GENES, ENVIRONMENT,

AND DEVELOPMENT
Presented by:
Luceña, Janesa Ruth S.
Gabarda, Lance Lei R.
 CHAPTER OVERVIEW
This chapter explores how genes and environment jointly
shape human development
Key topics include:
> 3.1 Evolution and Species Heredity
> 3.2 Individual Heredity: Genetic Code, Mechanisms of
Inheritance
> 3.3 Studying Genetic and Environmental Influences
> 3.4 Selected Findings
> 3.5 Genes and Environment Conspiring
3.1 EVOLUTION AND SPECIES HEREDITY
Species Heredity
- the genetic endownment that members of a
species have in common, including genes that influence
maturation and aging process.
 DARWIN’S THEORY OF THESE 3
MAIN ARGUEMENTS

Genes that aid their

There is Some genes bearers in adapting to
genetic aid their environment will
variation ina adaptation be passed to future
species more than generations more
others do frequently yhan genes
that do not
3.2 INDIVIDUAL HEREDITY - THE GENETIC CODE

Conception - new cell nucleus formed from genetic

material of ovum and genetic material of sperm
- New cell is the zygote
Each parent contributes 23 chromosomes, 46 total,
organized into 23 pairs
- Chromosomes - threadlike bodies in nucleus of each
cell made up of genes
INDIVIDUAL HEREDITY - THE GENETIC CODE
Sperm and ova each have only 23 chromosomes
because they are produced through the cell division
process of meiosis
- A reproductive cell (in ovary or in testis) splits to
form two 46-chromosome cells
- The two cells split again to form a total of four cells,
each of which receives 23 chromosomes
In the female, results in three nonfunctional cells
and one ovum
In the male, results in four sperm
INDIVIDUAL HEREDITY - THE GENETIC CODE
The single-cell zygote becomes a multiple-cell
organism through the process of mitosis
- A cell (and each of its 46 chromosomes) divides to
produce two identical cells, each containing the same
46 chromosomes
- Following conception, through mitosis, the zygote
divides into two cells, then into four cells, then into
eight cells, etc.
Mitosis continues throughout life
INDIVIDUAL HEREDITY - THE GENETIC CODE
Except for ova and sperm, all normal human cells
contain copies of the 46 chromosomes received at
conception
- Both members of a chromosome pair influence the
same characteristics
Chromosomes are strands of DNA
- Deoxyribonucleic acid made up of sequences of
adenine, cytosine, guanine, and thymine (A, C, G, and T)
- Sequences are functional units - genes
 THE HUMAN GENOME PROJECT
Researchers mapped the sequence of the chemical units
(A,C,G, and T) that make up the strands of DNA in a full set
of human chromosomes
Human genome consists of genes that serve as a template
for the production of particular proteins and DNA that
regulates the activity of the protein-producing genes
999 of 1,000 base chemicals are identical; only 1 of 1,000
accounts for human differences
GENETIC UNIQUENESS AND RELATEDNESS
Genetic similarity of parent and child
- An individual receives half her chromosomes and genes
from her mother and half from her father
Genetic similarity of siblings
- Siblings receive half their genes from the same mother
and half from the same father, but meiosis determines
the genes actually received
- Siblings share half their genes, on average
GENETIC UNIQUENESS AND RELATEDNESS
Identical twins or monozygotic twins (or identical triplets,
etc.)
- Genetically the same Result when one fertilized ovum
divides to form two or more genetically identical
individuals
Fraternal twins or dizygotic twins
- Result from release of two ova and fertilization by two
sperm
- As genetically alike as siblings
 DETERMINATION OF SEX
Of the 23 pairs of chromosomes
- 22 pairs autosomes
- the 23rd pair sex chromosomes decides gender
In males, the 23rd pair consists of a long chromosome (X)
and a short chromosome with fewer genes
Females have two X chromosomes
Fathers determine a child's sex
- If a sperm carries a Y chromosome, the XY zygote
is a genetic male
- If a sperm carries an X chromosome, the XX zygote
is a genetic female
 MECHANISMS OF INHERITANCE: SINGLE
GENE-PAIR INHERITANCE

Single gene-pair inheritance

- Pattern described by Gregor Mendel
- Human characteristics influenced by one pair of genes (one
from mother, one from father)
- A dominant gene trait will be expressed
- A recessive gene trait will be expressed only when the
gene is paired with another recessive gene for the trait
 MECHANISMS OF INHERITANCE: SEX-
LINKED INHERITANCE
Sex-linked characteristics are influenced by single genes
located on sex chromosomes
- Actually X-linked because most attributes are associated
with genes on the X
- Y chromosomes are smaller and have fewer genes to serve
as counterpart or to dominate
Example: if a boy inherits a recessive color-blindness gene on
the X, there is no color vision gene on the Y to dominate the
color-blindness gene
 MECHANISMS OF INHERITANCE:
POLYGENIC INHERITANCE

Traits such as height, weight, intelligence, personality, and

susceptibility to cancer and depression are polygenic
- Influenced by multiple pairs of genes interaction with
environmental factors
Many degrees of expression are possible in polygenic traits
- Traits tend to be distributed in the population according
to the normal curve
 MUTATIONS
Mutation
- A change in gene structure or arrangement that
produces a new phenotype
May be harmful or beneficial depending on their
nature and the environment
- Example: sickle-cell disease
Can be inherited by offspring
 CHROMOSOMAL ABNORMALITIES

Chromosomal abnormalities occur when there are

errors in chromosome division during meiosis
- The ovum or sperm will have too many or too few
chromosomes
- Chromosomal abnormalities are the main source of
pregnancy loss
EXAMPLES OF CHROMOSOMAL ABNORMALITIES
Chromosomal abnormalities that involve a child
receiving too few or too many sex chromosomes
- Consequence of errors in meiosis or damage from
environmental hazards
- Turner syndrome - a female born with a single X
chromosome (XO)
- Klinefelter syndrome - a male born with one or
more extra X chromosomes (XXY)
- Fragile X - one arm of the X is only barely connected
 GENETIC DIAGNOSIS AND COUSELING

Genetic counseling
- A service that helps people understand and adapt to the
implications of genetic contributions to disease
- Carriers do not have the disease but can transmit the
gene for it to their children
 ISSUES IN GENETIC DIAGNOSIS AND COUSELING

Sickle-cell disease
- Sickle-shaped blood cells cluster together and distribute
less oxygen through the circulatory system
- If parents are carriers of the recessive gene for sickle-cell
disease
- Have 25% chance of having a child with sickle-cell disease
- Have a 50% chance of having a child who will be a carrier
 ISSUES IN GENETIC DIAGNOSIS AND COUSELING

Huntington's disease
- Associated with a single dominant gene
- Strikes in middle age and disrupts the nervous system
- Child of a parent with Huntington's disease has a 50% chance
of developing the disease
- Discovery of gene for Huntington's on chromosome 4 led to
a test that can reveal if a person has inherited the gene
 GENETIC AND ENVIRONMENTAL INFLUENCES:
BEHAVIORAL GENETICS
Behavioral genetics
- Study of the extent to which genetic and environmental
differences contribute to differences in traits
- Use heritability estimates
- The proportion of all the variability in the trait within a
large sample that can be linked to genetic differences
among individuals
- Variability that is not associated with genetic differences
is associated with environmental and experiential
differences
 STUDYING GENETIC AND ENVIRONMENTAL
INFLUENCES: EXPERIMENTAL BREEDING

Selective breeding
- Attempting to breed animals for a particular trait to
determine whether the trait is heritable
- Tryon bred maze-bright rats to demonstrate the
influence of genetics upon maze-learning ability
- Other animal breeding studies showed genetic
contributions to activity level, emotionality, aggressiveness, etc.
 STUDYING GENETIC AND ENVIRONMENTAL
INFLUENCES: TWIN, ADOPTION, AND FAMILY
STUDIES
Twin studies
- Studies of twins, both identical and fraternal, reared apart
and together
Adoption studies
- Are adopted children more similar to biological parents or
to adoptive parents?
Family studies
- Studies of siblings with different degrees of genetic
similarity and varying environments
 ESTIMATING INFLUENCES
Concordance rates
- Statistical calculations to estimate the degree to which
heredity and environment account for individual differences
in a trait of interest
- A trait is heritable if the concordance rates are higher for
more genetically related than for less genetically related
pairs of people
Correlation coefficients
- Used when a trait (e.g., intelligence) can be present in
varying degrees
 MOLECULAR GENETICS

Analysis of genes and their effects

- Useful in identifying the multiple genes that contribute to
polygenic traits
- Example: Alzheimer's disease
- Twin studies show heritability but the roles of specific
genes have not been clarified
INTELLECTUAL ABILITIES

How much a person's intelligence is shaped by their genes versus their

environment is a complex question. Based on decades of research, including a major
review of over 100,000 pairs of people, we can draw a few key conclusions.
​About half of the differences in IQ scores among people can be attributed to their
genes, and the other half is due to their environment. This is known as the
heritability of IQ, which is estimated to be around 0.50.
​Studies on relatives show that the more genetically similar two people are, the
more similar their IQ scores tend to be. This is most clear in identical twins, who
share all of their genes and have the most similar IQ scores, even when raised in
different homes. This pattern shows the strong influence of genetics on
intelligence.
TEMPERAMENT AND PERSONALITY

Genetics are a major factor in shaping a person's personality. Studies of identical

twins, who share 100% of their genes, show that their personality traits are
strongly correlated. In contrast, fraternal twins, who share only about 50% of their
genes, have very little correlation in their personality traits. This suggests that
the shared environment of growing up in the same home has a minimal effect on
making children's personalities similar.

F​ or adults, about 40% of personality differences are linked to genetics, while only
5% are due to the shared family environment. The remaining 55% is influenced by
nonshared environmental factors—unique experiences that make siblings
different from one another.
TEMPERAMENT AND PERSONALITY
What are these nonshared environmental factors?

​ hese are the individual experiences that each sibling has, both inside and outside
T
the home. They can include a parent having a different relationship with each child,
siblings being born at different times and experiencing different family dynamics,
or having different friends and teachers. While these nonshared experiences are
believed to be very influential, researchers have found them to be hard to identify
and link to specific personality differences.

I​ n short, while the family environment does influence things like attitudes and
shared interests, it's a person's unique experiences and genetics that have the
strongest impact on their core personality.
PSYCHOLOGICAL DISORDERS
​ oth genes and the environment contribute to all psychological disorders. It’s never just one
B
or the other. Instead, it's a mix of different genes and different environmental factors, each
playing a small part.

​ good example is schizophrenia. For a long time, experts thought it was caused by a mother's
A
parenting style. This has been proven false. We now know that genes play a big role. For
identical twins, if one has schizophrenia, there is a 48% chance the other will too. For fraternal
twins, that rate drops to only 17%. The higher rate for identical twins shows how important
shared genes are.

​ nother piece of evidence for the genetic link is that children with a biological parent who has
A
schizophrenia have a higher risk of developing it themselves, even if they are adopted and
raised by non-schizophrenic parents. This shows the risk is tied more to their genes than to
their upbringing.
PSYCHOLOGICAL DISORDERS
Clearly, then, environmental factors also contribute signifi cantly to this mental illness. People
do not inherit psychological disorders; they inherit predispositions to develop disorders.
Instead, they inherit a genetic susceptibility that makes them more likely to develop it.
Genes and environment interact: The disorder only appears when a person with this genetic
susceptibility is exposed to stressful environmental experiences that can trigger the illness.

Examples of environmental triggers: These are specific examples of these triggers for schizophrenia,
including:
A mother getting the flu during pregnancy.
An infant being deprived of oxygen during delivery.
Genetically at-risk adopted children being raised in a dysfunctional family environment.

In short, your life experiences interact with your genetic makeup to determine your mental health.
This research also shows that it's wrong to assume a child's behavioral problems are solely the result
of "bad parenting."
THE HERITABILITY OF DIFFERENT TRAITS
Everything is at least a little heritable: It states that it's difficult to find a human
characteristic that isn't influenced by genes to some extent. This means genes
play a role in almost everything about us, from our physical features to our
personalities.

​ hysical traits are highly heritable: Features you can easily see, like your height,
P
weight, and eye color, are strongly determined by your genes. A provide example
of adopted children's weight, which resembles their biological parents' weight
more than their adoptive parents', even when the adoptive parents control their
diet.

I​ ntelligence is moderately heritable: Around 50% of the differences in general

intelligence among people can be attributed to their genes.
THE HERITABILITY OF DIFFERENT TRAITS

Personality and other traits are less heritable: Traits like personality,
temperament, and susceptibility to psychological disorders are less influenced
by genes than physical traits or intelligence. For these, genes might account for
about 40% of the variation.

​ enes and environment both matter: While genes are important, the passage
G
emphasizes that they only account for a portion of the variation in most
psychological traits, often up to half. The other half, or more, is explained by
environmental factors. This reinforces the idea that who we are is a result of a
complex interplay between our genetic makeup and our life experiences
THANK
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