MANGO

Botanical name : Mangifera indica

Family : Anacardiaceae
Cromosome number : 2n = 40
Origin : Indo-Burma region
Fruit type : Drupe
Flowering type : Terminal panicle
Other name : King of fruit, Bathroom fruit
Max. Area, Production, Productivity : UP, AP, AP.
Largest Producer in world : India

The importance of mango, the ‘King of Fruits’, in India need not be

emphasiged. Many of the Indian varieties have delicious taste, excellent flavour
and attractive appearance. It is also a rich source of vitamin A and some other
vital nutrients. The tree is hardy and has comparatively lower maintenance cost. It
is grown as a rainfed crop, and its orchanding can be made commercially viable
and may yield very remunerative return by adoption of new technology.
USES AND COMPOSITION
Mango fruit is utilized at all stages of its development. The raw/unripe
fruits, because of their acidic taste, are used for preparing pickle, chutney, drinks
and amchur. The ripe fruits besides being consumed as desert are also processed
for preparing juice, nectar, squash, jam, cereal flakes, mango leather and toffee.
The fruits are also preserved as slices and canned in syrup. The kernel contains 8
to 10% fat which may find use in soap making and also serves a good substitute
for cocoa in confectionery. Even roasted mango kernel is relished by peoples. The
stem and trunks exude gum and the wood finds use in furniture, flooring, packing
boxes, match boxes etc.
 From the nutritional point of view the mango is rich source of vitamin ‘A’
(4880 IU) almost as rich as butter. Also it has fair amount of vitamin ‘C’. The
carotene pigments, B carotene, increase with ripening, whereas Vitamin ‘C’ had a
sharp fall on ripening.
ORIGN AND DISTRIBUTION
The Genus Mangifera belongs to the family anacardiaceae, originated in
South-East Asia. It is found in several countries of the tropical and sub-tropical
would.
AREA AND PRODUCTION
Mango occupies on an area of 1.17 million hectares with a total annual
production of 9.64 million metric tones contributing 42.64% of total area under
fruit crops, and 40% of the total production of the fruits in India. It ranks third
after banana and citrus in respect of world fruit production and acreage. The sate
of U.P. is the respect of would fruit production and acreage, the leading state in
mango cultivation (0.493 million hectares contributing 40% of total area under
this crop) followed by Andhra Pradesh (14.5%) and Bihar (13.2%). The present
area of mango crop under cultivation in Maharashtra is 35400 ha. With an annual
production of 194700 tonnes.
India has a major share 70% in world production of mango of 13.44 million
metric tones. Even though India is number one producer of mango. Its export is
only 0.2% of our annual for 58% (98% of which Alphonso) of the total value of the
fruits exported from our country.
SOIL
Mango is known to grow well on wide of soils, such as lateritic, alluvial,
sandy loan and sandy. Like most other fruit crops, it prefers a slightly acidic soil. It
does not do well beyond a pH of 7.5. Very poor and stony soils on hill slopes
should, however are avoided. The loamy, alluvial, well drained, aerated and deep
soils rich in organic matter are most ideal for mango cultivation. The extremely
sandy, shallow, rocky, water logged, heavy textured and alkaline or calcareous
soils are not suitable for mango cultivation.
CLIMATE
Mango is very well adapted to tropical and sub-tropical climate and it
thrives in almost all regions from sea level to an altitude of 1500 m. However, it
can not be grown on a commercial scale in areas above 600m. It can not stand
severe frost, especially, when the tree is young. It does well at temperature
ranging from 24-27oC although it comes successfully even at a temperature as
high as 48oC during the period of fruit development and maturity.
VARIETIES
There are nearly 1000 mango varieties in India. Of these, however, only
about 20 varieties are grown in commercial scale in different states. The
recommended popular cultivars grown on commercially in different regions of
Maharashtra area as follows :
Pickle
S.N. Region Table purpose Juice purpose
purpose
1 Konkan Alphonso, Ratna Alphonso, Local
Pairi, Ratna,
Rajapuri
2 West Maharashtra Kesar, Alphonso Alphonso, Local
Bbenganpalli, Pairi, Kesar,
Neelum, Totapuri Vanraj, Goa-
Goa-Mankur Mankur
3 Marathwada Kesar, Dasheri Totopuri, Local
Neelum, Totapuri Niranjar Saykheda
Parbhani
Hapus Kesar,
Dasheri
4 Vidarbha Benganpalli, Pairi, Kesar, Local
Kesar, Neelum, Dasheri,
Totapari, Langra Nagin

HYBRIDS :

1. Amrapali Deshehari x Neelum

2. Malika Neelum x Deshehari

3. Sindhu Ratna x Alphonso

 4. Arka Puneet Alphaso x Banganpalli

5. Arka Anmol Alphonso x Janardhan Pasand

6. Ratna Neelum x Alphonso

7. RAR-M-1 Kesar x Totapuri

(Sai Sugandh)

Hybrid from IARI New Delhi :

1. Amrapalli
- Dahehari x Neelam.
- Plant dwarf, suitable for high density planting.
- Regular bearer, free from spongy tissue.
- Fruit is medium.
2. Malika :
- Neelam x Dahehari
- Regular bearer good for high density.
Discription of variety “
1. Dasheri :
i) North Indian Variety.
ii) Attaractive, excellent taste, pleasant flarour, midseason, maturity towards
June.
iii) Fruit medium six 4-8 fruits/kg, elliptical shape, attractive greenish yellow
colour.
iv) Biennial bearing.
2. Alphonso :
i) Finest of India Mangoes
ii) Biennial, fruit 300g.
iii) Pinkish blue towards basal end, super taste.
iv) Table variety, good for processing, medium bearer, spongy, tissue.
3. Pairi :
i) Western and Southern region.
ii) Attractive fruit, crimson shoulder on yellowish green background. Ovale in
shape, biennial, heavy bearer.
4. Kesar :
Best suited for dry climate of M.S, 3-4 fruits / kg. oblong in shape
attractive.
5. Neelum :
High yielding, regular bearer, shape ovate, mature at July – Aug. South
Indian.
6. Ratna :
Neelam x Alphonso, KKV Dapoli, Regular berer, very thin, small stone,
pulp sweet, high yielding.
7. Sindhu :
Ratna x Alphonso KKV Dapoli, Regular berer, very thin, small stone,
pulp sweet, high yielding.
8. Mallika :
Neelum x Dasheri, IARI, New Delhi, Regular bearer, good for high
density planting.
9. Rajiro (Sai) Sugandh: (M.P.K.V. Rahuri) :
It is a Fl hybrid. The fruit quality of this variety is significantly superior to the
variety Totapuri. Ripe fruits are golden yellow. A fruit weighs 380 g. Fruit length
14 cm and breadth 6.11 cm. Pulp colour attractive turmeric yellow, Pulp content
75%, TSS 22% acidity 0.23%, total sugar 13.88%, reducing sugar 4.52%, non
reducing sugar 9.35%, B carotene 8326IU, pleasant aroma and taste sweet, Free
from spongy tissue, stone weevil and monoembryonic. Suitable for export and
table purpose. Besides it is released thought State Variety Release Committee of
Maharashtra it is also notified by the Central Sub-Committee on crop Standards.
Notification and Varietal Release at the national level.
10. Parbhani Bhushan : (M.A.U. Parbhani):
It is a selection from local mango germplansm . Fruit shape and qualities
are similar to Hapus. The ripe fruit has attractive golden colour with pinkish tinge.
The average fruit weight is 200-250 g. The pulp is free from spongy tissue. The
flavour and taste of pulp are excellent. The tree is regular bearer.
PROPAGATION
Mango be raised from seed or vegetative propagated. Propagation from
seed though easy and cheap is unable to perpetuate characters of the parent tree
because most commercial varieties in India are cross-pollinated and mono-
embryonic plants which take more time to bear fruits.
Mango seeds (stones) loose their viability in a short period of time. It is only
4 to 5 weeks after extraction from fruit and it lost completely after 70 days. About
80% stones germinate when sown within a month of extraction.
For rising of seedlings to be used as rootstocks fresh seed stones should be
collected. These should be washed thoroughly with water to remove adhering
pulp. Light seed stones which float in water should be discarded. Bigger, plump
seed stones, free from stone weevil attack should be selected for sowing. These
seed stones should be dipped in 0.2% Bavistin solution for five minutes and
treated with 1% organo mercurial compound before sowing.
For sowing of seed stones, raised beds 1x6 m and 15 cm high are prepared.
A heavy basal dressing of rotton FYM@ 30 tonnes/ha is applied while preparing
beds. In the month of June-July, the stones are placed side by side in flat position
and then covered with about 6-7% layer of soil + FYM (1:1). Removal of seed coat
and sowing the stone with plumule pointing upwards results in early germination.
Irrigation of beds is done twice in a day in summer season, and as and
when required during rainy season.
Seed stones germinate in about 12-15 days and continue upto 21 days.
When the seedlings attain the age of 2-3 months , they are transplanted in pots
/poly bags, where these are nursed to prepare for grafting.
Vegetative propagation :
Mango plants for commercial orchards are raised in nurseries by vegetative
methods. Various methods employed in mango propagation are described below:
1. Inarching / Approach grafting
The method of inarching or approach grafting is quite cumbersome and
time consuming but is still the leading method of commercial propagation of
mango plants. Though it given 90-95% success, it has following major
disadvantages.
i) It is a cumbersome method as the rootstocks have to be carried to the
mother plant for grafting.
ii) It is laborious and time consuming.
iii) The inarched plant have to be irrigated and looked after at least 3 months at
various old plant around the mother tree.
iv) A long scion shoot is required for grafting and hence less no. of grafts can be
prepared per tree.
v) Inarched plant usually get pot bounded and hence mortality on transplanting is
high.
vi) It is costly method as compared to other vegetative propagation methods.
The method commonly consists of uniting the selected shoot (scion) of a
desired parent tree (mother plant) to the potted or transplanted seeding (root
stock) by approach grafting. The scion unites with the rootstock while it is still
growing on its own roots.
Inarching should be done during the growing period when the tree is in
active sap flow or active growth period. The end of the monsoon in heavy rainfall
areas and early monsoon in light rainfall areas is the best period for inarching
(July to Feb).
A thin slice of bark and wood, about 5cm in length, 7.5 mm in width, 2mm
deep and at a height of 15 to 25 cm from soil surface on the rootstock is removed.
A similar cut is made on the scion shoot,. The ends of these cuts should be round
and not angular. The cut surfaces of both i.e. stock and scion are made to coincide
facing each other so that there remains no hollow space between the two. These
are than tightly tired by polythene/ alkathene strips of about 1.5 cm in width and
preferably of 200 gauge thickness which has proved to be a good tying material.
2. Veneer Grafting
This is a method of propagation which posses promise for mass scale
commercial propagation. The method is simple, more economical, adopted with
higher degree of success and is ideal for establishing in situ orchards.
 For conducting this operation a downward and inward cut 30-40 mm long is
made in the smooth area of the stock at a height of about 20 cm. At the base of
the out a small shorter cut is given to intersect first so as to remove the piece of
wood and bark. The scion stick is given a long slanting cut on one side and small
short cut on the other so as to match the cuts of the stock. The scion is inserted in
the stock so that the cambium layers come on the longer side. The graft union is
then tied with polythene strip.
The scion wood to be used for veneer grafting requires proper preparation.
The desired shoots should be defoliated about 7 to 10 days prior to grafting so
that the dormant buds in the axils of leaves become swollen and helps in
increasing the percentage of success in grafting.
3. Epicotyls / Stone grafting
The grafts prepared by this method require less time and are cheap as
compared to inarching, veneer grafting or budding. Success is usually as high as 75
to 80%.
For grafting, sprouting mango stones of 8 to 15 days age used as rootstocks
and semi-mature terminal shoots of 12-15 cm length which has passed the purple
coloration stage as scion. The grafting is done either by cleft/whip wedge method.
Polythene strip of 200 gauges is used for tying the grafts. Immediately after, the
graft are planted in polythene bags filled with soil and FYM (1:1) mixture and
should be placed in polythene house in nursery for 12-14 days where high
humidity (More than 80%) is maintained. The grafts are then potted and kept in
green house or in shady place before final transfer to field.
4. Soft – Wood grafting
The technique of soft wood grafting is similar to that of cleft or wedge
grafting. Grafting is done on newly emerged flush having bronzed coloured leaves
and stem. The leaves on the stocks are required to be kept while grafting
otherwise the success declines. The technique has proved to be successful in
establishing mango orchards ‘in drier tracts where mortality of nursery raised
grafts in very heavy’.
The scion wood to be used should be defoliated 10 days prior to the
grafting and having same thickness as that of terminal shoot. The grafts should be
secured firmly using 1.5cm wide and 45 cm long 200 gauge polythene strip. June-
Aug. is the best months for soft wood grafting.
PLANTING
Prior to planting, field should be deeply ploughed,
harrowed and leveled. The best time for planting is
during the monsoon when there is sufficient moisture in
the atmosphere. In the area of heavy rainfall the best
time of planting mango is the end of the rainy season. In
tracts where the rainfall is less, the planting can be done
in the early part of the monsoon for better
establishment.
The pits of 13 m should be dug at desired distance (10x10m) and allow the
exposed pits for weathering action for a period of at least one month prior to
planting. The pits should be refilled with the original soil mixed with 50 kg well
rotten FYM + 1 to 2 kg SSP per pit. In the top 2/3 rd portion, the proportion of the
manure and soil may be kept as 1:3. If the soil ins having infestation of white ants
then mix 200x250 g of lindane per pit.
The small basin is made and the plant is properly watered. The grafts
should be staked with a bamboo pole to prevent lodging and damage to graft
joints by strong wind.
TRAINING AND PRUNING
Normally mango trees require very less or no pruning however, the training
of the plants in the initial stages is very essential to give them proper shape.
Especially when the graft has branched too low, the process of training becomes
very important. At least 75 cm of the main stem should be kept free from
branching and the first leader/main branch may be allowed after that. The main
branches should be spaced in such a way that they grow in different directions
and are at least 20-25 cm apart.
By following the above practice, there will be less scope for future pruning
except removal of diseased or dried branches.
MANURING AND FERTILIZAION
Manuring mango plant start right from the inception of planting in the field.
Fertilizer application during the first year of planting may be given as 10 kg FYM,
300 gm urea + 300 g SSP +100 g MP per plant. Above dose should be increased.
Accordingly a 10 year old tree should received nutrients contained in 100 kg FYM
+ 3 kg, urea (1500 g N) + 5 kg SSP (500 g P 2 S5) + 1 kg MP (500 gm K2O) and should
be followed for subsequent years.
Fertilizers may be applied in two split doses, one half immediately after the
harvesting of fruits in June-July and other half in October, followed by irrigation if
there are no rains.
IRRIGATION
Irrigation during the period of first four to five years of the early growth
stages is necessary mainly to encourage a rapid and vigours grwoth of the tree
and strong root system of mango. During the first year, the young trees should be
irrigated after every 10-15 days in winter and 5-8 days in summer. For the next
two years it should be given after 12-15 days in winter and 10-12 days in summer.
During the 4th and 5th year, it is followed after every 14-15 days in winter and 10-
11 days in summer. No irrigations are required during the monsoon months
unless there are long spells of drought.
In case of bearing trees irrigation at regular intervals (10-15 days) is an
absolute necessary during the fruit development period. This is helpful in
improving fruit size and in reducing fruit drop. However, with holding of water for
2-3 months preceding flowering helps to put on a vigorous blossom.
INTERCULTURE
Intercultural in orchard is necessary for the proper upkeep of mango
plantation. The removal of weeds avoids the competition for essential nutrients
and helps in water movement in soil.
The best control of weeds in the mango but wood nursery is by per-
emergence application of atrazine at 4kg/ha and post emergence of gramoxoma
at 3 lit/ha.
INTERCROPPING
Mango orcharding provides an opportunity of utilizing the land space to its
maximum during initial years (upto 8-10 year) of establishment. In general, an
intercrop must be planted well away from the mango plants and their
requirements for moisture and nutrients must separately be meet.
FLOWERING
Flowering of mango in Maharashtra takes place in
the month of January. The flowering period of manto is
usually of a short duration of 2-3 weeks, low temp. Map
extend, it whereas higher temperatures may shorten it.

FRUIT DROP
Despite a high fruit set initially, the ultimate retention is pretty low in
mango. The intensity of fruit drop amounting to about 99% at various stages o
growth, more especially during the initial few weeks. It also varies from variety to
variety. The fruit drop is more or less a continuous process and can be classified
into there phases (i) Pin head drop (ii) Post setting drop and (iii) May month drop.
The carlier drops are insignificant compared to May month drop which affects the
final yield significantly and needs more attention.
Embryo abortion, climatic factors, disturbed water relation, lack of
nutrition, disease and pest and hormonal imbalance are the major factors that
lead to fruit drop.
The extent of fruit drop in mango can be reduced significantly by regular
irrigation during the fruit development period. The spray of NAA (25 ppm) or 2,4-
D (30 ppm) at pea stage of fruit is beneficial.
BIENNIAL BEARING
The term biennial, alternate, intermittent or irregular bearing generally
signifies the tendency of mango trees to bear a heavy crop in one year (on year)
and very little or no crop in the succeeding one (off year). Most of the commercial
varieties, viz. Alphonso, Kesar, Deshehari, Langra, Chausa are biennial bearers
while Bengenpalli, Neelum, Bangalora, Sindhu, Ratna, Niranjan are known to be
regular bearers. Biennial bearing had been attributed to the causes like genetical,
physiological, environmental, nutritional etc overcoming biennial bearing,
deblossoming is recommended to reduce the load in the ‘on year’ and balance
the same in the ‘of year’
Factors :
A) Internal factors :
1. Varietal character : Alphanso, Pairi, Langra etc.
2. [Link]: During ‘on’ year most of CHO are utilized for development of fruits
due to which mango flowers alternate year.
3. Sex ration: Low perfect flowers may turn to ‘off year.’
4. Age of plant : Up to 10 year generally bears regularly and it sets in alternate
bearing after 10 years.
5. age of shoots : Shoot which is 8 to 9 months old in Jan. only flower.
B) External Factors :
1. Adverse climatic factors: High temperature, frost and rains strong wind at
flowering result ‘of year’.
2. Pests and Disease : Powdery mildew, hoppers result in ‘off year’
3. Nutrition and management also is an external factor.
Remedies :
1. Planting of regular bearing varieties e.g. neelum, Tiotapuri, Hy. Amarpali,
Mallika, Ratna etc.,
2. Proper management, irrigation, manuring.
3. Deblossoming during ‘on’ year.
4. Ringing during ‘off year’
5. Root pruning during ‘off year’
6. Smudying for 15 days during night
7. Use of ethrel fior sprouting of shoots
8. Use of KNO3 and Auxin sprays.
9. Pruning in old trees.
10. Use of culter (25 ml/lit) and ralipae (25 ml/lit)
HARVESTING
Harvesting of mango fruit at proper maturity is an
important aspect from the quality and shelf-life points of
view. The various criteria for judging maturity are.
1) Slight colour development on the shoulders.
2) When one or two ripe fruits fall from the plant naturally
(PAD or TAPKA) and
 3) When the specific gravity of fruits ranges between 1.01
and 1.02
The first two methods are not much help since there are not representative of
the fruit maturity at the entrie tree and fruits harvested do not ripen uniformly.
The last method, based on specific gravity, is more dependable.
The mango fruits are harvested either by hand picking or by using harvester.
Dapoli mango harvester developed by Konkan Krishi Vidyapeeth, Dapoli (M.S.) is
the best for harvesting the mango fruits. With this harvester, the mango fruits are
harvested with stalk intact (0.4cm).
YIELD
The grafted plants start bearing at the age of 4 to 5 years. The optimum
crop starts from the 10th year (400-600 fruits). The yield continues to increased up
to the age of 40 yrs. (2500 fruits) after which it starts decline. However, yield is
highly variable factor depending upon the cultivars and age of the plants, climatic
conditions etc.
PESTS
1. MANGO HOPPER
This is the most damaging insect during the flowering season. A countless
no. of nymphs and adults suck the cell sap from the inflorescence and flower buds
during flowering season, the infested flowers shrived, turn brown and ultimately
fall down.
It can be controlled by four sprayings with endosulfan 35EC (0.05%) or
Dimethoate 30EC (0.03%) or Monocroptophos (0.04%) or Phosphomidon (0.05%)
or Carbary (0.15%).
a) Preblossom spray on trunk and branches just before flowering when buds
begin to sprout.
b) 2nd spray application 2 weeks after the first.
c) 3rd spray application 2 weeks after the second.
d) 4th spray application 2 weeks after the third.
2. MEALY BUGS (Drosicha manqiferae)

It is a major pest of mango. The female lays eggs

during May under soil clods, around the tree trunk, upto
a depth of 5-15 cm. The nymphs emerge in Dec. – Jan
and starts climbing up the trees. Nymphs and adults
suck the cell sap from tender shoots, panicles etc. As a
result, affected parts, dry up, fruits remain undersized
and yield is reduced.
 Control measures include digging around the tree during summer to kill the
eggs by exposing the same to Sun’s heat, mixing upper layer of soil with lindane
powder.
Nymphs can be controlled at the earliest by spraying Carbaryl (0.2%) or
Nuvacron (0.04%).
3. STEM BORER (Batocera rufomaculatu)
This pest is particularly serious in old and neglected orchards. Adults do not
cause much damage except feeding on tender shoots, buds and making irregular
scratches on stem by biting and chewing. Grubs cause maximum damage by
tunneling inside the main trunk and breaches.
It can be controlled by cleaning the tunnels with a hand wire, and injecting
borer solution containing two parts of Carbon disulfide and one part of chlorofom
and creosole, with an injecting syringes and subsequently closing the enterance of
the tunnel with mud.
4. SHOOT BORER (Chlumatia traversa)

Though the pest is serous on mango nursery, the

mango plantation upto the age of 6 to 8 years is
invariably attacked by this pest thereby affecting growth
adversely. The pest also attacks inflorescences during
flowering season. The affected shoots wilt and dry up.
The pest is more injurious during rainy season from
June-July to October.

Removal and destruction of infested shoots, and 1 or 2 sprays of carbaryl

0.02% or Nuvacron 0.04% during the emergence period of vegetative growth.
5. TERMTIES (Trinervitemes biformis)
They are heliphobic and either ramains
underground and feed on roots and move upwards
making the trunks completing hollow. Termites are
active all the year round.
 Soil treatment with lindane powder @ 200-300 gm per tree is effective.
6. FRUIT FLY (Dacus spp.)
This is a serious pest as the affected fruits become
unfit for consumption through the feeding of the
maggots in the flesh. The fruit fly lays its eggs in clusters
of 150-200 under the skin of the fruit just before
ripening. The affected fruits begin to rot and drop down.

For its control, collection and destruction of damaged fruits. Poisoned baits
@ 10@ ha are helpful in checking the incidence. Flies can be controlled by sprays
of Carbaryl 0.2% protein hydrolysate or Molasses 0.1% beginning at egg. laying
stage.
DISEASES
1) POWDERYMILDEW (Oidium mangiferae)
It is a common disease of mango and usually occurs during Nov. to Mar. Its
incidence is favoured by high humidity accompanied by cloudy weather and low
night temperatures during period between panicle development and fruit set.
The disease is characterized by the white superficial powdery bloom of
fungal growth covering the leaves, the stalks of the panicle, the flower and tender
fruits. The affected flowers and fruits drop prematurely.
The effective control of the disease can be achieved by the sprays of
Fungifides viz. Wattable sulphur (0.2%), Karathana (0.1%), Tridemorph (0.5%),
Carbedazim (0.1%), Bavisti (0.1%), Benlate (0.1%) 3 to 5 times at forthnightly
interval and cleanliness of the orchard. The first spray should be given at problem
stage as a preventive step.
2. ANTHRACNOSE (Collctotrichum gloeosporidides)
This is one of the most important and wide spread diseases, affecting the
tender foliage and new shoots of grafts and seedlings of mango. The infected
leaves show oval or irregular grayish brown spots of smaller to larger size. Finally,
leaf tissues dry and shed. The diseased younger fruitlets drop down and if fungus
attacks he fruits at maturity, the disease is enhanced by storage. The disease
spread rapidly in the rainy season (Jul-Oct.) Maximum vicinity occurs when the
weather parameters viz. Temp Max 28.5oC and min [Link], relative humidity
(91.37%) and wind velocity (9.66km/hr).
The effective control of grafts infection can be achieved by selecting disease
free bud sticks or/and treating them with fungicides viz. Carbendazim (0.1%),
Biltox or Phytolan (0.3%), Bavistin (0.1%), Benlate (0.01%) or spraying of Bordeaux
mixture (3:3:50) thrice a year [Link]. Apr. and Sept.
Hot water treatment to the fruits has been found effective against the
disease.
PHYSIOLOGICAL DISORDERS :
1. Shy bearing 2. Malformation 3. Loranthus 4. Spongy tissues
1. Shy bearing
There are some varieties which have tendency of shy bearing even in “on”
years. There is defect in flower part naturally e.g. Alampur baneshun 3% perfect
flowers. Jahungir 1% perfect flowers. These varieties having perfect flowers below
10% are shy bearer.
2. Malformation
This is disorder, the causes and remedy is not known. The flowers are
crowed on short thick stems. A whole tree or part of it may be affected. This
problem is more severe in U.P.,M.P. and Punjab.
3. Loranthus
It is a parasite which is generally found to grow wild on the branches of
mango trees and absorb their cell sap. If it is not controlled, multiplies at a faster
rate through birds. Many a times the whole tree may get affected and lower the
vigour an yield.
4. Spongy tissues
It is disorder developing in mango fruits during ripening. In which tissues
develop pale yellow colour as compared to other surrounding tissues as a
fermented odour and air pocked. The affected tissues are too soft, hard or lathery
depending on the severity of damage. In severe cases whole fruit is spoiled.
 BIENNIAL / IRREGULAR BEARING IN MANGO

Off year tree On year tree

Biennial bearing is one of the most burning problems since it renders

mango cultivation less remunerative to the growers. This term is synonymous to
alternate bearing, i.e. a year of optimum or heavy fruiting followed by a year of
little or no fruiting.
The year in which the tree yields heavily is called as the ‘on year’, while the
year of less yield is called as ‘off year’. The tree settles to a more or less rhythmic
habit of producing.
a. Profuse blossoms and sparse vegetative growth in spring and summer of one
year.
b. Profuse vegetative growth and sparse blossoms in spring and summer of next
year.
The term irregular or periodicity of bearing is erroneously used to describe
the phenomenon of biennial bearing. This term implies that cropping does not
follow a systemic pattern i.e. optimum crop is obtained only once in a number of
years. Such behaviour is largely due to lack of proper orchard management
practices. On the other hand, the alternate or biennial bearing habit is of genetic
nature since this can be identified amongst the mango plants right from the initial
years of fruiting.
Causes of biennial bearing:
A. External causes:
1. Climatological Factors: Adverse climatic conditions like rain, high humidity
and low temperature sometimes convert an ‘on year’ into an ‘off year’ directly
or by promoting the incidence of diseases like powdery mildew and
anthrancnose. The various climatic factors adversely affect fruit set as under :-
a. Prevalence of high temperature during fruit set causes heavy drop of small
fruits.
b. Frequent frost or low temperature at the time of flowering suppresses the
flowering.
c. Rains at the time of flowering wash out the stigmatic fluid and affect
pollination.
The climatological factors as such, however, do not form the basic cause of
alternate bearing.
2. Diseases and Pests: Prevalence of diseases like powdery mildew and
anthracnose and pests like mango hoppers during flowering and fruit
development
cause flower and fruit drop thereby reducing the number of fruits produced by
the tree.
3. Nutrition: Less nutrition availability to the plant in the ‘on year’ produces little
or sparse vegetative growth. Absence of or presence of poor vegetative
growth converts the succeeding year into an “off year”.
4. Phosphorus content: Flower bud formation in mango is governed by proper
adjustments of a number of factors including high levels of phosphates,
especially the organic fractions, Low level of available phosphorus, hampers
fruit-bud formation thereby causing poor fruit production.
A. Internal factors :
1. Varietal characters: Biennial bearing character is governed by the genetic
constitution in some varieties. Some varieties are regular bearers, while some
bear fruits in alternates years.
Regular bearers – Neelum, Totapuri, Ratna, Mallika, Amrapalli etc.
Alternate bearers – Alphonso, Pairi etc.
2. Age of the plant: Mango trees when young i.e. upto 10 years produce fruits
regularly. After 10 years, normally they start bearing fruits in alternate years.
3. Age of the shoot: In the past it was observed that the Shoots which are 8-9
months old in January flower. If the trees fail to produce new flush in March-
April it does not produce fruits, thereby converting the year into an “off year”.
4. C:N ratio: In the ‘on year’, most of carbohydrates produced are utilized for
development of fruits and hardly any food is available for initiating new
growth. During ‘off year’, due to availability of food, tree produces growth
during summer, which matures, differentiates and produces crop in the next
 year. Thus, if C:N ratio is 60:40, there will be flowering and subsequent
fruiting, while if the C:N ratio is 40:60 there will be vegetative growth.
5. Sex ratio: The percentage of perfect flowers vary in different varieties. e.g.
Alphonso – 10%, Langra- 66%, Neelum- 16% etc. The varieties with very low
percentage of perfect flowers may turn into ‘off year’ if the few available
perfect flowers fail to set fruit.
6. Crop load: Fruiting is an exhaustive process. Number of fruits retained until
harvest is a varietal feature in mango which is significant because of its
adverse effects on the production of new shoots and their subsequent fruit
bud differentiation. The crop load on the tree is thus a major factor governing
producing of shoots, their fruit-bed differentiation and ultimately the biennial
bearing.
7. Harmonal balance: The imbalance among the various hormones within the
plant is also responsible for the biennial bearing in mango.
a. Auxins: Play a role in induction of flowering in mango.
b. Gibberellins: GA3 application result in the inhibition of flowering in mango
However, the response varies with cultivar and concentration of GA 3.
c. Cytokinins: Flowering in mango shoot tips is associated with high levels of
endogenous cytokinins.
d. Lipids: Higher levels of lipids are observed in the plant body during the ‘on
year’
e. Inhibitors: Higher levels of growth inhibitory substances are responsible for
flowering in mango which decreases with development of fruit.
f. Ethylene: Flowering shoots have 3-5 times higher ethylene than the
vegetative shoots.
Thus, higher levels of auxins, inhibitors, endogenous cytokinins, lipids and
ethylene along with lower levels of gibberellins lead to floriferous fruit in mango.
Need to overcome biennial bearing in mango:
1. The problem is a major bottleneck in the expansion of mango industry.
2. The growers have to split their profits of the ‘on year’ into two in order to
take care of the ‘off year’.
3. Market glut during ‘on year’ results in unremunerative prices for the
growers.
4. During ‘off year’ consumers have to pay more price.
5. It is challenge before the horticulturists for the past 7 decades.
Measures to overcome biennial bearing:
1. Growing regular bearing varieties:
a. Growing of traditional regular bearing varieties viz., Banglora,
Neelum, Totapuri, Rumani etc.
b. Planting of regular bearing hybrids developed by crossing regular and
irregular bearing varieties.
Regular hybrid Parents
Female x Male
i. Amrapali Dasheri x Neelum
ii. Malika Neelum x Dasheri
iii. Ratna Neelum x Alphonso
iv. Shindhu Ratna x Alphonso

2. Proper upkeep and maintenance of orchards: This helps in maintaining the

fruit trees in healthy and disease-free conditions which includes;
a. Proper and liberal manuring of orchards as per recommendations and
according to the age of the trees.
b. Root pruning, application of salt and giving incision to the bark.
c. Regular ploughing thrice a year (in autumn, winter and beginning of
monsoon.)
d. Irrigation after fruit set for forcing vegetative growth in spring and early
summer.
e. Ringing of branches in high rainfall areas and regions of late rains.
f. Keeping orchards open.
Proper maintenance of trees help in reducing erratic or irregular bearing
but cannot induce regularity of bearing in biennial varieties.
3. Deblossoming and thinning of fruits: Partial or complete removal of flowers
and young fruits in the ‘on year’ increases flowering during the next year to
the same extent. Instead of taking a full load of crop in one year, it is
distributed over two years.
4. Defruiting at pea stage is relatively more effective than at other stages.
Production of new shoots soon after crop harvest is essential to maintain the
general tree vigour for regular fruiting.
5. Pruning: Dried twigs and branches are required to be removed completely.
Pruning of large, dense tree consists of removal of few branches all round the
tree (on the periphery and the centre) to open it to allow more light and are,
followed by manuring one month after pruning. This operation induces fruits
nor only on the terminal ends but also directly on the older branches.
6. Pruning: Dried twigs and branches are required to be removed completely.
Pruning of large, dense tree consists of remooval of few branches all round the
tree (on the periphery and in the centre) to open it to allow more light and air,
followed by manuring one month after pruning. This operation induces fruits
not only on the terminal ends but also directly on the older branches.
7. Smudging: Smudging or smoking of mango trees to induce out-of-season
flowering and fruiting is a unique feature of mango growing in Philippines. The
operation consists of building and smoking fire below the tree canopy and
directing the smoke to pass through the foliage. This practice, however is not
found to be effective in India.
8. Application of KNO3 The polyembryonic varieties ae influenced by KNO 3
sprays (10-40 g/1). Higher concentration (above 40 g/1) reduce percentage of
flowering, panicle length, number of flowers, primary panicle branches and sex
ratio at all maturity stages. The response varies with cultivar, type of shoots
and climatic conditions.
9. Use of plant growth regulators:
a. Application of chloremequat @ 2000 ppm induces flowering in mango.
b. Application of daminozide @ 5000 ppm and L-methionine @ 300 ppm
increases percentage of hermaphrodite flowers on the panicles.
c. Spraying of Ethephon @ 1000 ppm at weekly intervals during November and
early December i.e. before @ 1000 ppm at weekly intervals flowing.
d. Post-harvest soil application of Paclobutrazol @ 5-7-.5 g a.i per tree induces
profuse early flowering and early fruit maturity. The chemical is applied in a
trench made in a circular fashion around the main bark, 1-2 m away from the
main trunk.
 MANGO MALFORMATION

Normal flower

Among all the known diseases and insect pests of mango malformation is
undoubtedly the most serious. An increasing incidence of this malady during the
last few years has posed a threat to the mango industry of Uttar Pradesh, Punjab
and Bihar.
Malformation has been reported even in Maharashtra and Gujarat also but
it is not widespread. Its impact in north India is very serious and alarming.
Depending on the plant parts affected. malformation is divided into
following categories viz. Vegetative and Floral.
A) Vegetative malformation: More common on the nursery seedlings and young
plants.
1) In vegetative malformation, the vegetative buds in the leaf axils or the apical
meristem of the younger plants, develop abnormally into compact rosette like
shootlets, bearing tiny leaf rudiments.
2) Many such shoots may arise to form a bunch, hence it is also sometimes
known as bunchy top. The problem is not serious on grown up trees.
3) The affected new shoots on the old trees, become thick, stunted and develop
a whorl of small leaves.
4) Sometimes scars of previous years infection are also visible on the stem.
B) Floral malformation: More common on trees at the bearing stage. Floral
malformation directly affects the productivity.
1) It is a very virulent type and causes loss of the entire crop.
2) Fruit production is directly affected by converting the panicle to a barren one.
3) In severe cases, the affected panicle appears like a compact mass and appears

more green and sturdy.

4) It bends down due to its own weight.
5) Fruits do not set on these panicles.
6) Flower production continues well beyond normal.
7) The rachis and secondary branchlets are more thick and short.
8) All parts of the flowers such s bracts, sepals, petals and ovary including style
are observed to be larger than those of normal panicles.
Types (According to severity):
1) Studies conducted at division of Horticulture IARI revealed that the floral
malformation is broadly of three types viz. light, medium and heavy.
2) The heavy type is most damaging because of its failure to set any fruit. Such
panicles are characterized by a condensed mass of flower buds which are
largely male. These panicles show suppression of apical dominance and
have a tendency to hang on the year and in this process, they rob the tree
of essential nutrients.
3) In the light and medium types, flowers of both sexes are found on the
panicles and some fruit set can also be seen, though it is rare.
4) In light and medium types, part of the panicle is often found to be normal
whereas the other portions are malformed.
Causes of malformation:
1) Various causes such as nutrition, faulty cultural practices, mites, viruses,
fungus etc., have been ascribed to this malady but the etiology of the
malady is yet to be established.
2) Sharma (1953) advocated that the disorder is neither of bacterial nor of
fungal origin, nor due to insect or deficiency of minor elements but a non-
pathogenic established.
3) The “eriophid mite” (Aceria mangiferaei) has also been condiered to be
associated with mango malformation either directly of indirectly.
4) Summanwar et. al. (1966) reported association of a fungus fusarium
moniform with the malady. They isolated the fungus from the malformed
panicles and also reproduced the disease by inoculating the seedlings of
mango. cvs. Dasheri, Lacknow, Safeda, Langra were observed to be the
most susceptible cultivars to the fungus.
5) Some experiments reveal the disorder due to hormonal imbalance or
decreased levels of auxins.
6) Accumulation of excessive amounts of hydrolysable polysaccharide has also
been ascribed as the cause of malady.
Incidence:
1) The severity of incidence of this disorder varies from year and from variety
to variety.
2) The highest incidence is seen (upto 90%) on the varieties Chausa and
Bombay Green.
3) The only variety known to be free from floral malformation in Bhadauran.
But it has very small fruit size and inferior quality.
4) The introduced varieties are generally found to be more susceptible than
the acclimatized ones.
Relationship between malformation and temperature:
1) Studies at IARI have revealed that there is an inverse correlation between
temperature and incidence of malformation.
2) Incidence of floral malformation in the early flush of panicles is much higher
than in the late emerged panicles.
3) Deblossoming of early flush of panicles at bud-burst stage when panicles
are about 1 ½ to 2 cm long, can shift the flowering to a later date when
temperatures are higher.
4) Panicles emerging after Deblossoming during the same fruiting season,
show a significantly lower incidence of malformation and higher fruit set.
Remedies (ICAR):
In the absence of any definite cause it is difficult to find and effective
control of the disease.
1) The attacked parts are removed by pruning 30cm below and the exposed
cut surface is pasted with 2 parts of copper fungicide and one part of lime
in 30 parts of water. This is followed by 0.03% spray of Diazinon.
2) The incidence of floral malformation can be considerably reduced by
spraying 200 ppm naphthalene acetic acid in October.
3) A single Deblossoming treatment at bud-burst stage results in a highly
significant increase in yield compared with control. The incidence of
malformation which is usually very high in the early panicles is substantially
reduced by this treatment.
4) The extent of floral malformation can be reduced by early Deblossoming
combined with spraying NAA in October.
 SPONGY TISSUE IN MANGO
Definition:
Spongy tissue is the development of yellowish white corky patched with or
without air pockets and having fermented odour in the pulp of the fruit towards
its ripening resulting in internal breakdown of the fruit pulp.
The affected tissue is either too soft, hard or leathery which depends upon
the severity of damage. Occasionally, black streaks adhering to the stone are seen
in the initial stages of breakdown. The extetn of damage varies from 20-60%
under Konkan conditions and from 1.3 cm of the fruit pulp. In severe cases the
whole fruit is spoiled.
The spongy tissue disorder is not apparent at harvesting or at the ripe stage
of the fruit. It is only visible when the ripe fruit is cut open.
Factors responsible for development of spongy tissue: The occurrence of spongy
tissue disorder has been linked with a number of factors like.
1) Horticultural aspects:
a. Varietal response: Alphonso mango is the most susceptible variety showing
upto 60% of spongy tissue depending upon various factors. Other varieties like
Olur (28%) Vanraj (36%), Vellaikolumban (10%), Doodpedha, Goamankur,
Suvarnarekha etc. also develop spongy tissue.
i. Pacchatiok (Gujarat)
ii Pairi, Neelum, Ratna, SIndhu, etc. (Maharashtra-Konkan)
b. Stage of maturity at harvest: Incidence of spongy tissue is found to increase
with advancing maturity.
e.g. True ripe stage - 87% spongy tissue
Full maturity - 53% spongy tissue
7/8th maturity - 23% spongy tissue
3/4th maturity - 10% spongy tissue
c. Size and weight of fruit at harvest: Spongy tissue incidence increases with
increasing fruit weight in Alphonso. e.g. 18.1%, 25.4%, 35.4% and 44.5%
incidence in fruits weighing 200g, 200-250g, 250-300g and above 300g
respectively.
There is a positive correlation between spongy tissue incidence and specific
gravity of Alphonso mango fruits.
d. Age of the tree: Incidence is more in older trees as compared to younger trees
in Alphonso fruits.
e. Effect of rootstock: The vigour of rootstock influences the occurrence of
spongy tissue because of the difference in the root distribution pattern. root
activity and capacity to absorb various kinds of nutrients. e.g. Minimum
incidence (35.4%) is observed in Alphonso scion grafted on Vellaikolumban a
less vigorous polyembryonic rootstock, whereas the highest incidence was
observed in Alphonso seedling stock (57.3%).
f. Effect of rootstock: The vigour of rootstock influences the occurrence of
spongy tissue because of the difference in the root distribution pattern, root
activity and capacity to absorb various kinds of nutrients, e.g. Minimum
incidence (35.4%) is observed in Alphonso scion grafted on Vellaikolumban a
less vigorous polyembryonic rootstock, whereas the highest incidence was
observed in Alphonso seedling stock (57.3%).
2) Ecological aspects:
a. Location: The soil moisture and temperature have a relation with the
development of spongy tissue. The moisture level on top of the hill is low as
compared to other locations. It is observed that trees located in plains exhibit
more spongy tissue (56.6%) as compared to those on hill slopes (45.5%) and
hill tops (35.5%).
b. Season of harvest: Early harvested (15th April) Alphonso fruits contain
comparatively less spongy tissue. Alphonso mango fruits harvested after 15 th
May and rainfall during 1-2 weeks prior to harvest increase the spongy tissue
incidence.
3. Microbial spoilage: The incidence of spongy tissue in mango may also be due
to pathological causes, but the exact reason has not yet been established.
4. Nutritional aspects:
a. Mineral composition of spongy tissue: Research has concluded that spongy
tissue contains lower levels of Ca, K and Na and higher levels of P as compared
to healthy pulp of Alphonso mango.
c. Nutritional imbalance: Deficiency of calcium and conditions of phosphorus
malnutrition in the fruit trees may lead to the development of spongy tissue
disorder in mango.
5) Biochemical aspects: The normal ripening of mango fruits is retarded at the
localized spot of spongy tissue.
a. Biochemical changes associated with spongy tissue: It is observed that
spongy tissue contains higher levels of acidity, starch content and polyphenolic
inhibotors, while they contain low levels of a- ketogultaric acid and pyruvic
acid as compared to healthy pulp.
b. Enzymatical studies associated with spongy tissue:
i) The spongy tissue exhibited about 16 times less amalyse activity as compared
to healthy pulp.
ii) The activity of ascorbic acid oxidase was found to be 7 times higher than in
case of healthy pulp.
iii) The activity of enzymes perooxidase and catalase is found to be much less in
spongy tissue pulp.
iv) Glutamate dehydrogenase (GDH) and Glutamate oxaloacetate transaminase
(GOT) activity is much lower in spongy tissue.
6) Physiological aspect :
a. Post harvest sunlight exposure: The exposure of harvested fruits to sunlight
might result in the internal breakdown of fruits. This may be due to
inactivation of ripening enzymes, due to heat or accumulation of phenols or
other types of inhibition of mango pulp.
b. Ripening temperature of fruits: Increased repining temperature to about 47 0C
result in spongy tissue development.
c. Imbalance of metabolism during ripening: Conditions of imbalance/improper
metabolism during ripening of mango fruits. e.g. Lower levels of endogenous
ethylene may result in the development of spongy tissue in mango.
Remedies/Control of spongy tissue:
1. Growing of spongy tissue resistant varieties.
a. Pacchatiok (Gujarat)
b. Pairi, Neelum, Ratna, Sindhu etc. (Maharashtra-Kokan)
2. Harvesting of mango fruits at the tight stage i.e. at about 60-70% marurity.
3. Mulching and maintaining vegetation in orchards: They reduce the radiated
hear from the soil and thereby reduce spongy tissue occurrence.
4. Use of less vigorous and polyembryonic rootstock e.g. For grafting under
Villicolumban rootstock.
5. Maintaining proper season for harvesting of mango fruit i.e. around 15 th
April helps to reduce spongy tissue.
6. Application of antibiotics before flowering helps to destroy pathogens
which may be a cause for spongy tissue incidence.
7. Preharvest calcium dips to mango fruits helps to increase calcium content
in fruits and reduce the incidence of spongy tissue in Alphonso mango.
8. Proper nutrition management in the mango orchards.
9. Avoiding exposure of fruits to direct sunlight after harvest.
10. Post-harvest exposure of fruits to low temperatures of 15 to 10 0C for a
period of 10-18 h followed by ripening in wooden crates helps to control
spongy tissue.
11. Post-harvest dipping of fully matured Alphonso mango fruits in 500, 750
and 1000 ppm solution of ethephon minimizes the occurrence of spongy
tissue and also enhances the ripening of fruits by 2-3 days.