Methodology S2

What is Research:
 Systematic investigation to establish facts and reach new conclusions.
 Endeavor to discover or collect facts through scientific study.

Approaches to research:

 Qualitative research: This approach focuses on understanding the

subjective experiences, meanings, and interpretations of people. It
often uses methods such as interviews, focus groups, and
observations.
 Quantitative research: This approach focuses on measuring and
analyzing numerical data to test hypotheses and draw conclusions. It
often uses methods such as
surveys, experiments, and statistical analysis.
 Mixed methods: This approach combines qualitative and quantitative
methods to get a more complete understanding of a research topic.

Types of research:

Based on methods:
 Empirical research: This type of research collects data from the real world through
observation, experiments, or surveys.
 Conceptual research: This type of research deals with abstract ideas and concepts,
often using logical reasoning and existing theories.
‘’Empirical research’’ can be further divided into : (based on material):
Based on purpose:
 Fundamental research (pure research): This type of research aims to advance
knowledge and understanding without necessarily having any practical applications.
 Applied research: This type of research aims to solve practical problems and find
solutions that can be used in the real world.

Based on its results:

 Descriptive research: This type of research describes the characteristics of a
phenomenon or situation.
 Analytical research: This type of research goes beyond description to explain why or
how something happens.
 Exploratory research: This type of research is used to investigate new or under-
researched topics.
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 Explanatory research: This type of research aims to explain the causes of a

phenomenon or situation.

Methods of research:

1. Data Collection Method: deals with Surveys/Questionnaires, Interviews, Focus Groups…

2. Thematic Analysis : identify and analyze patterns or themes within qualitative data.
3. Phenomenological Analysis : explore the lived experiences of individuals to understand
the essence of a phenomenon.
4. Critical Discourse Analysis (CDA): examine texts or spoken language to uncover hidden
power dynamics, ideologies, and social structures.

Research materials :
 Primary Research : involves the collection of original data directly from the source or
subjects.
 Secondary Research : involves the use of existing data collected by others.

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Literature review:
This involves reviewing existing research related to your topic. It helps you understand what is
already known, identify any gaps in knowledge, and refine your research question or hypothesis.
Define Your Research Question or Problem that guides your literature review.

Make sure your question is specific, measurable, and researchable.

Identify Relevant Sources

 Include books, peer-reviewed journal articles, conference papers, and reputable websites.
 Use keywords and phrases related to your research question to search for literature.
Evaluate and Select Sources
 Assess the credibility, relevance, and quality of each source.
 Consider the author's expertise, publication date, and the source's peer-review status.

Organize your Literature review :

Group sources by themes, theories, or methodological approaches……
1. Thematic order
Definition: Group sources based on common themes or topics.
Example: If your research is about the impact of social media on mental health, you might have
themes like "anxiety," "depression," "body image," and "social comparison."
2. Theoretical order
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Definition: Group sources based on the theoretical frameworks they use.

3. Methodological order
Definition: Group sources based on the research methods they use.
Example: For a study on educational techniques, you might have categories like "quantitative
studies," "qualitative studies," and "mixed-methods studies."
4. Chronological order
Definition: Organize sources based on the timeline of publication.
Example: Trace the development of a theory or concept over time, showing how understanding
has evolved.
6. Conceptual order
Definition: Group sources based on specific concepts or categories.
Example: If researching user experience design, you might categorize sources by concepts like
"usability," "accessibility," "visual design," and "interaction design."

Summarize and Synthesize the Literature

 Summarize key findings, arguments, and methodologies from each source.
 Synthesize the information by identifying patterns, relationships, and gaps in the
literature.
Properly Cite Sources
 Use a consistent citation style (e.g., APA, MLA, Chicago) as required by your discipline.
 Include a reference list or bibliography with full citations of all sources.

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Online Research Strategies:

Strategies for Using the Internet

Keyword search is the most basic tool using search engines to look for information on a topic

• There is no standard or controlled vocabulary yet for finding information on the Internet.
This means you will have to think of synonyms, variants in spelling, etc

Advanced Search on ‘Google’

• You can find the advanced search in the Settings menu on Google's home page.
• Advanced Search allows you to filter your lists by various criteria depending on what
you want to find
• Works with major search engines: Google, Bing, Duck Go
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Boolean Operators : is a tool used in online research that utilizes operators (AND, OR, NOT) to
make searches more precise. By including or excluding keywords in capital letters, it helps filter
out unwanted sources and refine search results.

o AND: Narrows the search by combining terms (e.g., "social media AND teenage
mental health").
o OR: Broadens the search to include either term (e.g., "adolescents OR
teenagers").
o NOT: Excludes terms (e.g., "social media NOT Facebook").

Evaluate Sources Critically

 Authority: Who is the author? Are they credible? [Link]....

 Accuracy: Is the information supported by evidence?
 Currency: Is the information up-to-date?
 Purpose: Why was this information published? Is it biased ?

Advantages:

1. Accessibility and Time-saving: Easy access to vast amounts of information saves time.
2. Comfort and Convenience: Users can access information from anywhere with internet
connectivity.
3. Fast Dispersal of Information: Information can be disseminated rapidly to millions of
readers worldwide.
4. Productivity Tools: Availability of websites and software tools that enhance
productivity.

Disadvantages:

1. Information Overload: The abundance of information can lead to overload, making it

challenging to filter relevant content.
2. Limited Availability: Not all information is accessible or available on the internet.
3. Unstable Information: Content on the internet can be edited, moved, or deleted, leading
to instability.
Methodology S2

4. Reliability and Accuracy: Not all information on the internet is reliable, scholarly, or
accurate.
5. Fake Information/News: Some sources disseminate fake or misleading information,
making it harder to fact-check.

Research Paradigms in Philosophy

A research paradigm is a perspective or worldview that encompasses a philosophical

standpoint, shaping how research is conducted. It influences the researcher's approach to inquiry,
including the methods used, the nature of questions asked, and the interpretation of data. It
defines the methods of gaining knowledge (methodology).

1. Positivism

 Focus: Empirical and observable phenomena.

 Methodology: Emphasizes scientific methods, objective observation, and logical
reasoning to discover universal laws.
 Key Concepts: Objectivity, empiricism, quantification.
 Example Research Topic: Investigating the relationship between sensory perception and
physical reality using empirical methods….. Value_free

2. Post-Positivism

 Focus: Recognizes the limitations of absolute objectivity but still values empirical
investigation.
 Methodology: Uses scientific methods while acknowledging that all observation is
fallible and theory-laden. Emphasizes falsifiability and critical rationalism.

3. Interpretivism / Constructivism

 Focus: Understanding the subjective meanings and experiences of individuals.

 Methodology: Emphasizes qualitative methods such as interviews, ethnography, and
textual analysis. Focuses on how individuals construct their reality.
 Key Concepts: Subjectivity, meaning-making, social constructs….. Value_laden

4. Critical / Liberatory Paradigms

 Focus: Critique of power structures and social injustices; aims to empower marginalized
groups and promote social change.
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 Methodology: Combines philosophical analysis with social critique. Often

interdisciplinary, drawing from sociology, politics, and cultural studies.
 Key Concepts: Power, ideology, emancipation, social justice…. Value_laden

Summary

Philosophy research incorporates various paradigms, each offering unique approaches and
methodologies:

1. Positivism: Focuses on empirical and observable phenomena using scientific methods.

2. Post-Positivism: Builds on positivism but acknowledges the fallibility of observation and
theory-laden nature of inquiry.
3. Interpretivism / Constructivism: Emphasizes understanding subjective experiences and
how individuals construct their reality.
4. Critical / Liberatory Paradigms: Aims to critique power structures, address social
injustices, and promote empowerment and social change.

Why is it important to identify and understand philosophical standpoint ?

Because it defines the underlying principles guiding your research , helps to articulate research
goals and methods effectively, situates your work within broader scholarly debates and ensures
coherence and consistency in your approach.

Research proposal :

Working Title: This is a temporary title you create at the beginning of your research, a
provisional title that is clear and concise.

Abstract : An abstract is a concise summary of your entire research proposal, an overview of

150- 250 words with the main keywords.

Introduction: provides background to the research + problem

Research questions: state the research question(s)

Research aims & objectives : what does the study aim to achieve ?

Research rational / importance : what's the significance of the research?

Methodology S2

Literature review : A critical review of the main relevant studies you will follow on the
methods intend to use in your research.

Preliminary outline (optional ) : indicate the structure of your dissertation.

Working bibliography : list of references of sources to have consulted.

Why is the research proposal important?

 Demonstrates Research Readiness:

 Well-defined plan
 Significance of topic
 Originality and impact

 Guides the Research Journey:

 Clarity and planning

 Building a knowledge base
 Refining ideas

 Enhances Research Skills:

 Feedback and guidance

 Feasibility assessment
 Develops research skills
 Develop new ideas
 Save time.
 Give feedback.
 Norrow down ideas from general to specific.
 Researchibility

Common mistakes to avoid

 Failure to include all the components

 Failure to stay focused on the research question; going off on unrelated tangents
 Too much detail on minor issues, but not enough detail on major issues
 Failure to cite landmark works in your literature review
 Not justifying your choice of methods and theory(ies)
 Speaking of findings before actually undertaking the research
 Poor writing that does not sound academic
Methodology S2

What Why How

Title
Topic Aims and objectives Type of research / approach
Question Importance Theories & Methods
Literature review Sources and material

The Abstract :
150-250

General Background (Optional):

1 or 2 sentences providing context or background information on the topic (optional)

Topic and Research Problem:

1 or 2 sentences clearly stating the topic and narrowing down the research problem, ideally
identifying a gap in the literature.

Aims and Objectives:

1 or 2 sentences highlighting the specific aims and objectives of the proposed study.

Methodology and Concepts:

1 or 2 sentences detailing the methodology and key concepts used in the study.

Importance of the Study:

1 or 2 sentences emphasizing the significance and potential impact of the study.

Key Findings (Dissertation Only):

1 or 2 sentences (optional) summarizing key findings (for the dissertation, not the proposal).

Note: Although the abstract is always placed at the beginning of your paper, the abstract may be
the last thing that you write, once you are sure of the various other elements of your research
Methodology S2

The Introduction

 Background Information:

 Provide relevant background material that contextualizes the topic and explains its
significance.
 Explain how the topic emerged or became relevant, citing relevant literature or historical
context.

 Lead to Research Problem:

 Transition from the background information to a clear articulation of the research

problem.
 Discuss any gaps, controversies, or unanswered questions in the existing literature that
motivate your research.

 Research Question(s):

 Clearly state the research question(s) or objective(s) that your study aims to address.
 Ensure that the research question(s) are specific, well-defined, and directly related to the
research problem identified earlier.
Methodology S2

Theoretical Framework:

1. Identification of Key Theory/Concepts: Clearly identify the key theory or concepts

relevant to your research.
2. Defining your theory/ concept
3. Function of Theories: Explain how theories can be used to explain, predict, understand,
challenge, or extend existing knowledge.

Choosing Theories/Concepts:

o Understand the main concern of your research inquiry.

o Familiarize yourself with important theories and concepts in your field.
o Review existing literature in your area of interest to see what theories are being
used.

Aims and Objectives:

 Clarity and Actionability: Provide brief, actionable statements expressing what you aim
to achieve.
 Alignment with Research Problem: Ensure objectives align with the main research
question and do not deviate from the scope of your research.

The importance of the study :

 Justification and Importance: Explain the significance of your study and its
contribution to the field.
 Addressing Gaps or Limitations: Highlight how your study addresses gaps or
limitations in previous research.
 Practical Implications: Discuss any practical implications of your study, such as
informing policies.
 Advancing Knowledge: Emphasize how your study contributes to advancing knowledge
on the issue.
 Methodology S2

Academic Integrity in Research: Plagiarism and How to Avoid It

Academic integrity is an essential component of research ethics. Engaging with other scholars'
ideas, opinions, and findings is fundamental in academic research. Proper citation is crucial to avoid
plagiarism, which is presenting someone else's work or ideas as your own without acknowledgment.

Understanding Plagiarism:

 Plagiarism can be intentional or unintentional and is considered a serious academic and

professional offense.

Types of plagiarism include verbatim plagiarism ( direct plagiarism, is the act of copying
someone else's words word-for-word and presenting them as your own without proper
attribution.) , self-plagiarism, misleading attribution , paraphrasing/summarizing without
citation, and fabricating sources.

Why Refer to Other Works?

Define and establish common understanding.

Support claims and add credibility.
Provide context by referring to previous work.
Present multiple viewpoints.
Highlight significant phrases or passages.

Quoting, Paraphrasing, and Summarizing:

 Paraphrasing involves using your own words while retaining the original meaning and
length.
 Summarizing focuses on the main idea, omitting details and maintaining the original
meaning.
 Quoting preserves the exact wording of the original source.

Citing and Referencing:

 Proper citation demonstrates integrity, acknowledges contributors, and helps readers

understand the context.
 Cite opinions, arguments, research results, findings, theories, and concepts defined by
others.
 Avoid citing common knowledge or your own insights unless necessary.

Referencing Styles:
Methodology S2

 Different style guides, such as MLA, offer guidelines for citing sources in-text and listing
references.
 MLA style uses in-text citations and a bibliography.

Use of Abbreviations: Common abbreviations in scholarly research include "ibid." (from the
same source just cited) and "et al." (and others).

(JK, 12)………………(ibid)………….(ibid,13)

(JK et al.)