ELECTRONICS COMMUNICATIONS FUNDAMENTALS

Introduction:
In its basic electrical sense, the term communications refers to the sending,
receiving and processing of information by electrical means. A modern
communications system is first concerned with the sorting, processing and
storing of the information before its transmission. Finally we have reception,
which may include processing steps such as decoding, storage and interpretation
Important terms such as information, message and signal, channel, noise and
distortion, modulation and demodulation, and finally encoding and decoding.
The communications system exists to communicate a message. The message
comes from information source, which originates it., in the sense of selecting
one message from a group of messages.
Information itself is that which is conveyed. The amount of information
contained in any given message is measured in bits or in dits.

Transmitter
Unless the message arriving from the information source is electrical in nature,
it will be unsuitable for immediate transmission. Even then, a lot of work must
be done to make such a message suitable.
It is necessary to convert the incoming sound signals into electrical variations,
to restrict the range of the audio frequencies and then to compress their
amplitude .. range. All this is done before any modulation. in wire telephony no
processing may be required, Put in long-distance communications, a transmitter
is required to process,· and_ possibly encode, the incoming information so as to
make it suitable for transmission and subsequent reception.
Eventually, in a transmitter, the information modulates the carrier, i.e., is
superimposed on a high-frequency sine wave. The actual method of modulation
varies from one system to another. Modulation may be high level or low level,
and the system itself may be amplitude modulation, frequency modulation,
pulse modulation or any variation or combination of these, depending on the
requirements.
Channel-Noise
The acoustic channel (i.e., shouting!) is not used for long-distance
communications, and neither was the visual channel until the advent of the
laser. "Communications," in this context, will be restricted to radio, wire and
fiber optic channels. Also, it should be noted that the term channel is often used
to refer to the frequency range allocated to a particular service or transmission,
such as a television channel (the allowable carrier bandwidth with modulation).

Receiver
Receivers run the whole range of complexity from a very simple crystal
receiver, with headphones, to a far more complex radar receiver, with its
involved antenna· arrangements and visual display system, Whatever the
receiver, its most important function is demodulation ( and sometimes also
decoding). Both these processes are the reverse of the corresponding transmitter
modulation processes.
 LINEAR MODULATION

MODULATION
In the process of modulation, some characteristic of a high frequency sine wave
(the carrier) is varied in accordance with the instantaneous value of the
(modulating) signal.
Need for Modulation:
There are two alternatives to the use of a modulated carrier for the transmission
of messages in the radio channel. One could try to send the (modulating) signal
itself, or else use an unmodulated carrier. The impossibility of transmitting the
signal itself will be demonstrated first. Although the topic has not yet been
discussed, several difficulties are involved in the propagation of electromagnetic
waves at audio frequencies below 20 kilohertz (20 kHz). For efficient radiation
and reception the transmitting and receiving antennas would have to have
lengths comparable to a quarter-wavelength of the frequency used. This is 75
meters (75 m) at I megahertz (I MHz), in the broadcast band, but at 15 kHz it
has increased to 5000 m (or just over 16,000 feet)! A vertical antenna of this
size is impracticable. There is an even more important argument against
transmitting signal frequencies directly; all sound is concentrated within the
range from 20 Hz to 20 kHz, so that all signals from the different sources would
be hopelessly and inseparably mixed up. In any city, the broadcasting stations
alone would completely blanket the "air," and. yet they represent a very small
proportion of the total number of transmitters in use. In order to separate the
various signals, it is necessary to convert them all to different portions of the.
electromagnetic spectrum. Each must be given its own frequency location. This
also overcomes the difficulties of poor radiation at low frequencies and reduces
interference. Once signals have been translated, a tuned circuit is employed in
the front end of the receiver to make sure that the desired section of the
spectrum is admitted and all the unwanted ones are rejected. The tuning of such
a circuit is normally made variable and connected to the tuning control, so that
the receiver can select any. desired transmission within a predetermined range,
such as the very high frequency (VHF) broadcast band used for frequency
modulation (FM).
AMPLITUDE MODULATION THEORY
In amplitude modulation, the amplitude of a carrier signal is varied by the
modulating voltage, whose frequency is invariably lower than that of the-
carrier. In practice, the carrier may be high0 frequency (HF) while. the
modulation is audio. Formally, AM is defined as a system of modulation in
which the amplitude of the carrier is made proportional to the instantaneous
amplitude of the modulating voltage. Let the carrier voltage and the modulating
voltage, Ve and Vm, respectively, be represented by

Note that phase angle has been ignored in both expressions since it is
unchanged by the amplitude modulation process. Its inclusion here would
merely complicate the proceedings, without affecting the result. However, it
will certainly not be possible to ignore phase angle when vie deal with
frequency and phase modulation in Chapter 4. · From the definition of AM, you
can see that the (maximum) amplitude Ve of the unmodulated carrier will have
to be made proportional to the instantaneous modulating voltage Vm sin wmt
when the carrier is amplitude-modulated. Note that phase angle has been
ignored in both expressions since it is unchanged by the amplitude modulation
process. Its inclusion here would merely complicate the proceedings, without
affecting the result. However, it will certainly not be possible to ignore phase
angle when vie deal with frequency and phase modulation.
Frequency Spectrum of the AM Wave
We shall show mathematically that the frequencies present in the AM wave are
the carrier frequency and the first pair of sideband frequencies, where a
sideband frequency is defined as
and in the first pair n = 1.
When a carrier is amplitude-modulated, the proportionality constant is made
equal to unity, and the instantaneous modulating voltage variations are
superimposed onto the carrier amplitude. Thus_ when there is temporarily no
modulation, the amplitude of the carrier is equal to its unmodulated value.
When [Link] present, the amplitude of the carrier is varied by its
instantaneous value. The situation is illustrated in Figure below, which shows
how the maximum amplitude of the amplitude-modulated voltage is made to
[Link] accordance with modulating voltage changes. Following figure also
shows that something unusual (distortion) will occur if V m is greater than Ve
(this distortion is a result of overdriving the amplifier stage). This, and the fact
that the ratio Vm/Ve often occurs, leads to the definition of the modulation index
given in following Equation:

The modulation index is a number lying between 0 and 1, and it is very often
expressed as a percentage and called the percentage modulation. From above
figure and Equation it is possible to write an equation for the amplitude of the
amplitude-modulated voltage. We have

The instantaneous voltage of the resulting amplitude-modulated wave is

Above Equation may be expanded, by means of the trigonometrical relation
sinx sin y = 1/2 [cos (x - y) - cos (x + y)], to give

v=

It has thus been shown that the equation of an amplitude-modulated wave

contains three terms. The first term is· identical to Equation

·and represents the unmodulated carrier. It is apparent that the process of
amplitude modulation has the effect of adding to the unmodulated wave; rather
than changing it. The two additional· terms produced are the two sidebands
outlined. The frequency of th lower sideband (LSB) is f c - fm, and the frequency
of the upper sideband (USB) is fc + fm- The very important conclusion to be
made at this stage is tliat ihe bandwidth required for amplitude modulation is
twice the frequency of the modulating signal. In modulation by several sine
waves simultaneously, as in the AM broadcasting service, the bandwidth
required is twice the highest modulating frequency.

Representation of AM
Amplitude modulation may be represented in any of three ways, depending on
the point of view.

Above figure shows the frequency spectrum and so illustrates Equation

v=

AM is shown simply as consisting of three discrete frequencies. Of these, the

central frequency, i.e., the carrier, has the highest amplitude, and the other two
are disposed symmetrically about it, having amplitudes which are equal to each
other, but which can never exceed half the carrier amplitude (see above
Equation and note that m not greater than l].
The appearance of the amplitude-modulated wave is of great interest, and it is
shown in Figure below for one cycle of the modulating sine wave.

It is derived from Figure , which showed

the amplitude, or what may now be called the top envelope of the AM wave,
given by the relation
A = Vc + Vm sin ωmt. The maximum negative amplitude, or bottom envelope, is
given by
-A = -(Vc+ Vm sin ωmt). The modulated wave extends between these two
limiting envelopes and has a repetition rate equal to the unmodulated carrier
frequency. · It will be recalled that Vm = mVc , and it is now possible to use this
relation to calculate the index (or depth) of modulation from the waveform of
Amplitude modulated wave Figure as follows:

…………………………………………….. (1)

……………………………(2)
Dividing (1) by (2), we hve;

The above Equation is the standard method of evaluating the modulation index
when calculating from a waveform such as may be seen on an oscilloscope, i.e.,
when both the carrier and the modulating voltages are known. It may not be
used in any other situation. When only the rms values ·of the carrier and the
modulated voltage or current are known, or when the unmodulated and the
modulated output powers are given, it is necessary to understand and use the
power relations in the AM wave.
Power Relations in the AM Wave
It has been shown that the carrier component of the modulated wave has the
same amplitude as the unmodulated carrier. That is, the amplitude of the carrier
is unchanged; energy is either added or subtracted. The modulated wave
contains extra energy in the two sideband components. Therefore, the
modulated wave contains more power than the carrier had before modulation
took place. Since the amplitude of the sidebands depends on the modulation
index Vm/Vc, it is anticipated that the total power in the modulated wave will
depend on the modulation index also. This relation may now be derived. · The
total power in the modulated wave will be

…………………………………….(3)
where all three voltages are (rms) values (√2 converted to peak), and R is the
resistance, (e.g., antenna resistance), in which the power is dissipated. The first
term of above Equation is the unmodulated -carrier power and is given by

…………………………………………………(4)
Similarly,

………………………….(5)

Substituting Equation (4) and (5) into Equation (3) , we have,

Modulation by several sine waves

In practice, modulation of a carrier by several sine waves simultaneously is the
rule rather than the exception. Accordingly, a way has to be found to calculate
the resulting power conditions. The procedure consists of calculating the total
modulation index and then substituting it into above Equation, from which the
total power may be calculated as before. There are two methods of calculating
the total modulation index
GENERATION OF AM
There are two types of devices in which it may be necessary to generate
amplitude modulation. The first of these, the AM transmitter, generates such
high powers that its prime requirement is efficiency, so quite complex means of
AM generation may be used. The other device is the (laboratory) AM generator.
Here AM is produced at such a low· power level that simplicity is a more
important requirement than efficiency. Although the methods of generating AM
described here relate to both applications, emphasis will be put on methods of
generating high powers.
Basic Requirements-Comparison of Levels
In order to generate the AM wave of the second Figure below (b) , it is
necessary merely to apply the series of current pulses of first Figure below (a)
to a tuned (resonant) circuit. Each pulse, if it were the only one, would initiate a
damped oscillation in the tuned circuit. The oscillation would have· an initial
amplitude proportional to the size of the current pulse and a decay rate
dependent on the time constant of the circuit. Since a train of pulses is fed to the
tank circuit here, each pulse will cause a complete sine wave proportional in
amplitude to the size of this pulse. This will be followed by the next sine wave,
proportional to the size of the next applied pulse, and so on. Bearing in mind
that at least 10 times as many pulses per audio cycle are fed to a practical circuit
as are shown the figures below.
 ANGLE MODULATION

THEORY OF FREQUENCY AND PHASE MODULATION

Frequency modulation is a system in which the amplitude of the modulated
carrier is kept constant, while its frequency and rate of change are varied-by the
modulating signal. The first practical system was put forward in 1936 as an
alternative to AM in an effort to make radio transmissions more resistant to
noise. Phase modulation is a similar system in which the phase of the carrier is
varied instead of its frequency; as in FM, the amplitude of the carrier remains
constant.
Description of Systems
By the definition of frequency modulation, the amount by which the carrier
frequency is varied from its unmodulated value, called the deviation, is made
proportional to the instantaneous amplitude of the modulating voltage. The rate
at which this frequency variation changes or takes place is equal to the
modulating frequency.
Mathematical Representation of FM
The instantaneous frequency f of the frequency-modulated wave is given by

The maximum deviation for this particular signal will occur when the cosine
term has its maximum value, ± I. Under these conditions, the instantaneous
frequency will be
The instantaneous amplitude of the FM signal will be given by a formula of the
form

where F (ωc,ωm) is some function of the carrier and modulating frequencies.

This function represents an angle and will be called θ for convenience. The
problem now is to determine the instantaneous value (i.e., formula) for this
angle.
As above Figure shows, θ is the angle traced out .by the vector A in time t. if A
were rotating with a constant angular velocity, for example, ρ, this angle· θ
would be given by ρt (in radians). In this instance the angular velocity is
anything but constant. It is governed by the formula for ω obtained from

Equation , that is, ω = ωc (I + kVm cos ωmt). In order

to find θ, ω must be integrated with respect to time. Thus

The derivation utilized, in turn, the fact that ωc is constant, the formula

∫ cos 𝑛𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = (sin 𝑛𝑥) 𝑙𝑛 and Equation which had shown that

Equation θ may now be substituted into Equation

to give the instantaneous value

of the FM voltage; therefore
Substituting the above in
We obtain

It is important to note that as the modulating frequency decreases and the

modulating voltage amplitude (δ) remains constant, the modulation index
increases. This will be the basis for distinguishing frequency modulation from
phase modulation. Note that mf, which is the ratio of two frequencies, is
measured in radians.

Phase Modulation
Strictly speaking, there are two types of continuous-wave modulation;
amplitude modulation and angle modulation. Angle modulation may ·be
subdivided into two distinct types; frequency modulation and phase modulation
(PM). Thus, PM and FM are closely allied, and this is the first reason for
considering PM here. The second reason is somewhat more practical. It is
possible to obtain frequency modulation from phase modulation by the so-called
Armstrong system. Phase modulation is not used in practical analog
transmission systems. If the phase ϕ, in the equation ν = A sin (ωct+ ϕ,) is varied
so that its magnitude is proportional to the instantaneous amplitude of the
modulating voltage, the resulting wave is phase-modulated. The expression for
a PM wave is
where m is the maximum value of phase change introduced by this particular
modulating signal and is proportional to the maximum amplitude of this
modulation. For the sake of uniformity, this is rewritten as

where mp = ϕm = modulation index for phase modulation.

Pre-emphasis and De-emphasis

Noise has a greater effect on the higher modulating frequencies than on the
lower ones. Thus, if the higher frequencies were artificially boosted at the
transmitter and correspondingly cut at the receiver, an improvement in noise
immunity could he expected, thereby increasing the signal-io-noise ratio. This
boosting of the higher modulating frequencies, in accordance with a
prearranged curve, is termed pre-emphasis, and the compensation at the
receiver· is called deemphasis.

Comparison of Wideband and Narrowband FM

By convention, wideband FM has been defined as that in which the modulation
index normally exceeds unity. This is the type so far discussed. Since the
maximum permissible deviation is 75 kHz and modulating frequencies range
from 30 Hz to 15 kHz, the maximum modulation index ranges from 5 to 2500.
(The maximum permissible deviation for the sound accompanying TV
transmissions is 25 kHz in the United States' NTSC system and 50 kHz in the
PAL system used in Europe and Australia. Both are wideband systems.) The
modulation index in narrowband FM is near unity, since the maximum
modulating frequency there is usually 3 kHz, and the maximum deviation is
typically 5 kHz