Content

• INTRODUCTION
• APPLICATIONS OF NANOTECHNOLOGY IN CONSTRUCTION
• NANOTECHNOLOGY AND CONCRETE
• ADDITION OF NANOSIZED AND NANO-STRUCTURED MATERIALS
• USE OF NANOREINFORCEMENTS
• NANOTECHNOLOGY IN STRUCTURAL COMPOSITES
• APPLICATIONS IN STEEL STRUCTURES, JOINT AND WELDS
• NANO-COMPOSITES
• APPLICATIONS IN WOOD
• APPLICATIONS IN COATING
• NANOTECHNOLOGY AND FIRE PROTECTION
• NANOSENSORS
• FUTURE CHALLENGES AND DIRECTIONS
• FABRICATION
• HEALTH
• ENVIRONMENT
• COST
• CONCLUSION
• REFERENCE
1. INTRODUCTION

Nanotechnology is one of the most active research areas that include a number
of disciplines including civil engineering and construction materials.
Nanotechnology is the understanding, control, and restructuring of matter on
the order of nanometers (i.e., less than 100 nm) to create materials with
fundamentally new properties and functions. Nanotechnology encompasses two
main approaches: (i) the ‘‘topdown” approach, in which larger structures are
reduced in size to the nanoscale while maintaining their original properties or
deconstructed from larger structures into their smaller, composite parts and (ii)
the ‘‘bottom-up” approach, also called ‘‘molecular nanotechnology” or
‘‘molecular manufacturing,” in which materials are engineered from atoms or
molecular components through a process of assembly or self-assembly.
Traditionally nanotechnology has been concerned with developments in the
fields of microelectronics, medicine and material sciences. However the
potential for applications of many developments in the nanotechnology field in
the area of construction engineering is growing. The evolution of technology and
instrumentation as well as its related scientific areas such as physics and
chemistry is making the nanotechnology aggressive and evolutional. There are
many potential areas where nanotechnology can benefit construction
engineering like its applications in concrete, structural composites, coating
materials and in nano-sensors, etc. Nanotechnology products can be used for
design and construction processes in many areas. The nanotechnology
generated products have unique characteristics, and can significantly fix current
construction problems, and may change the requirement and organisation of
construction process. The recent developments in the study and manipulation of
materials and processes at the nanoscale offer the great prospect of producing
new macro materials, properties and products. But till date, nanotechnology
applications and advances in the construction and building materials fields have
been uneven. Exploitation of nanotechnology in concrete on a commercial scale
remains limited with few results successfully converted into marketable
products. The main advances have been in the nanoscience of cementitious
materials with an increase in the knowledge and understanding of basic
phenomena in cement at the nanoscale.
2. APPLICATIONS OF NANOTECHNOLOGY IN CONSTRUCTION
2.1. NANOTECHNOLOGY AND CONCRETE
Concrete, the most ubiquitous material in the world, is a nanostructured,
multi-phase, composite material that ages over time. It is composed of an
amorphous phase, nanometer to micrometer size crystals, and bound water.
The amorphous phase, calcium–silicate–hydrate (C–S–H) is the ‘‘glue” that
holds concrete together and is itself a nanomaterial. Viewed from the bottom-
up, concrete at the nanoscale is a composite of molecular assemblages,
surfaces (aggregates, fibres), and chemical bonds that interact through local
chemical reactions, intermolecular forces, and intraphase diffusion. Properties
characterizing this scale are molecular structure; surface functional groups;
and bond length, strength (energy), and density. The structure of the
amorphous and crystalline phases and of the interphase boundaries originates
from this scale. The properties and processes at the nanoscale define the
interactions that occur between particles and phases at the microscale and the
effects of working loads and the surrounding environment at the macroscale.
Processes occurring at the nanoscale ultimately affect the engineering
properties and performance of the bulk material. There are two main avenues
of applications of nanotechnology in concrete research;the nanoscience and
nano-engineering. Nanoscience deals with the measurement and
characterization of the nano and microscale structure of cement based
materials to better understand how this structure affects macroscale
properties and performance through the use of advanced characterization
techniques and atomistic or molecular level modeling. Nano-engineering
encompasses the techniques of manipulation of the structure at the
nanometer scale to develop a new generation of tailored, multifunctional,
cementitious composites with superior mechanical performance and
durability potentially having a range of novel properties such as: low electrical
resistivity, self-sensing capabilities, self-cleaning, self-healing, high ductility,
and self control of cracks. Concrete can be nano-engineered by the
incorporation of nanosized building blocks or objects (e.g., nanoparticles and
nanotubes) to control material behavior and add novel properties, or by the
grafting of molecules onto cement particles, cement phases, aggregates, and
additives (including nanosized additives) to provide surface functionality,
which can be adjusted to promote specific interfacial interactions.
 At the basic science level, much analysis of concrete is being done at the nano-
level in order to understand its structure using the various techniques
developed for study at that scale such as Atomic Force Microscopy (AFM),
Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM) and Focused Ion Beam (FIB). This has
come about as a side benefit of the development of these instruments to study
the nanoscale in general, but the understanding of the structure and behaviour
of concrete at the fundamental level is an important and very appropriate use
of nanotechnology. One of the fundamental aspects of nanotechnology is its
interdisciplinary nature and there has already been cross over research
between the mechanical modeling of bones for medical engineering to that of
concrete which has enabled the study of chloride diffusion in concrete (which
causes corrosion of reinforcement). Concrete is, after all, a macro-material
strongly influenced by its nano-properties and understanding it at this new
level is yielding new avenues for improvement of strength, durability and
monitoring.

Crystallised C-S-H 2*2 µm² Atomic resolution 20*20 nm²

Fig 2.1. Nanoscale structure of C-S-H crystallized on calcite substrate and

revealed by AFM
( from the American Ceramic Society Bulletin, 2005, Vol. 84 ).
Nano-engineering, or nanomodification, of cement is a quickly emerging field.
Synthesis and assembly of materials in the nanometer scale range offer the
possibility for the development of new cement additives such as novel
superplasticizers, nanoparticles, or nanoreinforcements. These techniques can be
used effectively in a bottom-up approach to control concrete properties,
performance, and degradation processes for a superior concrete and to provide
the material with new functions and smart properties not currently available.
Engineering concrete at the nanoscale can take place in one or more of three
locations: in the solid phases, in the liquid phase, and at interfaces, including
liquid–solid and solid–solid interfaces. While nano-engineering of cement-based
materials is seen as having tremendous potential, nonetheless, several challenges
will need to be solved to realize its full potential, including the proper dispersion
of the nanoscale additives, scale-up of laboratory results and implementation on
larger scale, and a lowering of the cost benefit ratio.

2.1.1. Addition of nanosized and nano-structured materials

Nanosized particles have a high surface area to volume ratio, providing the
potential for tremendous chemical reactivity. Much of the work to date with
nanoparticles has been with nano-silica (nano-SiO2) and nano-titanium oxide
(nano TiO2) .There are a few studies on incorporating nano-iron (nano-Fe2O3),
nano-alumina (nano-Al2O3) , and nanoclay particles . Additionally, a limited
number of investigations are dealing with the manufacture of nanosized cement
particles and the development of nanobinders . Nanoparticles can act as nuclei
for cement phases, further promoting cement hydration due to their high
reactivity, as nanoreinforcement, and as filler, densifying the microstructure and
the ITZ, thereby, leading to a reduced porosity. The most significant issue for all
nanoparticles is that of effective dispersion. Though it is particularly significant at
high loadings, even low loadings experience problems with self-aggregation,
which reduces the benefits of their small size and creates un-reacted pockets
leading to a potential for concentration of stresses in the material. Nano-SiO2 has
been found to improve concrete workability and strength, to increase resistance
to water penetration, and to help control the leaching of calcium, which is closely
associated with various types of concrete degradation. Nano-SiO2, additionally,
was shown to accelerate the hydration reactions of both C3S and an ash cement
mortar as a result of the large and highly reactive surface of the nanoparticles.
Nano-SiO2 was found to be more efficient in enhancing strength than silica fume.
Addition of 10% nano-SiO2 with dispersing agents was observed to increase the
compressive strength of cement mortars at 28 days by as much as 26%, compared
to only a 10% increase with the addition of 15% silica fume. Even the addition of
small amounts (0.25%) of nano-SiO2 was observed to increase the strength,
improving the 28 day compressive strength by 10% and flexural strength by 25%.
It was noted that the results obtained depended on the production route and
conditions of synthesis of the nano-SiO2 (e.g., molar ratios of the reagents, type
of reaction media, and duration of the reaction for the sol–gel method) and that
dispersion of the nano-SiO2 in the paste plays an important role. Nano-SiO2 not
only behaved as a filler to improve the microstructure but also as an activator to
promote pozzolanic reactions .

Fig 2.2 Spherical nano-SiO2 particles of uniform distribution observed using

TEM( of size 20 nm and 100 nm)
(Courtesy of I. Flores and E.L. Cuellar)
Nano-TiO2 has proven very effective for the self-cleaning of concrete and
provides the additional benefit of helping to clean the environment. Nano-TiO2
containing concrete acts by triggering a photocatalytic degradation of pollutants,
such as NOx, carbon monoxide, VOCs, chlorophenols, and aldehydes from vehicle
and industrial emissions. ‘‘Self-cleaning” and ‘‘de-polluting” concrete products
are already being produced by several companies for use in the facades of
buildings (e.g., the Jubilee Church in Rome, Italy). In addition to imparting self-
cleaning properties, a few studies have shown that nano-TiO2 can accelerate the
early-age hydration of Portland cement, improve compressive and flexural
strengths, and enhance the abrasion resistance of concrete. However, it was also
found that aging due to carbonation may result in loss in catalytic efficiency.
 Fig 2.3. Building made by using self-cleaning concrete (Church ‘‘Dives in
Misericordia”, Rome, Italy)
( from Construction and Building Materials 25 (2011), 587)
Nano-Fe2O3 has been found to provide concrete with self-sensing capabilities as
well as to improve its compressive and flexural strengths. Nano-Al2O3 has been
shown to significantly increase the modulus of elasticity (up to 143% at a dosage
of 5%) but to have a limited effect on the compressive strength. Nanosized cement
particles and nanobinders have been proposed as a way to improve cement
performance while reducing carbon emissions. Cement pastes made with
nanosized cement particles have shown faster setting times and an increase in
early compressive strength compared to pastes prepared with common. The
concept of a nanobinder involves mechano chemical activation that is obtained
by inter-grinding cement with dry mineral additives in a ball mill. Mechano-
chemical modification of cement with high volumes of blast furnace slag has been
shown to increase the compressive strength by up to 62%. Nanoclay particles have
shown promise in enhancing the mechanical performance, the resistance to
chloride penetration, and the self-compacting properties of concrete and in
reducing permeability and shrinkage. Natural clay particles are micron and sub-
micron in size, and the base structure of clay is composed of crystalline layers of
aluminum phyllosilicates with thicknesses on the order of 1 nm. Chemical binding
of PVA (polyvinyl alcohol) to exfoliated clay particles recently has been proposed
to create linked clay particle chains that, when incorporated in cement, were
shown to improve the post-failure properties of the material.
2.1.2 Use of Nanoreinforcements
Carbon nanotubes/nanofibers (CNTs/CNFs) are potential candidates for use as
nanoreinforcements in cement-based materials. CNTs/CNFs exhibit extraordinary
strength with moduli of elasticity on the order of TPa and tensile strength in the
range of GPa, and they have unique electronic and chemical properties.
CNTs/CNFs, thus, appear to be among the most promising nanomaterials for
enhancing the mechanical properties of cement-based materials and their
resistance to crack propagation while providing such novel properties as
electromagnetic field shielding and self-sensing. Single-wall CNTs (SWCNTs), multi-
wall CNTs (MWCNTs), and CNFs are highly structured graphene ring-based
materials with very large aspect ratios (of 1000 or more) and very high surface
areas. SWCNTs are single graphene cylinders and MWCNTs are multiple,
concentric graphene cylinders coaxially arranged around a hollow core. Unlike
CNTs, CNFs present numerous exposed edge planes along the surface that
constitute potential sites for advantageous chemical or physical interaction.
Compared to CNTs, vapor grown CNFs have a lower production cost (about 100
times lower than SWCNTs ) and are suitable for mass production. While CNTs/CNFs
have been extensively studied in polymeric composites, their use in cement has,
to date, remained limited. Most research efforts have focused on CNTs compared
to CNFs and have been performed on cement pastes. One of the main challenges
is the proper dispersion of CNTs/CNFs into cement paste, partly due to their high
hydrophobicity and partly due to their strong self-attraction. Incorporating the
unique mechanical properties of CNTs/CNFs in cement composites has proven to
be rather complex and to date mixed results have been obtained. A number of
methods have been investigated to improve dispersion and to activate the
graphite surface in order to enhance the interfacial interaction through surface
functionalization and coating, optimal physical blending, and the use of surfactant
and other admixtures.

Fig 2.4 Crack bridging observed in cement-CNT composites.

( from the proceedings of ‘‘The 3rd International Conference on Construction
Materials:Performance, Innovations and Structural Implications”)
 Fig 2.5. Graphite sheets of nanotubes
CNTs can affect early-age hydration and that a strong bond is possible between
the cement paste and the CNTs. Their dispersion process consisted of sonication
in isopropanol followed by cement addition, evaporation, and grinding, which
produced cement particles coated with CNTs. Both MWCNTs and SWCNTs, when
added to cement paste as a pre-mix with gum Arabic (a water-soluble gum used
as a dispersing agent), were shown to increase the Young’s modulus and hardness.
But the mechanical properties got worsen when no dispersing agent was added.
When MWCNTs was introduced as a water suspension with added surfactant
admixtures , did not increase the compressive and bending strengths, though
good dispersion was obtained. They also found the bonding between the
MWCNTs and the cement matrix to be very weak, where, under tension, the
MWCNTs were easily pulled off the matrix. But the combination of MWCNTs with
polyacrylic-acid polymers found improved dispersion, good workability, and
increased compressive strength. In mortar, a study using untreated CNTs and CNTs
pre-treated with sulfuric and nitric acid found an increase in compressive strength
up to 19% and in flexural strength up to 25% and that CNTs can decrease the
electrical resistivity and improve the pressure sensitive properties of mortars.
Oxidized multi-walled nanotubes (MWNT’s) show the best improvements both in
compressive strength (+ 25 N/mm²) and flexural strength (+ 8 N/mm²) compared
to the reference samples without the reinforcement. It is theorized the high defect
concentration on the surface of the oxidized MWNTs could lead to a better linkage
between the nanostructures and the binder thus improving the mechanical
properties of the composite rather like the deformations on reinforcing bars.
However, two problems with the addition of carbon nanotubes to any material
are the clumping together of the tubes and the lack of cohesion between them
and the matrix bulk material. Due to the interaction between the graphene sheets
of nanotubes, the tubes tend to aggregate to form bundles or “ropes” and the
ropes can even be entangled with one another. To achieve uniform dispersion they
must be disentangled. Further more due to their graphite nature, there is not a
proper adhesion between the nanotube and the matrix causing what it is called
sliding. An alternative approach was recently developed by Cwirzen et al. for a
hybridized Portland cement that incorporated CNTs and CNFs grown in situ on the
cement particles using a modified chemical vapor deposition method. The
resulting hybrid cement, called Carbon Hedge Hog (CHH), allows for a composite
containing up to 20% CNTs/CNFs. No significant change in the flexural strength
was found; however, the electrical conductivity was increased by one order of
magnitude. The cost of adding CNT’s to concrete may be prohibitive at the
moment, but work is being done to reduce their price and at such time the
benefits offered by their addition to cementitious materials may become more
palatable.

Fig.2.6 Carbon nanotubes: right schematics; left microstructure

(from Construction and Building Materials 25 (2011), 583)
2.2. NANOTECHNOLOGY IN STRUCTURAL COMPOSITES
2.2.1. Applications in Steel Structures, joint and welds
Fatigue is a significant issue that can lead to the structural failure of steel subject
to cyclic loading, such as in bridges or towers. This can happen at stresses
significantly lower than the yield stress of the material and lead to a significant
shortening of useful life of the structure. The current design philosophy entails
one or more of three limiting measures: a design based on a dramatic reduction
in the allowable stress, a shortened allowable service life or the need for a regular
inspection regime. This has a significant impact on the life-cycle costs of structures
and limits the effective use of resources and it is therefore a sustainability as well
as a safety issue. Stress risers are responsible for initiating cracks from which
fatigue failure results and research has shown that the addition of copper nano
particles reduces the surface unevenness of steel which then limits the number of
stress risers and hence fatigue cracking. Advancements in this technology would
lead to increased safety, less need for monitoring and more efficient materials use
in construction prone to fatigue issues. Current research into the refinement of
the cementite phase of steel to a nano-size has produced stronger cables. High
strength steel cables, as well as being used in car tyres, are used in bridge
construction and in pre-cast concrete tensioning and a stronger cable material
would reduce the costs and period of construction, especially in suspension
bridges as the cables are run from end to end of the span. Sustainability is also
enhanced by the use of higher cable strength as this leads to a more efficient use
of materials High rise structures require high strength joints and this in turn leads
to the need for high strength bolts. The capacity of high strength bolts is realized
generally through quenching and tempering. When the tensile strength of
tempered steel exceeds 1,200 MPa even a very small amount of hydrogen
embrittles the grain boundaries and the steel material may fail during use. This
phenomenon, which is known as delayed fracture, has hindered the further
strengthening of steel bolts and their highest strength has long been limited to
somewhere around 1,000 to 1,200 MPa. Research work on vanadium and
molybdenum nano particles has shown that they improve the delayed fracture
problems associated with high strength bolts. This is the result of the nano
particles reducing the effects of hydrogen embrittlement and improving the steel
micro structure through reducing the effects of the inter-granular cementite
phase. Welds and the Heat Affected Zone (HAZ) adjacent to welds can be brittle
and fail without warning when subjected to sudden dynamic loading, and weld
toughness is a significant issue especially in zones of high seismic activity. The
current design philosophies include selective weakening of structures to produce
controlled deformation away from brittle welded joints or the deliberate over-
sizing of structures to keep all stresses low. Research has shown that the addition
of nanoparticles of magnesium and calcium makes the HAZ grains finer (about
1/5th the size of conventional material) in plate steel and this leads to an increase
in weld toughness. This is a sustainable as well as a safety issue, as an increase in
toughness at welded joints would result in a smaller resource requirement
because less material is required in order to keep stresses within allowable limits.
Although carbon nano tubes (CNT’s) have tremendous properties of strength and
stiffness, they have found little application as an addition to steel as their inherent
slipperiness (due to their graphitic nature) makes them difficult to bind to the bulk
material and they pull out easily, rendering them ineffective. In addition, the high
temperatures involved in steel manufacture and the effects of this on CNT’s
presents a challenge for their effective use as a composite component.

2.2.2. Nano-composites
Two relatively new products that are available today are Sandvik Nanoflex
(produced by Sandvik Materials Technology) and MMFX2 steel (produced by
MMFX Steel Corp). Both are corrosion resistant nano-composite, but have
different mechanical properties and are the result of different applications of
nanotechnology. The modern construction requires steel of high strength and
ductility. This has led to the use of low strength ductile material in larger sizes than
would otherwise be possible with high strength brittle material and consequently
it is an issue of sustainability and efficient use of resources. Sandvik Nanoflex has
both the desirable qualities of a high Young’s Modulus and high strength and it is
also resistant to corrosion due to the presence of very hard nanometre-sized
particles in the steel matrix. It effectively matches high strength with exceptional
formability and currently it is being used in the production of parts as diverse as
medical instruments and bicycle components, however, its applications are
growing. The use of stainless steel reinforcement in concrete structures has
normally been limited to high risk environments as its use is cost prohibitive.
However, MMFX2 steel, while having the mechanical properties of conventional
steel, has a modified nano-structure that makes it corrosion resistant and it is an
alternative to conventional stainless steel, but widely not accepted due to its high
cost.
2.2.3. Applications in Wood
Wood is also composed of nanotubes or “nanofibrils”; namely, lignocellulosic
(woody tissue) elements which are twice as strong as steel. Harvesting these
nanofibrils would lead to a new paradigm in sustainable construction as both the
production and use would be part of a renewable cycle. Lignocellulosic surfaces
at the nanoscale could open new opportunities for such things as self-sterilizing
surfaces, internal self-repair, and electronic lignocellulosic devices. Due to its
natural origins, wood is leading the way in cross-disciplinary research and
modelling techniques. Firstly, BASF have developed a highly water repellent
coating based on the actions of the lotus leaf as a result of the incorporation of
silica and alumina nano particles and hydrophobic polymers. And, secondly,
mechanical studies of bones have been adapted to model wood, for instance in
the drying process. In the broader sense, nanotechnology represents a major
opportunity for the wood industry to develop new products, substantially reduce
processing costs, and open new markets for bio-based materials .

2.3 APPLICATIONS IN COATING

Coating is an area of significant research in nanotechnology. Much of the work
involves Chemical Vapour Deposition (CVD), Dip, Meniscus, Spray and Plasma
Coating in order to produce a layer which is bound to the base material to produce
a surface of the desired protective or functional properties. Nanotechnology is
being applied to paints and insulating properties, produced by the addition of
nano-sized cells, pores and particles. This type of paint is used, at present, for
corrosion protection under insulation since it is hydrophobic and repels water
from the metal pipe and can also protect metal from salt water attack. TiO2 nano
particles are also being used in coating material. The TiO2 coating captures and
breaks down organic and inorganic air pollutants by a photo catalytic process (a
coating of 7000m²of road in Milan gave a 60% reduction in nitrous oxides). TiO2
is used to coat glazing because of its sterilizing and anti-fouling properties. The
TiO2 will break down and disintegrate organic dirt through powerful catalytic
reaction. Furthermore, it is hydrophilic, which allow the water to spread evenly
over the surface and wash away dirt previously broken down. Other special
coatings also have been developed, such as anti-fraffiti, thermal control, energy
sawing, anti-reflection coating. This research opens up the intriguing possibility of
putting roads to good environmental use. Another application is coating of glass
materials. The current state of the art in cladding is an active system which tracks
sun, wind and rain in order to control the building environment and contribute to
sustainability, but this is unreliable and difficult to calibrate and maintain.
Consequently, there is a lot of research being carried out on the application of
nanotechnology to glass so as to improve its properties. Titanium dioxide (TiO2)
is used in nano particle form to coat glazing. Glass incorporating this self cleaning
technology increases the efficiency of buildings. Fire-protective glass is another
application of nanotechnology. This is achieved by using a clear intumescent layer
sandwiched between glass panels (an interlayer) formed of fumed silica (SiO2)
nanoparticles which turns into a rigid and opaque fire shield when heated. Most
of glass in construction is, of course, on the exterior surface of buildings and the
control of light and heat entering through building glazing is a major sustainability
issue. Research into nano technological solutions are mainly done to block light
and heat coming in through windows. Firstly, thin film coatings are being
developed which are spectrally sensitive surface applications for window glass.
These have the potential to filter out unwanted infrared frequencies of light
(which heat up a room) and reduce the heat gain in building, however, these are
effectively a passive solution. As an active solution, thermo chromic technologies
are being studied which react to temperature and provide thermal insulation to
give protection from heating whilst maintaining adequate lighting. A third
strategy, that produces a similar outcome by a different process, involves
photochromic technologies which are being studied to react to changes in light
intensity by increasing absorption. And finally, electrochromic coatings are being
developed that react to changes in applied voltage by using a tungsten oxide layer;
thereby becoming more opaque at the touch of a button. All these applications
are intended to reduce energy use in cooling buildings and create a sustainable
built environment.

Fig 2.7. Using TiO2 photocatalytic material as coating on roadway for pollution
reduction: left; right – finished road showing a lighter colour (From Construction
and Building Materials, 25 (2011), 588 )
Nanotechnology and fire protection
Fire resistance of steel structures is often provided by a coating produced by a
spray-on cementitious process. Current portland cement based coatings are not
popular because they need to be thick, tend to be brittle and polymer additions
are needed to improve adhesion. However, research into nano-cement (made of
nano-sized particles) has the potential to create a new paradigm in this area of
application because the resulting material can be used as a tough, durable, high
temperature coating. This is achieved by the mixing of carbon nanotubes with the
cementious material to fabricate fibre composites that can inherit some of the
outstanding properties of the nanotubes such as strength. Polypropylene fibres
also are being considered as a method of increasing fire resistance and this is a
cheaper option than conventional insulation.

2.4. NANOSENSORS
Nano and microelectrical mechanical systems (MEMS) sensors have been
developed and used in construction to monitor and control the environment
condition and the material performance. When embedded into concrete, the
sensor system can provide crucial information about the curing process of the
cement paste through the sensed temperature and internal humidity. The sensed
temperature and internal humidity also can be integrated into available maturity
methods to predict the strength of the young concrete . Knowing the strength of
concrete at early ages has great benefits such as an increase in the productivity
and acceleration of the construction process through the reduction of the
formwork structure removal period, and an increase in the productivity of
prefabricated elements and pre-stressing concrete members. When a concrete
structure is in service, continuous monitoring of temperature and internal
humidity will provide information about the damage process of the concrete
structure due to environmental effects such as freeze/thaw cycles, chloride
diffusion, alkali-silica reaction, carbonation and dimensional changes caused by
temperature changes. MEMS devices are being manufactured using the same
materials and processes as microelectronic devices such as microprocessors and
memory chips. There are several advantages of a MEMS-based monitoring system
over other methods of condition assessment and monitoring. MEMS devices can
be embedded, bringing their readings closer to the true in situ properties of the
structure and not estimates based on external visual inspections or expensive
non-destructive tests. MEMS technology has the potential to measure the
properties of interest directly. Batch processes are used to fabricate MEMS
devices, introducing high quantity, low cost and ensuring good coverage of a
structure. Finally, MEMS devices are robust and bring improved ease of use. Their
small, encapsulated nature makes them difficult to damage while wireless
technologies make them easy to embed and interrogate. MEMS-based systems
for distributed infrastructure monitoring will have integratable technologies for
sensing, powering, wireless communication, device location, computation,
interrogation, storage, and data analysis for condition assessment. One advantage
of these sensors is their dimension. Nanosensor ranges from 1 nm to 10000 nm.
These sensors could be embedded into the structure during the construction
process. Smart aggregate, a low cost piezoceramic-based multi-functional device,
has been applied to monitor early age concrete properties such as moisture,
temperature, relative humidity and early age strength development. The sensors
can also be used to monitor concrete corrosion and cracking. The smart aggregate
can also be used for structure health monitoring. The disclosed system can
monitor internal stresses, cracks and other physical forces in the structures during
the structures' life. It is capable of providing an early indication of the health of
the structure before a failure of the structure can occur.

Fig 2.8. Manufactured MEMS chip (from Construction and Building Materials, 22
(2008), 116)
The use of processors in fire detection systems which are built into each detector
head is fairly well established these days. These improve relaibility allowing better
addressability and the ability to identify false alarms. The use of nanotechnology
in the future through the development of nano-electromechanical systems
(NEMS) The use of processors in fire detection systems which are built into each
detector head is fairly well established these days. These improve relaibility
allowing better addressability and the ability to identify false alarms. The use of
nanotechnology in the future through the development of nano-
electromechanical systems (NEMS) could see whole buildings become networked
detectors, as such devices are embedded either into elements or surfaces.

3. FUTURE CHALLENGES AND DIRECTIONS

As with most developing technologies, a major number of challenges exit during
the initiation of the application of technology into reality. It is important to be
realistic and identify and plan for the limitations and challenges inherent in this
technology. The challenges and limitations affecting applications of
nanotechnology in construction engineering are therefore considered and studied
with great importance.

3.1 FABRICATION
Current efforts in the field of nanotechnology are focussed on the fabrication,
characterization and use of these materials on a nano scale domain. This leads to
most of the developmental work focussing on very small quantities of material
that is typically far removed from the type of quantities required for typical
construction infrastructure. One of the potential solutions to this is to focus on
the nano materials to act as catalyser, thereby reducing the amount of
nanomaterials required substantially. Another viewpoint is that for many
applications, the material does not necessarily have to be used on a nano scale to
obtain a major improvement in benefits. This would be the case with reduction of
the dimensions of cement, where a substantial improvement in strength can
already be obtained through the large scale milling of the cement to a finer form
than traditional form. Although the cement may not be purely a nanomaterial as
yet, the benefits obtained would already be substantial.
3.2 HEALTH
Nanotechnology based construction products might be harmful to health. The use
of nanoparticles is very recent, it has already raised issues concerning its potential
toxicity. For example, the nanotubes might cause lung problems to the workers as
nanoparticles can cause symptoms like the ones caused by asbestos fibers. The
effects related to the inhalation of TiO2 particles with a primary particle size
between 2 and 5 nm, reporting lung inflammation for a concentration of 8.8
mg/m³. These symptoms have been confirmed and it is recommended that the
use of nanoparticles should be made with the same care already used in
Universities for materials of unknown toxicity, i.e., by using air extraction devices
to prevent inhalation and gloves to prevent dermal contact. The possibility of DNA
damage resulting in later cancer development. The nanotoxicity risk depends on
the nanoparticles type, concentration volume superficial characteristics.

3.3 ENVIRONMENT
The effect of various nanomaterials on the natural environment is hotly debated
in nanotechnology and environmental research. Various ongoing investigations
focus on the uncertainty regarding the potentials effects of materials that can exist
on the nanoscale with properties that are different that when using the material
on micro or macroscale. Some works in this regard shows that the potential effects
may be minimal. As constructed infrastructure is provided in the natural
environment, all materials used in the construction and maintenance of these
facilities need to be compatible to the natural environment and their effects on
the natural environment should not be negative. Typical potential problems in this
regard include leaching of minerals into ground water, release of minerals into
airways through the generation of dust and exposure to potentially harmful
materials during construction and maintenance operations. . The Environment
Protection Agency has considered that carbon nanotubes are a new form of
carbon that must be treated under the toxic products Act. Moreover it will create
a new category of nanowaste which has to be extracted and treated. The
nanotechnology becomes a double edge sword to the construction industry. More
research and practice efforts are needed with smart design and planning,
construction projects can be made sustainable and therefore save energy, reduce
resource usage, and avoid damages to the environment.
3.4. COST
The cost of most nanotechnology materials and equipment are relatively high.
This is due to the novelty of the technology and the complexity of the equipment
used for preparation and characterization of the materials. However, costs have
been shown to decrease over time and the expectations are that, as
manufacturing technologies improve, these costs may further decrease. Whether
the expected decrease will render the materials as run-of-the-mill construction
engineering materials will have to be seen, and depends largely on the benefits
rendered through the applications of these materials. Current option is that in
special cases, the materials will unable unique solutions to complicated problems
that cause them to be cost effective, which will lead to large scale application of
these specific technologies. In other cases the traditional methods for treating the
problem may still remain the most cost effective. It’s is a challenge for construction
engineer to solve real world transportation infrastructure problem and provide a
facility to the general public at a reasonable cost.
4. CONCLUSION
Nanotechnology offers the possibility of great advances whereas conventional
approaches, at best, offer only incremental improvements in the field of
construction engineering. Nanotechnology is not exactly a new technology, rather
it is an extrapolation of current ones to a new scale and at that scale the
conventional tools and rules no longer apply. Nanotechnology is therefore the
opposite of the traditional top-down process of construction, or indeed any
production technique, and it offers the ability to work from the “bottom” of
materials design to the “top” of the built environment. However, many of the
advances offered by nanotechnology, be they for economic or technical reasons,
are years away from practical application, especially in the conservative and
fragmented construction business. The main limitation is the high costs of
nanotechnology, also concerns with the environmental and health effects. The
waves of change being propagated by progress at the nanoscale will therefore be
felt far and wide and nowhere more so than in construction due its large economic
and social presence. There are three main issues that are preventing the
widespread use of the nanotechnology (1) Lack of vision to identify those aspects
that could be changed through its use, (2) Lack of skilled personnel and (3) Level
of investment. The potential of nanotechnology to improve the performance of
concrete and to lead to the development of novel, sustainable, advanced cement
based composites with unique mechanical, thermal, and electrical properties is
promising and many new opportunities are expected to arise in the coming years.
However, current challenges need to be solved before the full potential of
nanotechnology can be realized in concrete applications, including proper
dispersion; compatibility of the nanomaterials in cement; processing,
manufacturing, safety, and handling issues; scale-up; and cost.
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