
4. What are the functional groups that are distinct amino acids?
A. Amino acid and carboxylic acid groups
B. Amino and hydroxyl groups.
C. Hydroxyl and carboxylic acid groups
D. Methyl and carboxylic acid groups.
5. This is described as the simplest amino acid.
A. Serine
B. Alanine
C. Glycine
D. Lysine
6. These are examples of transport and storage proteins:
A. Ribonuclease, Hexokinase
B. Actin, Myosin
C. Hemoglobin, Myoglobin, serum Albumin
D. Keratin, Actin
7. Ninhydrin Test is:
A. Based on the reaction of cupric ions of the reagent with the N of the peptide bonds,
forming a purple or violet colored complex.
B. Based on the nitration of proteins, which leads to the formation of a yellow precipitate that
turns to orange on treatment with an alkali,
MODULE 2 Pharmacognosy

C. Based on the reaction between the phenolic group of a protein with mercuric sulfate in the
presence of sodium nitrite and sulfuric acid resulting in the formation of a red colored
solution.
D. Based on the reaction between the reagent and the amino group of the free amino acid of
the test sample, which leads to the oxidation of the compound and its deamination, and
resulting in the formation of a deep blue colored solution.
8. The amino acid Tyrosine is converted to catecholamine. These are:
A. Norepinephrine and epinephrine
B. Norepinephrine, epinephrine, dopamine
C. Norepinephrine, dopamine
D. epinephrine, dopamine
9. The most abundant of the serum immunoglobulins is:
A. IgG
B. IgD
C. IgE
D. IgA
10. Among the 20 amino acids, which of the following pair undergoes non-oxidative direct
deamination?
A. Serine and Glycine
B. Threonine and Glycine
C. Glycine and Alanine
D. Serine and Threonine
11. An amino acid relevant to the production of heme
A. Alanine
B. Cysteine
C. Leucine
D. Glycine

II. MORSE TYPE

Questions
1. Protein Composition and Structure
I. The functional groups of amino acids in a protein molecule determine its three-dimensional
structure.
II. The primary structure of proteins refer to the amino acid sequence.
III. The secondary structure of proteins refers to the conformation adopted by local regions of the
polypeptide chain
IV. Proteins are built from a repertoire of 20 amino acids
A. 3 statements are correct
B. 2 statements are correct
C. all statements are incorrect
D. 1 statement is correct
2. The primary structure of Proteins
I. Amino acids are linked by peptide bonds to form polypeptide chains.
II. The peptide bond is formed between the carboxyl group of one amino acid and the carboxyl
group of the next amino acids
III. The peptide bond is electrically charged
IV. The peptide bond is easily hydrolyzed
A. all statements are correct
B. all statements are incorrect
C. 1 statement is correct
D. 3 statements are correct
3. The Tertiary Structure of Proteins
I. The tertiary structure describes the overall folding of the polypeptides chain
II. The polypeptide chain folds so that its hydrophobic side chains are buried and its polar charged
chains are on the surface
 III. Many alpha helices and beta strands are amphipathic; that is, the alpha helix or beta strand has a
hydrophobic face, which points into the protein interior, and a more polar face, which points into
the solution
IV. Pairing all the NH and CO groups by H-bonding is the secret of burying a segment of the main
chain in a hydrophobic environment.
A. all statements are incorrect
B. all statements are correct
C. 2 statements are correct
D. 1 statement is correct
4. The secondary Structure of Proteins
I. The secondary structure refer to the folded segments of alpha helices, beta strands, and turns
that are formed by a regular pattern of H-bond between the peptide N-H and C=O groups of amino
acids that are near one another in a linear sequence
II. The alpha helix is stabilized by interchain hydrogen bonds
III. All amino acids can be readily accommodated in an alpha helix
IV. Branching at the beta-carbon tends to stabilize alpha-helices
A. all statements are incorrect
B. all statements are correct
C. 2 statements are correct
D. 1 statement is correct
5. Protein Beta Sheets
I. Beta sheets are stabilized by H-bonding between polypeptide strands.
II. The beta sheet is composed of 2 or more polypeptide chains called beta strands
III. Adjacent strands in a beta sheet can run in opposite directions or in the same direction
IV. Beta sheets are more structurally diverse than alpha helices
A. 3 statements are correct
B. 1 statement is correct
C. all statements are correct
D. 2 statements are correct

III. MATCHING TYPE

COLUMN A COLUMN B
1. Fibrinogen A. Regulatory
2. Collagen, Keratin B. Structural
3. MAO C. Catalytic
4. Hemoglobin D. Transport
5. Insulin E. Defensive

ENZYMES

Enzyme Co-enzyme Co-factor

(Vitamin)
Transaminases/ Aminotransferases
Pyruvate Carboxylase

Important Enzymes
Enzyme Function
Lysozyme ____________________ of bacterial cell walls
Carbonic Anhydrase rapid inter-conversion of carbon dioxide and water into ____________________
acid, protons and bicarbonate ions.
Lactate Reversible conversion of ____________________ and Pyruvate
Dehydrogenase
Kinase Adds ____________________ groups to molecules
Citrate Synthase Condensation of Oxaloacetate and Acetyl coA to yield ____________________
Pyruvate Carboxylation of____________________ to give Oxaloacetate
Carboxylase
MODULE 2 Pharmacognosy

Classification of Enzymes
Classification Function and Examples
Oxidoreductases REDOX
Examples:
_______________
_______________
Transferases INTERmolecular Group Transfer (move chemical groups)
Examples:
_______________
_______________
Hydrolases Hydrolytic reactions (transfer of functional groups to water)
Examples:
_______________
_______________
Lyases Non-hydrolytic cleavage of bonds
Examples:
_______________
_______________
Isomerases INTRAmolecular group transfer
Examples:
_______________
_______________

Ligases Synthesis of new covalent bond between substrate, using ATP hydrolysis
Examples:
_______________
_______________

Enzyme Strategies
ENZYME STRATEGY
______________ to promote a reaction that is almost immeasurably slow at neutral pH in the
(Chymotrypsin) absence of a catalyst.
achieve a high absolute rate of reaction, suitable for integration with other rapid
physiological processes.
Function: hydration of carbon dioxide; one of the fastest enzymes known
achieve a high degree of specificity
Function: cleave DNA at defined positions
transfer a phosphoryl group from ATP to a nucleotide and not to water.
Example: Myosins convert the free energy of ATP into the mechanical energy of
contracting muscles

Enzyme Kinetics
Michaelis Menten

Enzyme can cause kinetic rate enhancement if a reaction and explains how reaction rates depend
on the concentration of enzymes and substrates
 Lineweaver Burk

a graphical representation of enzyme kinetics. The x-axis is the reciprocal of the substrate
concentration, or 1 / [S], and the y-axis is the reciprocal of the reaction velocity, or 1 / V.

Sigmoidal Curve

Demonstrates enzyme cooperativity. The binding of a substrate to one active site in a molecule
increases the likelihood that the substrate will bind to the other active sites

TOPIC QUIZ
I. MULTIPLE CHOICE. Choose the letter of the BEST ANSWER
Questions
1. Which of the following enzymes is important for the control of infections because it hydrolyzes
bacterial cell walls?
A. Carbonic anhydrase
B. Lysozyme
C. Lactase dehydrogenase
D. Kinase
2. Enzymes employ different catalytic strategies while performing their roles. Which of the
following is the strategy of restriction endonucleases?
A. Utilization of the free energy associated with the hydrolysis of ATP.
B. Achievement of a high absolute rate of reaction that is suitable for integration with other
physiological processes
C. Attainment of a high degree of specificity
D. Promotion of a reaction that is immeasurably slow at neutral pH.
3. Fumarase is an example of:
A. Hydrolase
B. Ligase
C. Transferase
D. Lyase
MODULE 2 Pharmacognosy

4. Enzymes employ different catalytic strategies while performing their roles. Which of the
following is the strategy of carbonic anhydrase?
A. Attainment of a high degree of specificity
B. Achievement of a high absolute rate of reaction that is suitable for integration with other
physiological processes.
C. Promotion of a reaction that is immeasurably slow at neutral pH.
D. Utilization of the free energy associated with the hydrolysis of ATP.
5. Zymogens are inactive forms of enzymes. The zymogen of the enzyme trypsin is _______________.
A. Fibrinogen
B. Pepsinogen
C. Trypsinogen
D. procarboxypeptidase
6. Classify nucleoside monophosphate kinase
A. Ligase
B. Hydrolase
C. Lyase
D. Transferase
7. Enzyme inhibitors are employed in medicine for the treatment of diseases. Identify the carbonic
anhydrase inhibitor that finds clinical application in the treatment of glaucoma by reducing
intraocular pressure.
A. Celecoxib
B. Sulfanilamide
C. Acetazolamide
D. pirenoxine
8. The coenzyme of aminotransferases is:
A. Nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide
B. Pyridoxal phosphate
C. Flavin adenine dinucleotide
D. Nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate
9. Enzymes employ different catalytic strategies while performing their roles. Which of the
following is the strategy of trypsin and chymotrypsin?
A. Attainment of a high degree of specificity
B. Achievement of a high absolute rate of reaction that is suitable for integration with other
physiological processes.
C. Promotion of a reaction that is immeasurably slow at neutral pH.
D. Utilization of the free energy associated with the hydrolysis of ATP.
10. Enzymes employ different catalytic strategies while performing their roles. Which of the
following is the strategy of myosin?
A. Attainment of a high degree of specificity
B. Achievement of a high absolute rate of reaction that is suitable for integration with other
physiological processes.
C. Promotion of a reaction that is immeasurably slow at neutral pH.
D. Utilization of the free energy associated with the hydrolysis of ATP.
11. Which is the catalytic site model where the substrate induces a conformational change to the
enzyme?
A. Lock and Key Model
B. Hill Equation Model
C. Quaternary Structure
D. Induced-fit Model
12. The Lineweaver- Burk plot below is typical for a substrate with what type of inhibitor?

A. Competitive
B. Non-competitive
 C. Uncompetitive
D. Mixed Competitive
13. Complete the general enzyme reaction scheme: E+S «ES à
A. E + S
B. E - S
C. E + P
D. E - P

II. MATCHING TYPE

COLUMN A COLUMN B
1. Identify the diagram that shows the actual body exposure to
drug after the administration of a certain dose of the drug.

2. Which diagram shows how an enzyme can cause kinetic rate A.

enhancement of a reaction and explains how reaction rates
depend on the concentration of enzyme and substrate?

3. Which diagram demonstrates the Michaelis- Menten Kinetics?

B.
4. Which diagram demonstrates enzyme cooperativity? The
curve results from cooperation between subunits. The binding of
a substrate to one active site in a molecule increase the likelihood
that the substrate will bind to other active sites.
C.
5. Which diagram demonstrates Raoult’s Law?

D.

E.

NUCLEIC ACIDS

Complementarity of bases
DNA RNA

TYPES OF RNA
RNA FUNCTIONS
Template for transcribing the complementary DNA message
carry an amino acid to the ribosomes
Component of ribosomes
Removes introns
MODULE 2 Pharmacognosy

CENTRAL DOGMA
Steps Definition Site
DNA directed DNA synthesis
DNA directed RNA synthesis
RNA directed protein synthesis

REPLICATION
Enzyme Function
Opens/unwinds the DNA strand
Anneals a primer
Elongates the DNA by adding complementary bases to the strand
Joins discontinuous strands
Untangles the DNA

IMPORTANT TERMS

Term Definition
Leading a ____________________, single DNA strand that, during DNA replication, is replicated in
Strand the 3' – 5' direction
Lagging a ____________________, single DNA strand that, during DNA replication, is replicated in
Strand the 5' - 3' direction
Okazaki short sequences of DNA nucleotides
Fragments synthesized discontinuously and later linked together by the enzyme DNA ligase to
create the lagging strand
Telomeres the end of a chromosome
made of repetitive sequences of non-coding DNA that protect the chromosome from
damage

MUTATION

THE GENETIC CODE

POINT MUTATION
Definition: a ____________________ in a single nucleotide within a DNA sequence
2 Types:
1. Transitional
• when a____________________ base replaces a ____________________ base
Example:
ACU- Thr
 GCU- Ala
A and G are both purine bases
• when a ____________________ base replaces a ____________________ base
Example:
GUU- Val
GCU- Ala
U and C are both pyrimidine bases

2. Transversional
• When a____________________ base replaces a ____________________ base and vice versa
Example:
GAG- Glu
GCG- Ala

A is a purine base and C is a pyrimidine base

3 Possible Effects of Point Mutation

Silent A change that does not affect the sequence of amino acids
Example:
Original Sequence:
GUU GCU GGU UGG
Val Ala Gly Trp
Mutated Sequence:
GUU GCU GGC UGG
Val Ala Gly Trp
Missense a change to a different amino acid
Example:
Original Sequence:
GUU GCU GGU UGG
Val Ala Gly Trp
Mutated Sequence:
GUU GCU GGA UGA
Val Ala Ala Trp
Nonsense a change to a termination codon
Example:
Original Sequence:
GUU GCU GGU UGG
Val Ala Gly Trp
Mutated Sequence:
GUU GCU GGU UGA
Val Ala Gly STOP

FRAMESHIFT MUTATION
Definition: genetic mutation caused by a ____________________ or ____________________ in a DNA
sequence that shifts the way the sequence is read.

A. Deletion
Definition: involves the ____________________ of one or more nucleotides from a segment of DNA
Example:
Original Sequence:
GUU GCU GGU UCG UAU
Val Ala Gly Trp Tyr

When G is deleted, then

MODULE 2 Pharmacognosy

GUU GCU G UU CGU AU…

Val Ala Val Arg …

B. Insertion
Definition: involves the ____________________ of one or more nucleotides into a segment of DNA.
Example:
Original Sequence:
GUU GCU GGU UCG UAU
Val Ala Gly Trp Tyr

When A is inserted, then

GUU GCU GGU AUC GUA U…

Val Ala Gly Ile Val…

GENETIC, CONGENITAL AND METABOLIC DISORDERS

Lesch Deficiency of HGPRT- Hypoxanthine Guanosine Phosphoribosyl Transferase
Nyhan
Syndrome Result: accumulation of uric acid in body fluids, self-mutilation behaviors and mental
retardation
SCID Severe Combined Immunodeficiency
absence of _________________
Neural deficiency in________________ derivatives
Tube
Defects
Gout Excessive accumulation of urate in joints

TOPIC QUIZ
Questions
1. This polymer of ribonucleotides is responsible for transcribing the complementary DNA message.
A. rRNA
B. tRNA
C. hnRNA
D. mRNA
2. Identify the stage in protein synthesis when the anticodon of tRNA recognizes the codon on
mRNA.
A. Termination
B. Transcription
C. Translation
D. Elongation
3. Which of the following are complementary base pairs in DNA?
A. Adenine- Thymine, Cytosine—Guanine
B. Adenine –Thymine, Cytosine—Uracil
C. Uracil— Thymine, Cytosine— Guanine
D. Uracil— Thymine, Adenine – Guanine
4. What is the complementary sequence for this DNA segment: CATCAA
A. CGAATU
B. CUAGUU
C. GTAGTT
D. TTAGTT
5. One of the causes of this genetic condition is the absence of adenosine deaminase, an enzyme in
the purine degradation pathway
A. Severe combined immunodeficiency
B. Neural tube defects
C. Gout
D. Lesch-Nyhan syndrome
6. DNA polymerase plays an important role in _______________.
A. Termination
 B. Primer binding
C. Replication fork formation
D. Elongation
7. Select the sequence of the mRNA segment synthesized from this DNA template strand:
---CTCCGCCCGACG-----
A. GAGGCGGGCUGC
B. GAGGCGGCCUGC
C. GACGCGGGCUGG
D. GAGCCGGGCUGC
8. Folates are important precursors of DNA nucleotides. During pregnancy, supplements containing
folates must be taken to prevent:
A. Lesch-Nyhan syndrome
B. Severe combined immunodeficiency
C. Gout
D. Neural tube defects
9. Pick the one that does not belong to the group.
A. Telomeres
B. Okazaki fragments
C. Leading strand
D. Lagging strand
10. A disease that is associated with an excessive accumulation of urate.
A. Gout
B. Severe Combined Immunodeficiency
C. Neural Tube Defects
D. Lesch Nyhan Syndrome
11. The start codon AUG codes for what amino acid?
A. Alanine
B. Glycine
C. Phenylalanine
D. Methionine

MATCHING TYPE
A. Determine the type of Point Mutation
Column A Column B
1. AAU to AAC A. Transitional
2. GAU to GAC B. Transversional
3. GCC to GAC
4. UUA to UGA
5. CAU to CAA

B. Determine the effect of the following mutations

Column A Column B
6. AAU (Asn) to AUC (Ile) A. Silent
7. GAU (Asp) to GAC (Asp) B. Missense
8. GCC (Ala) to GAG (Glu) C. Nonsense
9. UUA(Leu) to UGA (Stop)
10. CAU (His) to CAC (His)

MORSE TYPE
Questions
Select the statements the best describes DNA molecules
I. DNA is deoxyribose acid composed of two chains that coil around each other to form a single
helix carrying genetic instructions
II. The four base in DNA that are responsible for encoding genetic information are thymine,
adenine, cytosine and uracil.
III. In DNA, adenine pairs with thymine, and cytosine with guanine
IV. DNA replication occurs in all living organisms.
MODULE 2 Pharmacognosy

V. The keto tautomers of purines and pyrimidines form the base-to-base H-bonds that are
important for base pairing
A. III, IV, V
B. II, III
C. I, III
D. I, II, III
Select the statements that best characterize RNA molecules
I. RNA naturally occurs as a duplex of two separate strands
II. The secondary structure of tRNA molecules resemble a clover leaf.
III. The base pairs in RNA molecules are adenine and thymine, uracil and cytosine
IV. RNA is a ribonucleotide
V. RNA is synthesized from DNA by an enzyme RNA polymerase during transcription.
A. II, III, IV
B. II, IV
C. II, IV, V
D. I, II
Which statements best describe DNA replication?
I. The first step in DNA replication is the “unzipping” of the double helix structure of the DNA
molecule.
II. DNA polymerases are enzymes that synthesize a DNA polymer
III. A polymerase adds nucleotides to an existing strand
IV. A topoisomerase cuts and rejoins the helix
V. A helicase joins the two separate strands
A. I, II, III, IV
B. II, III, IV, V
C. I, II, III, IV, V
D. I, III, IV
Select the statements that best describe protein synthesis.
I. Proteins are synthesized stepwise by the polymerization of amino acids in a unidirectional
manner, beginning at the C-terminus and ending at the N-terminus
II. The mRNA provides the instruction for the synthesis of a specific protein.
III. The information encoded in mRNA is translated by tRNA molecules that bind to the mRNA at
one end and carry specific amino acids at the other end.
IV. The synthesis of the growing polypeptide is carried out on toposomes that RNA and associated
proteins.
A. I, II, III
B. I, II, III, IV
C. II, IV
D. II, III
Which statements best describes nucleosides?
I. Nucleoside consists of nuclelobase and a five-carbon sugar
II. Nucleosides are precursors for nucleic acid synthesis.
III. Nucleosides and nucleoside analogs are used in antiviral and anticancer drug therapy
IV. Nucleosides are composed of nucleobases covalently attached to a 5-carbon sugar
V. The nucleobases of nucleosides are non-aromatic heterocyclic compounds containing N.
A. II, III, IV
B. I, III, V
C. I, II, III, IV
D. I, II, III, IV, V

XIII. VITAMINS

Vitamin Description
§ It is a non-polar vitamin, a mixture of tocopherols
§ Serves as an antioxidant in biomembranes, protecting phospholipids and
embedded proteins against the oxidative attack of free radicals
§ It is made by gut bacteria
§ Serves as a co-factor in carboxylation reactions
 § Co-factor in numerous biochemical index reactions, where its ability to
accept and donate electrons one at a time is valuable
§ Required for the clotting of blood
§ Retinol, Retinal, Retinoic acid are the 3 forms of the vitamin
§ Retinal serves as an important co-factor for the protein rhodopsin, a visual
pigment in rod cells
§ Deficiency may lead to
1. Beri-beri
2. Wernicke Korsakoff Syndrome- A neuropsychiatric disorder that arises from
lack of thiamine in the diet, poor absorption of thiamine from the gut, or poor
storage of thiamine in the live.

VITAMIN D
ACTIVATION DEFICIENCY STATES
7-dehydrocholesterol ________________
deficient mineralization at the cartilage of growth
plates in children
Cholecalciferol
_________________
bone softening in adults
25-hydroxycholecalciferol

1,25- dihydroxycholecalciferol

TOPIC QUIZ
Questions
1. The coenzyme that is required for transamination, a reaction catalyzed by aminotransferases.
A. Nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide
B. Pyridoxal phosphate
C. Flavin adenine dinucleotide
D. Nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate
2. Select the vitamin that requires bile salts and dietary lipids for its efficient absorption from the
intestinal tract.
A. Vit C
B. Vit K
C. Vit A
D. Vit E
3. Evaluate which compound is converted to cholecalciferol
A. 5-dihydrocholesterol
B. 6-dehydrocholesterol
C. 7-dihydrocholesterol
D. 7-dehydrocholesterol
4. It is a non-polar vitamin, a mixture of tocopherols. Serves as an antioxidant in biomembranes,
protecting phospholipids and embedded proteins against the oxidative attack of free radicals
A. Vitamin A
B. Vitamin E
C. Biotin
D. Riboflavin
5. It is made by gut bacteria. Serves as a co-factor in carboxylation reactions
A. Vitamin K
B. Vitamin E
C. Biotin
D. Riboflavin
6. Co-factor in numerous biochemical index reactions, where its ability to accept and donate
electrons one at a time is valuable
MODULE 2 Pharmacognosy

A. Vitamin K
B. Vitamin E
C. Vitamin A
D. Riboflavin
7. Vitamin required for the clotting of blood
A. Vitamin K
B. Vitamin E
C. Vitamin A
D. Riboflavin
8. Retinol, Retinal, Retinoic acid are the 3 forms of the vitamin. Retinal serves as an important co-
factor for the protein rhodopsin, a visual pigment in rod cells.
A. Vitamin K
B. Vitamin E
C. Vitamin A
D. Riboflavin
A neuropsychiatric disorder that arises from lack of thiamine
In the diet, poor absorption of thiamine from the gut, or poor storage of thiamine in the live.
A. Diabetes Mellitus, Type I
B. Diabetes Insipidus
C. Ketosis
D. Wernicke-Korsakoff Syndrome

PHARMACOGNOSY

EVALUATION OF CRUDE DRUGS

Organoleptic use of ____________________, the macroscopic appearance of the drug its odor
Evaluation and taste, the sound or “snap” of the fracture, and the feel of the drug to the
touch.
Physical applies ____________________ to the active constituents of drugs.
Evaluation
Microscopic Employed for ____________________ samples
Evaluation Use of ____________________
Pharmacologic Aka Bioassay
Evaluation Employs animals to evaluate the ____________________ of drugs
Chemical Use of ____________________ or ____________________
Evalluation Preferred method of determining official potency

TOPIC QUIZ
Questions
1. This method of evaluating crude drugs involves the use of the organs of senses. The analyst
evaluates the macroscopic appearance of the drug, its odor and taste, the sound or “snap” of the
fracture, and the feel of the drug to the touch.
A. Microscopic method
B. Biological method
C. Organoleptic method
D. Chemical method
2. This method of evaluating crude drugs makes use of physical constants, such as optical
rotation, to the active constituents of drugs.
A. Physical method
B. Chemical method
C. Biological method
D. Organoleptic method
 SPECIFIC CONSTITUENTS
1. TAXANES
______________ Taxol (Paclitaxel) is an ______________ agent
Taxol is an antimalarial drug
______________
Taxanes were originally identified from
plants of the genus Taxus
______________ The taxanes, paclitaxel and docetaxel,
Taxanes bind to the microtubules and ________________ the depolymerization of
enhance their depolymerization. microtubules
______________ Paclitaxel, Docetaxel and Cabazitaxel are Taxanes
Paclitaxel, docetaxel, sinigrin, prunasin, Sinigrin is an_______________ Glycoside; Prunasin is
cabazitaxel are examples of taxanes. a________________ Glycoside

2. PRUNASIN
______________
A cyanogenic glycoside that occurs in the
bark of Prunus serotina.
______________ Prunasin is a ____________________ glycoside
A thiocyanogenic glycosides.
______________ The aglycone is ____________________
Its aglycone is amygdalin

______________ Yields ____________________ on hydrolysis

Yields hydrochloric acid on hydrolysis

3. GLYCOSIDES
______________
Both alpha- and beta-glycosides exist, but
ONLY the beta form occurs in nature
______________
Natural enzymes like emulsin, hydrolyze
only the beta forms.
______________ The non-sugar component is known as the
The sugar component is called aglycone, ____________________ or ____________________; the
and the non-sugar component, glycone. sugar component is known as the
____________________

______________
They are acetals in which the hydroxyl of
the sugar is condensed with the hydroxyl
group of the non-sugar component.

4. FLAVONOIDS
______________ Flavonoids are polyphenolic molecules containing
These are polyphenolic molecules that 15 carbon atoms and are ____________________ in
contain 15 carbon atoms and are insoluble water.
in water
MODULE 2 Pharmacognosy

______________ Arbutin is a ____________________ Glycoside

Examples are rutin, quercitrin, arbutin and
hesperidin
Rutin and Hesperidin are called Vitamin P
(Permeability Factors)
______________
Rutin and hesperidin are called Vit E or
permeability factors, which are used in the
treatment of conditions characterized by
capillary bleeding and increased fragility
______________
These are aglycones of flavonol glycosides

5. NON-HYDROLYZABLE TANNINS
______________ Hydrolyzable Tannins:
Gallotannin is a condensed tannin Consist of ________________ or related polyhydric
compounds esterified with glucose
Readily hydrolyze to form __________________
and________________

Non-Hydrolyzable or CONDENSED Tannins:

Results from the __________________ of 2 or more
flavan-3-ols such as catechin or flavan-3,4-diols
such as leucocyanidin
______________
When treated with hydrolytic agents, they
tend to polymerize, yielding insoluble, red-
colored products called phlobaphenes.
______________ Condensed tannins are ____________________ in
Insoluble in water and aqueous organic water, alcohols and acetone and can coagulate
solvents proteins
______________ Condensed tannins are ____________________
Less resistant to microbial degradation resistant to microbial attack than hydrolysable
than hydrolysable tannins. tannins

6. RESINS
______________
The metallic salts of resins are called
resonates
______________
Balsams are resinous mixtures that contain
cinnamic acid, benzoic acid, or both, or
esters of these acids.
______________ Resins are ____________________ in water
Resins are soluble in water
______________
Chemically, resins are complex mixtures of
resin acids, resin alcohols, resinotannols,
esters, and resenes.
7. CINCHONA ALKALOIDS
______________ Quinine and Quinidine are chemically
Cinchonine is the parent alkaloid of the 6-methoxycinchonine
quinine series
______________ Cinchonine, Cinchonidine, Quinine and Quinidine
Classified as Isoquinoline alkaloids are __________________ ALKALOIDS
______________ ____________________ is the isomer of Cinchonidine
Cinchonine is the isomer of quinidine and ____________________ is the isomer of Quinidine
quindine is the isomer of quinine

______________ Cinchona alkaloids are ____________________ agents

Currently used, after having been proven as
clinically effective and safe, In the
treatment of COVID -10 patients

GUMS AND MUCILAGES

Classification Examples
Shrub or Tree Exudates Aki-_______________
Travis-_______________
Stayed-_______________
India-_______________
Marine Gums Dan-________________
Al-__________________
Japan-__________________
Car-__________________
Seed Gums The Queen-________________
St. John-__________________
Guarded-_________________
Psychotics-_________________
Microbial Gums Xanthan
Cellulose Derivatives Carboxymethylcellulose

TOPIC QUIZ
MATCHING TYPE
Column A Column B
1. Locust Bean Gum A. Shrub or Tree Exudate
2. Pectin B. Marine Gums
3. Xanthan C. Seed Gums
[Link] D. Plant Extract
cellulose E. Cellulose Derivatives
5. Tragacanth F. Microbial Gum

VOLATILE OILS
METHODS OF EXTRACTING VOLATILE OILS
Method Application and Examples
Water Distillation _____________sample
Example:
Direct Steam Distillation _____________sample
Examples:
Water and Steam Distillation _____________ or _____________sample
Examples:
Destructive Distillation _____________oils
MODULE 2 Pharmacognosy

Example:
Ecuelle ______________volatile oils
Example:
Enfleurage ______________petals
Example:
Enzymatic Action _____________Volatile Oils
Example:

TERPENES
ISOPRENE
5-carbon compound
CH2=C(CH3)-CH=CH2
Terpene Isoprene Units, MF and Examples

Monoterpenes 2-C10H16
Examples:
Carvone ( Caraway oil) ______________ Lavender oil)
_____________ (Buchu oil)
Methylsalicylate (Wintergreen oil)
Sesquiterpenes 3- C15H24
Examples:
Artemisinin, Bisabolol, Farnesol and Eudesmol
Diterpenes 4- C20H32
Examples:
_____________, Retinal, and _____________

Triterpenes 6- C30H48
Examples:
Lanosterol, Squalene
Tetraterpene 8- C40H64
Examples:
Beta carotene, Lycopene

SPECIAL STRUCTURES
Structure Family and
Examples
Glandular Hairs ________________
/________________

Mentha piperita
Mentha spicata
Thymus vulgaris
Lavandula angustifolia
Origanum vulgare
Modified Parenchymal Cells __________________

Piper nigrum
Peperomia pellucida
Vittae (oil tubes) _______________/
________________

Foeniculum vulgare
Coriandrum sativum
Carum carvi
Conium maculatum (Poison Hemlock)
Schizogenous and Lysigenous Passages _________________ and _________________
Pinus palustris
Pinus strobus
 Citrus spp

*Artemisia absinthium

TOPIC QUIZ
Questions
1. Peppermint oil is isolated from the fresh leaves of Mentha piperita. Determine the best method to
isolate the oil.
A. Enfleurage
B. Extraction with a volatile solvent
C. Expression
D. Steam Distillation
2. What type of terpenes are retinol and phytol?
A. Monoterpenes
B. Diterpenes
C. Triterpenes
D. Sesquiterpenes
3. This group of terpenes are composed of 20 carbon atoms.
A. Sesquiterpenes
B. Diterpenes
C. Triterpenes
D. Tetraterpenes
4. What special secretory structures are found in Pinus palustris?
A. Modified parenchyma cells
B. Schizogenous intercellular spaces
C. Vittae
D. Glandular hairs
5. Isoprene is a
A. 5-carbon compound with the formula:
CH3-CH(CH3)-CH2CH3
B. 3-carbon compound with the formula:
CH2=C=CH2
C. 4-carbon compound with the formula:
CH2=CH-CH=CH2
D. 5-carbon compound with the formula: CH2=C(CH3)-CH=CH2
6. The volatile oils from Caraway and Buchu are chemically classified as:
A. Peroxides
B. Phenols
C. Ketones
D. Ethers
7. The volatile oils from Lavender oil and Wintergreen are chemically classified as:
A. Ketones
B. Phenols
C. Aldehydes
D. Esters

ALKALOIDS
Alkaloidal Precipitants:
Reagent Composition
____________________ Reagent Mercury in Potassium Iodide
____________________ Reagent Iodine in Potassium Iodide
____________________ Reagent Potassium Bismuth Iodide
____________________ Reagent Picric Acid Solution

CLASSIFICATION OF ALKALOIDS
Classification STRUCTURE Examples
MODULE 2 Pharmacognosy

Pyridine-Piperidine L
Ar
N
Tropane S
H
At
Coc
Isoquinoline San
Opium Alkaloids (Phenanthrene Em
Derivatives) Hy
Mor
Tubo
Quinoline Q
Q
C
C
Indole Car
P
E
N
Phenylethylamine Ep
Mes
Col
Cath
Steroidal Ver

Purines/Methylxanthines C
Theo
Theo

Important Alkaloids
Alkaloid Source/Use
Ergonovine Source: Ergot produced by Claviceps purpurea
Classification:
_____________ Use:
_______________ agent
Reserpine Source:
Classification: Rauvolfia serpentina
_____________
Use:
_______________ agent
Atropine Source:
Classification: Atropa belladonna, _________________
_____________
Uses:
_________________, _________________
Hyoscyamine Source:
Classification: Datura _________________ /Hyoscyamus
_____________ _________________ /

Uses:
Anti-cholinergic, spasmolytic
Lobeline Source:
Classification: Lobelia _________________
_____________
 Use:
Smoking _________________
Cocaine Source: Erythroxylum
Classification: _________________
_____________ Use:
local anesthetic
Nicotine Source:
Classification: Nicotiana tabacum
_____________ Use:
smoking ____________________

BIOSYNTHESIS OF TROPANE ALKALOIDS

Step 1: Ornithine à pyrrolidine ring of Tropine
Step 2: Phenylalanine à Tropic Acid
Step 3: Esterification of Tropine and Tropic Acid = (-) Hyoscyamine (a tropane alkaloid)
Step 4: Racemization of (-) Hyoscyamine= Atropine
Step 5: Scopoline + Tropic Acid= Scopolamine or Hyoscine

TOPIC QUIZ
Questions
Select the statements that best describes the biosynthesis if hyoscyamine
I. Feeding studies with labeled ornithine have shown that this is incorporated
stereospecifically to form the pyrrolidine ring of tropane
II. Tyrosine is the precursor of tropic acid
III. Esterification of tropic acid with tropine produces hyoscyamine
IV. Hyoscyamine is dextrorotatory
A. II and III
B. II, III and IV
C. I, II and III
D. II and III
Select the statements that best describes the Solanaceous Alkaloids
I. The belladonna alkaloids are most abundant in plants after the fruits have ripened
II. The principal solanaceous alkaloids are hyoscyamine, atropine and scopolamine
III. Atropine and scopolamine are competitive with acetylcholine at the post ganglionic
synapse of the parasympathetic nervous system producing an antispasmodic effect.
IV. Scopolamine is also known as hyoscyamine, and atropine is also known as hyoscine
A. I and II
B. III and IV
C. I, II and III
D. II and III
Select the statements that best describes the following alkaloids:
I. Atropine is racemic hyoscyamine
II. Hyoscyamine is the ester of tropic acid and tropine
III. Scopolamine is particularly abundant in Datura metel
IV. On hydrolysis, Scopolamine yields tropic acid and scopoline
A. I, II and III
B. I, II, III and IV
C. II and III
D. I and IV
MODULE 2 Pharmacognosy

TOPIC QUIZ
Determine the names of these alkaloids:
Structure Choices
A. Cocaine
B. Reserpine
C. Quinine
D. Morphine
A. Morphine
B. Cocaine
C. Caffeine
D. Quinine
A. Quinine
B. Morphine
C. Caffeine
D. Reserpine
A. Caffeine
B. Cocaine
C. Reserpine
D. Morphine
A. Morphine
B. Caffeine
C. Cocaine
D. Reserpine

Questions
1. The Alkaloidal test reagent is a solution of potassium bismuth iodide and gives and orange
colored precipitate.
A. Dragendorff’s
B. Mayer’s
C. Wagner’s
D. Hager’s
2. Classify Ergonovine and Reserpine.
A. Imidazole
B. Purine
C. Steroidal
D. Indole
3. Family name of Atropa belladonna
A. Papaveraceae
B. Fabaceae
C. Solanaceae
D. Berberidaceae
4. Find the pairs that are NOT correctly matched.
A. Lobelia inflata – hyoscine
B. Hyoscyamus niger – hyoscyamine
C. Erythroxylum coca – cocaine
D. Datura stramonium – hyoscyamine
5. Select the pair that is NOT correctly matched.
A. Tobacco – nicotine for smoking cessation
B. Belladonna – spasmolytic agent
C. Datura – anticholinergic agent
D. Coca- local analgesic
6. The source of the alkaloid thebaine
A. P. somniferum
B. P. mirabilis
C. P. aeruginosa
D. P. bracteatum
 7. Quinine is from a plant from the family
A. Rubiaceae
B. Apocynaceae
C. Berberidaceae
D. Labiatae

III. MATCHING TYPE

Column A Column B
1. Morphine A. Isoquinoline F. Quinolizidine
2. Ergotamine B. Indole G. Aporphine
3. Quinine C. Quinoline H. Purine
4. Caffeine D. Imidazole
5. Atropine E. Tropane

Column A Column B
1. A condensation product of pyrrolidine and A. Pyridine-piperidine alkaloids
piperidine B. Tropane alkaloids
2. The class to which opium alkaloids belong C. Quinoline alkaloids
3. The class to which ergonovine, reserpine and D. Isoquinoline alkaloids
strychnine belong E. Indole alkaloids
4. The class to which quinine, quinidine, F. Imidazole alkaloids
cinchonine and cinchonidine belong G. Purine alkaloids
5. The class to which caffeine and theobromine H. Steroidal alkaloids
belong

SEQUENCING STEPS

CURING OF VANILLA PODS

I. The fruits are collected as they ripen to a yellow color, 6 to 10 months after pollination
II. The ripe vanilla pods and are cured by dipping in warm water for about 3 minutes
III. The soak pods are wrapped between woolen blankets in the sun during the day and
packaging in wool-covered boxes at night. This requires about 2 months during which
the pods lose from 70-80% of their original weight
IV. Upon developing correct moisture level and aroma, the pods are laid in the open air,
alternating between sun and shade, driving out moisture without overly drying the
pods
V. The pods are then graded, tied into bundles of about 50-70, and sealed in tin containers
for shipment

LIFE CYCLE OF THE ERGOT FUNGUS (PARASITIC INFECTION)

SPHACELIAL STAGE
I. In the spring, one of its spores comes into contact with the ovary of a grass, frequently,
rye, where it germinates forming hyphal strands that penetrate into the host tissues
II. The hyphae eventually forms a mass of tissue known as a mycelium, which supplants
the ovary
III. Some of the hyphal strands produce asexual spores, known as conidiospores, which
becomes suspended in a viscous, sugary liquid known as honeydew.
IV. Honeydew is secreted by the mycelium.
V. Insects are attracted to this honeydew and carry it and the spores to other host plants,
where the process is repeated.

ASCIGEROUS STAGE
I. The mycelium eventually replaces the entire ovary, then gradually hardens, becomes
dark purple, and forms a resting body known as a sclerotium.
II. The sclerotium, in turn, normally falls to the ground, overwinters and in the spring,
produces sexual spores or ascospores that repeat the entire cycle.
MODULE 2 Pharmacognosy

OBTAINING SUCROSE FROM PLANT SOURCES

SUGAR CANE
I. The juice is obtained from sugar cane by crushing the stems between a series of heavy
iron rollers.
II. The juice is boiled with lime to neutralize the plant acids, which would otherwise
change the sucrose to invert sugars, and to coagulate albumins.
III. The latter rice to the top as a scum are removed.
IV. The juice is filtered, sometimes decolorized with sulfur dioxide, concentrated and
crystallized.
V. When crystals are no longer obtainable, the residual, dark-colored syrup is molasses,
which is extensively used in foods, prepared animal foods, and in the manufacture of
ethyl alcohol
SUGAR BEETS
I. The beets are dug, washed and sliced into small, limp slivers known as “cossettes”.
II. Sucrose and other soluble constituents are extracted from the plant material using hot
water.
III. The crude sugar-containing solution is the subjected to the purification process

PHILIPPINE MEDICINAL PLANTS

Common Name Scientific Name Uses
Bignay Anti-hypertensive; treatment of cough and colds
Banaba Anti-diabetic
Comfrey ________________
Pacific Yew Contains Paclitaxel- antineoplastic
Tawa-tawa (orchid) Anti-pyretic
Tawa-tawa Increase platelet count in patients with Dengue
Fever
Spirulina Anti-hypertensive
Anti-diabetic
Anti-hyperlipidemic
Licorice or Contains ________________ (very sweet) and
Glycyrrhiza ________________
(Anti-inflammatory; expectorant)
Evening Primrose Cervical ripening and labor inducing
Tsaang gubat Antidiarrheal
Periwinkle Contains Vincristine- antineoplastic
Sweet Orange Contains Limonene- flavor
Stramonium/Jimso Scopolamine-treatment of ________________
n Weed/
Jamestown Weed
Rauvolfia ________________-________________
serpentina
Happy Tree Irinotecan, Topotecan- ________________
Vanilla Glucovanillin (Aldehyde Glycoside)-
________________
Bitter bark Cinchona ________________ , ________________ ________________
_________Cinchona (parent compound), ________________
_________
________________

PLANT HORMONES
Abscissic • Metabolic ____________________
acid • acts as an ____________________ to gibberellic acid, and increases tolerance of
plants to____________________
• Helps in seed development and maturation
• Induces seed dormancy
• Help withstand unfavorable/critical growth factors
Auxins • ____________________ plant growth hormone to be discovered
• Isolated from human ____________________
• Found in growing ____________________ and ____________________
• Promote flowering
• Prevent early fall of leaves and fruits
• Promote fall of old leaves and fruits
Gibberellins • There are ____________________ kinds of this hormone
• Increase axis length (lengthens the stems of ____________________)
• Hastens maturity period in conifers
• Promotes seed ____________________
• Delay senescence in fruits
Cytokinins • exist in areas where rapid ____________________ takes place
• Delays leaf senescence by promoting mobilization of nutrients
• Formation of new leaves and chloroplast
• Promote lateral shoot growth and adventitious shoot formation
• Help overcome apical dominance
Ethylene • ____________________ hormone
• Hastens fruit ____________________
• Promotes abscission and senescence
• Increases root growth and root hair formation

TOPIC QUIZ
Questions
1. An anti-diabetic herbal medicine.
A. Banaba
B. Yerba Buena
C. Tsaang gubat
D. Lagundi
2. What is the scientific name of Bignay?
A. Hibiscus sabdariffa
B. Abelmoschus esculentus
C. Ehretia microphylla
D. Antidesma bunius
3. What is the scientific name of Tawa-Tawa?
A. Taxus brevifolla
B. Ehratia microphilla
C. Abelmoschus asculentus
D. Grammatophyllum scriptum
4. Select the correct triad of “health foods”
A. Symphytum officinale – Comfrey – hepatotoxic
B. Spirulina maxima – spirulina – fertility drug
C. Glycyrrhiza glabra – licorice – antidiabetic
D. Oenothera biennis – Evening Primrose – analgesic
5. Which hormone is considered as the plant growth and metabolic inhibitor, acts as an antagonist
to gibberellic acid, and increases the tolerance of plants to stress?
A. Abscisic acid
B. Gibberellins
C. Auxins
D. Ethylene
6. This substance is converted to phenylalanine in the Shikimic Acid Pathway.
A. Anthranilic acid
B. Chorismic acid
MODULE 2 Pharmacognosy

C. Para-hydroxyphenylpyruvic avid
D. Phenylpyruvic acid
7. The Shikimic acid pathway is a biogenetic pathway that leads to the formation or folates and
______
A. Aromatic compounds
B. Alipahatic compounds
C. Branched compounds
D. Cyclic compounds
8. Glucovanillin is classified as a/an ______________. It is mainly used as a/an ____________.
A. Aldehyde, flavor
B. Flavonol, antibacterial
C. Anthraquinone, cathartic
Saponin, analgesic
9. What is the hypotensive constituent isolated from Rauwolfia serpentina?
A. Reserpine
B. Scopolamine
C. Emetine
D. Codeine
10. Which of the following Scientific Name- Constituent- use is correct?
A. Datura stramonium—Scopolamine—Flavor
B. Glycyrrhiza glabra—limonene— Expectorant
C. Catharanthus roseus—Quinine-anticancer
D. Citrus sinensis—Limonene -flavor
11. This was the first growth hormone discovered; it was first isolated from human urine; found in
growing stems and roots; and promotes flowering in plants.
A. Auxins
B. Abscisic acid
C. Cytokinin
D. Ethylene
12. There are 100 kinds of this hormone, it lengthens the stem of sugarcane hastens maturity period
in group conifers and promotes early seed production.
A. Ethylene
B. Cytokinin
C. Auxins
D. Abscisic acid
13. Exists in areas where rapid cell division take place and delays leaf senescence.
A. Cytokinin
B. Auxins
C. Gibberellins
D. Abscisic acid
14. Induces dormancy in seeds and helps seeds withstand unfavorable growth factors
A. Abscisic acid
B. Gibberellins
C. Auxins
D. Cytokinin
15. Hastens fruit ripening and increases root growth and root hair formatins, thereby increasing
their absorption surface area.
A. Ethylene
B. Auxins
C. Cytokinin
D. Gibberellins
16. This traditionally used herbal plant is used to aid cough, stomach ulcers and has been shown to
exhibit anti-inflammatory properties
A. Vitex negundo
B. Glycyrrhiza glabra
C. Foeniculum vulgare
D. Blumea balsamifera
BIOLOGICALS
1. Which vaccine is recommended for children 2-3 months of age.
A. Live Oral Poliovirus Vaccine
B. Covid-19 Vaccine
C. Rabies Vaccine
D. Hepatitis B Vaccine
2. Identify the vaccine, which is a sterile suspension of inactivated virus strains that are grown
separately in primary cultures of Rhesus monkey kidney tissues, bathed in a complex nutrient fluid
containing more than 50 ingredients.
A. Influenza virus vaccine
B. Rabies Vaccine
C. Poliomyelitis vaccine
D. Smallpox vaccine

BLOOD GROUP ANTIGENS

TYPE O

TYPE A

TYPE B

Blood Group Antigens

I. The membrane of white blood cells contains glycolipids that carry oligosaccharides
recognized by the immune system
II. The oligosaccharide is composed of a glucose linked directly to the lipid, followed by a
galactose residue, an N-acetylglucosamine residue and a galactose residue
III. The exact sequence of sugars and the manner in which they are linked and branched by
glycosyltransferase enzyme determines the blood group type
IV. There is usually a terminal sugar, L-glucose residue in a 1à2 linkage
A. 1 statement is correct
B. All statements are correct
C. 2 statements are correct
D. 3 statements are correct

The immune system can produce antibodies against the various short oligosaccharides
I. People with A-blood type will produce antibodies against the B-type oligosaccharides.
Conversely, people with B-blood type will produce antibodies against the A-type antigen
II. The antigens can cause blood cells to clump together
III. People with O-type antigen are called universal recipients
IV. People with O-type antigen are universal donors, in recognition of the fact that people with
A- or B- type blood lack antibodies to the O antigen
A. All statements are correct
B. if 2 statements are correct
C. if 1 statement is correct
D. if 3 statements are correct

END.