Tab 1

I. Psychology ➔​ Prenology - personality traits

Comes from the greek word psyche means the revealed by the shape of the skull
mind or soul and logos or study of ➔​ Graphology - revealed by your
●​ Psychology is the study of mental and handwriting
behavioral processes. ➔​ Astrology - positions of the stars
and planets
Study of behavior
❖​ Bornum Effect
Basic idea of psychology is the study of the mind
bias occurs because people tend to
●​ One has to associate the way of thinking
interpret ambiguity in a way that creates
of an individual to his behavior, it will link
individualized meaning for themselves.
the behavior of man and what runs in his
head.
III. Psychogenesis of Psychology
Science Psychology
Focuses on the investigation of certain behavior Egyptians
or with the application of one or a combination of a.​ Transpersonal - focused on the study of
scientific methods. spiritual and transcendental aspects of the
human experience.
b.​ Ebers Papyrus - one of the oldest known
Mental Processes
medical works
Forms of cognition, including the man’s
●​ Mental disorders are detailed in a
perception, attention and capability to remember,
chapter of the papyrus called the
to reason, and to solve problems, dreams, and
Book of Hearts, it includes
anticipation
depression and dementia.
c.​ Polypsychism - belief in multiple souls or
II. Different types of behavior mind within a single person
d.​ Dreams are supernatural
a.​ Overt - directly observed
➔​ Walking, playing, talking, etc. Greece
b.​ Covert - cannot be directly observed a.​ Plato
➔​ thinking , lying, learning, etc. Believed in the existence of eternal soul
c.​ Conscious - within’s one awareness ●​ “Soul is distinct to man and is
➔​ Solving math problems, eating, God-given” it inhibits the body as
studying, etc. “knower” and “thinker” and
d.​ Unconscious - unaware “determiner” of the individual's
➔​ Sleep walking, hand gestures, actions
mannarism, etc.
b.​ Aristotle
❖​ Pseudo Psychologies - pseudo means Emphasized empirical observation
“false” ●​ First person to put into his writings
●​ any unfound “system” that resembles his explanation pertaining the
psychology and is NOT based on behavior of man.
scientifically proven. ●​ His three functions of the soul
➔​ Palmistry - lines on your hands
 ➔​ Vegetative - basic b.​ Rene Descartes
maintenance of life Introduced the idea of dualism and the
➔​ Appetitive - desires and concept of reflect action which indicates
motives that the mind and the body interacts.
➔​ Rational - governs reason
that is located in the heart c.​ John Locke
He introduced the idea that all
c.​ Hippocrates experiences may be analyzed
Father of medicine, and first theorized that ●​ Tabula Rasa - at birth the mind is
mental disorders arose from natural like a blank tablet that gather its
causes. contents through experiences
●​ Galen and him theorized the
relation of temperament to d.​ Charles Darwin
physiological factors He introduced the theory of evolution - the
●​ According to them behavior might theory indicates that man evolved from
be attributed to the “humors” or primitive species.
vital juices of the body of bile
e.​ Francis Galton
“Father of behavioral genetics” the idea of
individual differences
Blood Phlegm Yellow Black bile
bile ●​ He was the father of all mental test

sanguine Phlegmatic choleric melancholic Modern

irascibility sluggishness cheerful sadness a.​ Wilhelm Wundt
Father of modern/scientific psychology. He
was the first person who found the first
★​ Sanguine
psychological laboratory in University of
★​ Irascibility
Leipzig, Germany
★​ Choleric
★​ Bile
b.​ William James
Founder of american psychology
Medieval ●​ Introduced structuralism in
a.​ St. Augustine america
Introduced the method of introspection -
an individual tries to describe his own c.​ Edward Titchener
conscious process. Studied with Wilhelm Wundt and went on
to develop the idea of structuralism
Pre-Modern
a.​ Francis Bacon
Proposed that psychology should
Contemporary
separate from philosophy and should be
a.​ Sigmund Freud
treated as a natural science, in his
Father of psychoanalysis who underwent
concept naturalism.
through study of the unconscious mind
 and developed the psychoanalytic become associated with a stimulus other
process of free association. than the one that first produced it.
●​ Operant conditioning - describes how the
b.​ Charles Spearman principles of conditioning might be applied
“First systematic psychometrician and to create an ideal planned society.
father of classical test theory
Gestalt
IV. Aims and Goals of Psychology Founded by Max Wertheimer
●​ Gestalt means “to figure” or “to form or
a.​ Describing - detailed characterization of a pattern”
certain phenomenon ●​ Believed that human beings and other
b.​ Explain - to tell why a certain behavior or animals perceive the world as an
mental process occurs. organized pattern
c.​ Predict - identifying when an under
conditions a future behavior of mental Psychoanalysis
process likely to occur According to Freud people repress (force out
d.​ Control - alteration of behavior conscious awareness) any desires or needs that
are unacceptable to themselves or to society
V. School of Thoughts ●​ Repressed feelings can cause personality
disturbance, self-destructive behavior,
even physical symptoms.
Structuralism
Views behavior from the perspective of biological Humanistic
functioning
Contends that people can control their behavior
●​ Introduced ideas associated with
and that they naturally try to reach their full
experiences
potential
●​ Advocated by the founder of the first
●​ Believed that individual’s behavior is
laboratory Wilhelm Wundt
primarily determined by his perception of
●​ Believes in the importance of the structure
the world around him
of the mind
●​ Equates on the concept that the mind is
structured through conscious experiences Cognitive
Examines how people understand and think
about the world
Functionalism
●​ Focuses on the realms of human
Believes behavior is motivated by inner,
perception, thought, and memory
unconscious forces over which person has little
control

VI. Branches of Psychology

Behavioralism
Focuses on observable behavior
●​ Classical conditioning - demonstrated that Abnormal Psychology
a reflex- such as the flow of saliva can Involves the study of people’s emotional, thought,
and behavior patterns to identify and potentially
resolve any issues that may negatively affect a Experimental Psychology
person's life. (studies unusual pattern) Utilizes scientific methods to research the brain
➔​ Treat people with psychological disorders and behavior.
such as anxiety, and depression. ➔​ Methods used includes experiments,
➔​ Specialization : counselor, clinical correlational studies, case studies and
psychologist, and psychotherapist naturalistic observation

Biopsychology Forensic Psychology

Focused on how brain, neurons, and nervous Deals with issues related to psychology and the
system that influence thoughts, feelings, and law.
behaviors.(influence behavior) ➔​ Involve studying criminal behavior and
➔​ Study how brain injuries and brain disease treatment or working directly in the court
impact human behavior system
➔​ People who work in this field aren’t
Clinical Psychology necessarily “forensic psychologist”, they
Concerned with the assessment and treatment of might be clinical psychologist, school
mental illness, abnormal behavior, and psychologist, neurologist, who lend their
psychiatrist. (diagnosis of disorders) expertise to provide testimony

Cognitive Psychology Industrial-Organization Psychology

Focuses on internal mental states. Applies psychological principles to work place
➔​ Use information-processing models to issues.
describe how the mind works. ➔​ Focuses on product design, ergonomics,
human capability, and human-computer
Comparative Psychology interaction
Study of animal behavior.
➔​ Study of how animals behave that can School Psychology
lead to a deeper and broader Micro level
understanding of human psychology ➔​ Help kids deal with academics, emotional,
and social issues.
Developmental Psychology
Focuses on how people change and grow Social Psychology
throughout life. Seeks to understand and explain social behavior.
➔​ Study physical growth, intellectual ➔​ Focused on how people receive and
development, emotional change, social interact with others.
growth, and perceptual change ➔​ Also includes topics such as conformity,
aggression, and prejudice
Educational Psychology
Macro field of learning, and teaching method Applied Psychology
➔​ Study how students learn; Focuses on using psychological theories,
➔​ and also study disabilities, giftedness, and principles, research, to solve practical real world
the instructural process. problems
 ➔​ Educational, healthcare, workplace and
legal system

VII.

a.​ Interview - face to face interactions

b.​ Survey - data obtained from respondents
c.​ Experimental - basic foundation of
scientific research
d.​ Statistical - proper interpretation of results
and other data

VIII. Ethics of Research

a.​ Informed consent

b.​ Confidentiality
c.​ Deception

IX. Dimension of Humanity

Determinism VS Free Choice

Pessimism VS Optimism

Casuality VS Teleogy

Conscious VS Unconscious determination of

behavior

Biological VS Social Influence

Uniqueness VS Similarities
Tab 2
Ivan Pavlov (the man who studied man’s bestfriend)

Classical Conditioning

1.​ The Unconditioned Stimulus any act, influence or

agent that creates a response. An unconditioned stimulus is
when the stimulus automatically triggers some type of
response. (i.e., the food)
2.​ The Unconditioned Response automatically
triggered as a result of the unconditioned stimulus. This is a
natural unconscious reaction to whatever the stimulus might
be. (i.e., salivation )

3.​ The Conditioned Stimulus when a neutral stimulus (a stimulus that is not related to the response)
becomes associated with an unconditioned stimulus, thus triggering conditioned response. (i.e., the
bell associated with food)
4.​ The Conditioned Response a response that was learned from the once-neutral stimulus (i.e.,
bell+food = salivating)

BF Skinner (it’s all about consequences)

The Skinner Box and Operant Conditioning

1. Place a hungry rat inside of the box. Every time the rat presses a
lever inside the box, it will receive a pallet of food. The rat will soon
come to learn that by pressing the lever, it will get food (a positive
conditioned)

2. Next, place a rat into the box that gives it a slight electrical shock
(a negative reinforcement) to his feet. If the rat presses the lever, the
shock will stop. Do it once again and every time the rat is given
electric shock, the rat learns that in order to stop it, it must press the
lever.
3. Place a rat into the box and give it a slight electrical shock (the negative condition) on its feet each time it
presses the lever. The behavior of pressing the lever will be weakened because of the negative condition:
this is an example of punishment
4. Now, place the rat into the box and do not give it food or an electric shock whenever the lever is pressed.
The rat will not associate a positive or negative condition to the behavior of pressing the lever, and thus this
behavior will be weakened. This is an example of extinction.
 a.​ Positive Reinforcement a behavior is strengthened and the probability of it recurring increases
because a positive condition was the result.
b.​ Negative Reinforcement behavior is strengthened as a result of avoiding or stopping a negative
condition.
c.​ Punishment occurs when a behavior is weakened and the probability of behavior recurring
decreases due to a negative condition
d.​ Extinction a behavior is weakened because the result did not lead to a positive condition or
negative condition.

Sigmund Freud (the creator of psychoanalysis)

Stages of Psychosexual Development

a.​ Oral Stage (birth-eighteen months)

Focuses on oral pleasures like sucking because they create a sense of comfort and trust. If there is
too little or too much gratification in this stage, the child will develop an oral personality or oral
fixation and become preoccupied with oral behaviors. According to Freud, people with this type of
personality are more likely to bite their nails, smoke, drink, or overeat, and will be gullible, depend
on other people, and will always be a follower.

b.​ Anal Stage (eighteen months and three years)

Freud believed that success was achieved in this stage as a result of parents using praise and
rewards while toilet training, leaving their child feeling capable and productive - such behavior would
lead to the child having a competent, creative personality later on in life. If parents were too lenient
to the child during toilet training, he believed, it could lead to an anal-expulsive personality and the
child would be destructive, messy, and wasteful. If the parents took an approach that was too strict,
or forced toilet training too soon, this could lead to an anal-relentive personality, the child would
develop an obsession with perfection, cleanliness, and control

c.​ Phallic Stage (Three-six years)

Freud believed that, at this stage, a boy unconsciously develops a sexual desire for his mother,
sees his father as competition for her affection, and wishes to replace his father. Additionally , the
boy will develop castration anxiety as he begins to view his father as someone who is trying to
punish him for his Oedipal feelings.
●​ Carl Jung coined the term the “Electra complex,” which describes a similar relationship that
young girls experience with their fathers. - Freud disagreed with this concept, however,
believing that girls were actually experiencing penis envy

d.​ Latency Stage (six years-puberty)

Sexual urges are suppressed and the sexual energy of the child is directed towards other changes
like social interactions and intellectual activities.
e.​ Genital Stage (puberty-adulthood)
 Involves reawakening of sexual urges and sexual interest in the opposite sex.

❖​ If all the previous stages were completed successfully, the person will be caring and well-balanced,
and pleasure will be focused on the genitals. If there is fixation at this stage, the individual may have
sexual preventions.

Structural Models of Personality

Id
is based on something known as “pleasure principle,” which essentially means that the id wants
whatever feels good at that precise moment and disregards any ramifications.

Ego
Is based on something he referred to as “reality principles.” The ego comes to realize that there are other
people around that also have desires and needs, that impulsive, selfish behavior can actually lead to harm.
The ego has to consider the reality of any particular circumstance while also meeting the need of id.

Superego
This is the part of our personality that is made up of morals and ideals that have been acquired and
placed on us by society and our parents.

Freud’s Conception of the Human Psyche

The Iceberg Metaphor

a.​ Conscious - a very small portion of our personality, and

since it’s the only part of ourselves that we’re familiar with , we
actually know very little of what makes up our personality.
b.​ Preconscious or subconscious - preconscious mind can be
accessed, but it is not actively part of our conscious and requires a
little digging. (i.e., childhood memories, old telephone number, name
of a friend, etc.)
c.​ Unconscious - incredibly large and consists of those buried,
inaccessible layers of our personality. (i.e., fears, immoral urges,
shameful experiences, selfish needs, irrational wishes, etc.) there is
also where the id can be found.
d.​ Nonconscious - the water surrounding the iceberg is “nonconscious.” This is everything that has
not become our conscious. These are the things we have not experienced and are not aware of,
and therefore, they do not become part of or shape our personalities
John B. Watson (founder of behaviorism)

The Little Albert Experiment

The participant of the experiment was a nearly nine-year-old baby that Watson referred to as “Albert B.,”
but now commonly referred to as Little Albert. Watson and his research assistant Rosalie Raynor - exposed
the baby to a variety of stimuli and recorded the baby’s reactions. The stimuli included a rabbit, a monkey, a
white rat, burning newspaper, and masks. At first, the baby showed absolutely no fear to any of the stimuli.
The next time Watson exposed the child to the white rat, he simultaneously used a hammer and hit a metal
pipe, which created an extremely loud noise. The baby began to cry from the noise. Watson then repeated
the pairing of the loud noise with the white rat. Eventually , the baby began crying just from seeing the
white rat, without any noise being paired.

●​ The neutral stimulus was the white rat

●​ The unconditioned stimulus was the loud noise created by the hammer hitting the metal pipe
●​ The unconditioned response was fear
●​ The conditioned stimulus was the white rat
●​ The conditioned response was fear

❖​ As with Pavlov, Watson had shown that it was possible to create a conditioned response to a
neutral stimulus; although in Watson’s case the conditioned response was taking place in a human
and was an emotional, not merely physiological, response. Furthermore, Watson also noticed a new
fearful reaction in Little Albert to all white objects, which came to be known as stimulus
generalization.

Carl Rogers (helping the others help themselves)

Self-Actualization

He theorizes that a person behaves in certain ways because of how he or she perceives a situation and
that only people themselves can know how they perceive things.
Rogers believed that people have one basic motive, the propensity to self-actualize.

Doctoral Definitions

self -actualization: a person fulfills their potential and becomes fully-functioning, achieving the highest
level of “human-beings”

Ideal self: this is what a person would like to be. (i.e., goals, ambitions)
 ➔​ Self-actualization can be understood by using the metaphor of a flower. A flower is
constrained to its environment, and only under the right conditions will it be able to grow to
its full potential.
But humans are much more complex than flowers. We develop according to our
personalities. He posited that people were inherently good and creative, and only became
destructive when external constraints or a poor self-concept superseded the valuing
process.

➔​ A person with high self-worth, who has come close to attaining their ideal self, would be able
to face the challenges they encountered in life, accept unhappiness and failure, feel
confident and positive and positive about his or herself, and be open with others.

Congruence

If someone's ideal self is similar to or consistent with their actual experience, then they are experiencing a
state of congruence. When there is a difference between someone’s ideal self and their actual experience,
this is known as incongruence.

❖​ Rogers idea of positive regard:

a.​ Unconditional positive regard: people are loved and respected for who they are, especially by
their parents, significant others, and therapist.
➔​ This leaves a person unafraid to try new things and to make mistakes, even if the
consequences of these mistakes are not good.
b.​ Conditioned positive regard: when people receive positive regard not because they are loved and
respected for who they are, but because they behave in ways others think are correct.
➔​ When children get approval from their parents, they want them to act. Someone always
seeks approval from others most likely experienced conditional regard when he or she was
growing up.
Table 1: Visual Illustration of Congruence

The self-image is different from the The self-image is similar to the ideal
Ideal self. Here self-actualization self. This person can self actualize.
will be difficult. Theres only a There is more overlap.
little overlap.
Abraham Maslow (focus on the human potential)
Hierarchy of Needs

a.​ Physiological - psychological needs that

are most basic and vital to survival. (e.g., food,
water, air, sleep homeostasis, and sexual
reproduction)
b.​ Safety - needs that are also important for
survival, but are not crucial as the physiological
needs. (e.g., personal security, safe neighborhood,
financial security, health, etc.)
c.​ Love and Belonging - also known as social
needs (e.g., desire to belong, be loved,
feel,accepted, and not be lonely)
d.​ Esteem - need to be respected, valued by other people, and have a sense that they are
contributing to the world.
e.​ Self-Actualization - need to realize one’s full potential. A person must become everything they are
capable of becoming.

❖​ Different Types of Needs

a.​ Deficiency needs, or D-needs are needs that arise out of deprivation (e.g., security needs, esteem
needs and physiological needs)
b.​ Growth needs, also known as Being-needs or B-needs, are needs that arise out of desire to
grow as a human being. - not the result of deprivation.

Jean Piaget (the development of children)

PIAGET’S THEORY OF COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT

●​ Rather than concentrating on all learners, Piaget focused on children.

●​ Piaget’s theory did not discuss the learning of a specific behavior or the learning of information, but
rather his theory looked at overall development.
●​ Instead of the common notion that the cognitive development was gradual and the amount of
behaviors grew and became more complex, Piaget proposed a series of discrete stages that were
evident by qualitative differences.

1.​ Schemas
Basic building blocks, or units, of knowledge.
●​ Each schema relates to one part of the world, such as actions, objects, and concepts.
 ●​ A series of linked representations of the world that are used to understand and respond to a
particular situation.
➔​ If a parent shows their children a picture of a dog, the child will create a schema of
what a dog looks like: it has four legs, a tail, and ears.
❖​ If a child can explain what he or she perceives with existing schemas, this is known as being in a
state of equilibrium, or mental balance.

2.​ Processes that allow one stage to transition into another

Believed that intellectual growth was the result of adaptation and the need to always be in a state of
equilibrium. Adaptation of knowledge occurs in two ways:

a.​ Assimilation: schema that already exists and applying it to new situations.
b.​ Accommodation: changing an existence schema to take in new information
➔​ The child now has a schema of what a dog is. When the child is approached by an
actual dog, the child now faces new characteristics that were not originally part of the
schema. The dog is furry; the dog licks; the dog can bark.
❖​ Because these were not in the original schema, there is disequilibrium and the child begins to
construct meaning.

3. The stages of development

Believed that cognition develops in four stages.

●​ Sensorimotor (birth-two years)

Focuses on object permanence, where a child comes to the realization that objects will continue to
exist even if they are not seen or heard by the child.

●​ Preoperational (two-seven years)

Focus on egocentrism, meaning that from two to seven years old, children are not able to
understand the point of view of others.

●​ Concrete Operational (seven-eleven years)

Focuses on conservation, meaning that children are still not able to understand concepts that are
abstract or hypothetical, but can begin thinking logically about concrete events.

●​ Formal Operational (eleven years and older)

Focuses on the child’s ability to manipulate ideas in their head, or think abstractly. It is during this
stage that deductive reasoning, logical thought, and systematic planning emerge.