UNIT III

HEAT AND OPTICS

HEAT AND OPTICS
 HEAT
1. Heat
• During summer we feel hot. It is due to the transfer of heat from
Sun to us. Heat is an energy.
• Definition of heat: - Heat is an energy which produces sensation of
hotness or warmness.

• Units of heat: -
• S.I. Unit is joule (J)
• MKS unit is kilocalorie (kcal)
• CGS unit is (cal)
 HEAT

• Relation between calorie ,kilocalorie and Joule

 HEAT
DEFINITIONS
One calorie:
The amount of heat energy required to increase the temperature of
one gram of water through 10 C is called as One calorie.

One kilocalorie:
The amount of heat energy required to increase the temperature of one
kilogram of water through 10 C is called as One kilocalorie.
 TEMPERATURE

• Temperature
• As heat is a cause, temperature is its effect.
• Definition of Temperature: - “The temperature is the measure of
degree of hotness or coldness of a body.”
• Temperature is measured using thermometer.
• SI unit of temperature is °k (degree kelvin)
• If heat is supplied to a body, its temperature increases and if heat is
removed from a body its temperature decreases.
• Temperature is the measure of average K.E. of particles of a body.
TEMPERATURE
 Difference between heat and temperature

• Difference between heat and temperature

 Temperature Scales
• Following three scales are commonly used -
• 1) Celsius scale of temperature –
• This scale was given by sanders Celsius in 1742
In this scale lower fixed point is considered as 0°c (melting point of ice )
and upper fixed point as 100°c (B.P of water) and then scale is divided
into 100 equal parts. Each part is called as one degree Celsius (1°c)
 Temperature Scales

• 2) Fahrenheit scale of temperature

• This scale was suggested by German physicist Fahrenheit
In this scale lower fixed point is 32° F and upper fixed point is 212° F
and then it is divided into 180 equal parts. Each part is called degree
Fahrenheit. i.e. 0F.
 Temperature Scales
3) Kelvin scale or absolute scale of temperature-
• This scale is developed be Kelvin.
In this scale the lower fixed point is 273 0k and upper fixed point is
373 0k and then it is divided into 100 equal parts, each part is called
as one-degree Kelvin (1°K)
Relation between °K, °C, °F
MODES OF TRANSFER OF HEAT
 CONDUCTION
•1) CONDUCTION :
Definition : Conduction is the process by which heat flows from
the hot end to the cold end of a solid body without any net
bodily movement of the particles of the body.
 CONDUCTION
• Explanation of conduction process
• 1) Heat passes through solids by conduction only.
When one end of a metal rod is placed in a flame while the
other end is held in hand, the end held in hand slowly gets
hotter, although it itself is not in direct contact with flame.
• 2) We say that heat has been conducted from the hot end to the
cold end.
CONDUCTION(Explanation of conduction process continued…)
• 3)When one end of the rod is heated, the molecules there vibrate
faster.
• 4) As they collide with their slow moving neighbors, they transfer
some of their energy by collision to these molecules which in turn
transfer energy to their neighboring molecules
• 5)Thus the energy of thermal motion is transferred by molecular
collisions down the rod. The transfer of heat continues till the two
ends of the rod are at the same temperature
Conduction
 Law of thermal conductivity
• Consider a rod AB of metal. This rod is in steady state of [Link].
no heat is lost to the surroundings by convective and radiation.
• ie. Heat absorbed =Heat given out
• Consider two points C and D in the metal rod, as shown in the fig
 Law of thermal conductivity
• The amount of heat conducted(Q) through the rod in steady
state is
directly proportional to
1) cross sectional area (A)
2) temperature difference between layers C and D i.e. (Ө1- Ө2)
3) time for which heat flows i.e. (t)
and
inversely proportional to
4) distance d between two planes C & D (d)
Law of thermal conductivity
coefficient of thermal conductivity
Unit of coefficient of thermal conductivity
Temperature gradient
Good conductor and Bad conductor
 CONVECTION
• CONVECTION:
• Definition : Convection is the process by which heat flows
from one point to another by the actual bodily movement
of the heated molecules within the fluid.
• In liquids and gases heat is transmitted by convection
because their molecules are quite free to move about.
 CONVECTION
• The mechanism of heat
transfer by convection in
liquids and gases is described
below.
• 1)Consider water being heated in a
vessel from below.
• 2)The water at the bottom of the
vessel is heated first and
consequently its density decreases
i.e., water molecules at the bottom
are separated farther apart
 CONVECTION (Continued… )
• 3)These hot molecules have high kinetic
energy and rise upward to cold region
while the molecules from cold region
come down to take their place.
• 4) Thus each molecule at the bottom
gets heated and rises then cools and
descends. This action sets up the flow
of water molecules called convection
currents. The convection currents
transfer heat to the entire mass of
water.
Types of convection
 RADIATION
•Radiation process
• For transfer of heat by radiation, molecules are not needed
i.e. medium is not required.
• In fact, transfer of heat by radiation has the same properties
as light (or EM wave).
 RADIATION
•RADIATION:
• Definition : The transfer of heat energy from one place
to another via emission of EM energy (in a straight line
with the speed of light) without heating the intervening
medium is called radiation.
• Example: The fact that Earth receives large quantities of heat
form the Sun shows that heat can pass through empty space
(i.e., vacuum) between the Sun and the atmosphere that
surrounds the Earth
BOYLE’S LAW
CHARLE’S LAW
GAY LUSSAC’S LAW
GENERAL GAS EQUATION
UNIVERSAL GAS CONSTANT
 SPECIFIC HEAT OF A GAS

• There are two principal specific heat of a gas

• 1) Specific heat of a gas at constant at constant volume(Cv)
• 2) Specific heat of a gas at constant pressure(Cp)
Specific heat of a gas at constant volume(Cv)
Specific heat of a gas at constant pressure(Cp)
 UNITS OF SPECIFIC HEAT OF GAS

Cal/gm0C ----------C.G.S. unit

Kcal /Kg0C ------------M.K.S. unit
J/kg0K -----------S.I. unit
RELATION BETWEEN (Cp) AND (Cv)
RELATION BETWEEN (Cp) AND (Cv) (Continued… )
Ratio of specific heats
 TOTAL INTERNAL FEFLECTION
• Consider light rays form point source in optically denser medium
(glass) falls on the surface on other side which is less optically
medium (air).
• For the rays a , b, c, there are both reflection & refraction taking
place for the ray e , f no refraction only reflection take place.
IMPORTANT FORMULAE
IMPORTANT FORMULAE
EXAMPLES
EXAMPLES
EXAMPLES
EXAMPLES
EXAMPLES
EXAMPLES
 OPTICS
Reflection of light-
• When light reaches reflecting media then it bounces (rebounds) back in the same
media.
 Reflection of light-
Laws of reflection
1) Angle of incidence is equal to angle of reflection  i =  r
2) Incident ray, reflected ray & normal lie in same plane.

DEFINITION OF REFLECTION
Reflection is defined as property of light on account of which light
bounces back in the same medium when it falls on reflecting surface.
 Refraction of light
• Refraction is defined as property of light on account of which
light changes its path (direction) when it enters form one medium
into other medium.
 Refraction of light
• If incident light is perpendicular to the surface, then light passes
without bending and for all other angle of incidence bending of
light takes place.
• When light travels form one medium to other then there is
change in velocity as well as wavelength of light but the
frequency remains unchanged
SNELL’S LAW OF REFRACTION
SNELL’S LAE OF REFRACTION
SNELL’S LAE OF REFRACTION
TOTAL INTERNAL REFLECTION
TOTAL INTERNAL REFLECTION
 TOTAL INTERNAL FEFLECTION

• Critical angle (𝜽𝒄)- It is the angle of incidence at which angle of

refraction is 900 OR
• Critical angle 𝜽𝒄 is defined as a particular value of angle of incidence
at which refracted ray emerges along interface
 TOTAL INTERNAL FEFLECTION

Total Internal Reflection (T.I.R.)

Definition

If light travels form high R.I to low R.I. and if angle of

incidence is greater than critical angle then only reflection
takes place which is called Total Internal Reflection.
 OPTICAL FIBER
• Optical fiber is a thin dielectric material cables made up of
(silica) glass or plastic.
• Optical fiber carries light (electromagnetic waves) from one
end of fiber to other end because of total internal refraction
 OPTICAL FIBER
Principle of optical fiber - The optical fiber works on the principle
of Total Internal Reflection (T.I.R).
When monochromatic light is obliquely incident on the
interface between optically denser medium & rarer medium
and if angle of incidence is greater than critical angle then no
refraction takes place and only reflection takes place which is
called total internal reflection.
STRUCTURE (CONSTRUCTION) OF OPTICAL FIBER

• Communication optical fiber has cylindrical core surrounded with

cylindrical coat of cladding coated with protective skin
(insulation, jacket).
STRUCTURE (CONSTRUCTION) OF OPTICAL FIBER

• When light enters into core it propagates by means of total internal

reflection at core cladding interface and emerges out form the other
end
• 1) Core- The light is transmitted within core. The core is innermost
layer. The refraction index of core is slightly greater than cladding.
The typical value of refraction index of core is 1.48
STRUCTURE (CONSTRUCTION) OF OPTICAL FIBER

2) Cladding- The cladding keeps light waves with core

because refractive index of cladding is less than that of core.
Typical value of refractive index of cladding is 1.46 .It also
provides some strength to core.
STRUCTURE (CONSTRUCTION) OF OPTICAL FIBER

• 3) Protective skin- The protective skin protects fiber form

moisture. This protective skin provides mechanical strength
to optical cable.
• Optical fiber is made from either glass (silk) or plastic
Following two conditions are necessary for T.I.R.

1) µ1>µ2 i.e. refractive index of first medium should be greater than

second
medium
2) i > θ c i.e. angle of incidence should be greater than critical angle
 DIMENSIONS OF OPTICAL FIBER

• The length of optical fiber is normally 1km they can be

joined using suitable connectors.
• Outer diameter of fiber ranges from 0.1 mm to
0.15mm.
• Core diameter ranges from 5µm to 600 µm (typical
value is approximately 50µm)
• Cladding diameter varies from 125µm to 750µm.
• Thickness of protective skin varies from 30 to 50µm
 DEFINITIONS
• 1) Critical angle (𝜽𝒄)- It is the angle of incidence at which
angle of refraction is 900

OR

Critical angle 𝜽𝒄 is defined as a particular value of angle of

incidence at which refracted ray emerges along interface
 DEFINITIONS
2) Acceptance angle (𝜽a max)-
• The maximum value of external incident angle for which
light will propagate in the optical fiber
• It is also called acceptance cone half angle
 DEFINITIONS
3)Acceptance cone-
• If 𝜽a is rotated around the core axis then cone is formed which is
called acceptance cone. If light is allowed to fall within this cone
(tunnel) then it will propagate till far end
 DEFINITIONS
4) Numerical aperture (NA)-
• It is the sine of maximum acceptance angle
NA = sin 𝜽a max
1) It measures the light gathering capacity of optical fiber.
2) Greater the numerical aperture greater the numerical aperture
greater is the amount of light the optical fiber will accept
Path (propagation or transmission of light through
optical fiber)
Path (propagation or transmission of light through optical
fiber)
• A beam of light is focused at one end of cable if the angle of
incidence of light greater than critical angle then total internal
reflection takes place & light beam are reflected through the
fiber.
Path (propagation or transmission of light through
optical fiber)
• The beam bounces back and passes the cable & it exit at the other end the
light which travels from one end to other end is called “light is guided”
through fiber
• Because of total internal reflection light beam will continue to propagate
through the fiber even though it is bent number of times. More bending may
cause angle of incidence to change & hence loss of light may take place.
With long little bends the light with stay within the cable
 TYPE OF OPTICAL FIBER

Type Depending on variation of refractive index of core and

mode of propagation ,the optical fiber are of different types.
 1) Step index optical fiber

• Step index optical fiber – In this types refractive index of

core is uniform through the fiber thus if we move radially
outward form core axis then there is step (sudden) change
in refractive index at core cladding interface. Propagation
of light through step index optical fiber is zig- zag
• Types
• a) Step index single mode optical
• b) Multimode step index optical fiber-
 a) Step index single mode optical
• Core diameter of this fiber is very small it is about 10µm. There is
only one path of ray of propagation hence it is called single mode &
the path is zig-zag i.e. in this type there is only one zig-zag path
b) Multimode step index optical fiber-
• 1) Core diameter of this is larger than single mode & it is 50-200µm.
• 2) There are many paths of propagation hence it is called multimode &
paths are zig-zag. Thus there are many paths that are zig-zag.
• 3)Some light paths are longer & some are shorter hence some light rays
exit latter some rays exit earlier
 2) Multimode graded index optical fiber
• Core diameter of this fiber varies form 50-200µm. Because of
different refractive index within core ,light travels with different
speed ,longer paths are faster & shorter paths are slower. Therefore,
all rays reach at same time
 Applications of optical fiber

Fiber optic cable has outstanding properties they are lighter in weight, less
bulky flexible and carries large data with High speed so it has many
applications
1) Optical fiber in communication- Because of large bandwidth it can
handle number of channels hence found large applications in
communication
2)Telephone- Using optical fiber communication we can connect faster & have clear
conversations
3) Internet– Optical fiber can pass large data & with faster speed. This technology is
used internet cables
4)Computer networking- networking between computer in same
building is made easier & faster with the use of fiber optical cables

5)Used in industrial atomization system

6)Used for signaling purpose in military

7)To observe internal organs in medical field

8)Used in cable television

9) Used in defense for confidential communication
10)Used for transmission of digital data
11)Sensors- Optical fiber sensors are used to control liquid level
temperature, pressure, chemical concentration etc. in automation
system example if temperature changes then refractive index of
optical fiber change & this property is used in temperature sensors
12)Used as phase modulated sensors, polarized modulated sensors
APPLICATION OF CONDUCTION
APPLICATION OF CONDUCTION
APPLICATION OF CONVECTION
APPLICATION OF RADIATION