Satellite Positioning

1. Space (satellite) positioning

1.1. Historical background

The concept of satellite position fixing commenced with the launch of the first Sputnik satellite by
the USSR in October 1957. This was rapidly followed by the development of the Navy Navigation
Satellite System (NNSS) by the US Navy. This system, commonly referred to as the Transit system,
was created to provide a worldwide navigation capability for the US Polaris submarine fleet. The
Transit system was made available for civilian use in 1967 but ceased operation in 1996. This
system was composed of six satellites orbiting at altitudes of about 1100 km with nearly circular
orbits. The TRANSIT was developed by the US military to determine the position of their vessels
and aircraft. Civilian use was later authorized and the system was used for both navigation and
surveying. The best accuracies ranged about one meter if a point was occupied several days and
post processing was done. However, as the determination of position required very long
observation periods and relative positions determined over short distances were of low accuracy,
its application was limited to geodetic and low dynamic navigation uses.
In 1973, the US Department of Defense (DoD) commenced the development of NAVSTAR
(Navigation System with Time and Ranging) Global Positioning System (GPS), and the first
satellites were launched in 1978. The system is funded and controlled by the DoD but is partially
available for civilian and foreign users. The accuracies that may be obtained from the system
depend on the degree of access available to the user, the sophistication of his/her receiver hardware
and data processing software, and degree of mobility during signal reception.
In very broad terms, the geodetic user in a static location may obtain ‘absolute’ accuracy (with
respect to the mass centre of the Earth within the satellite datum) to better than ±1 metre and
position relative to another known point, to a few centimeters over a range of tens of kilometers,
with data post-processing. At the other end of the scale, a technically unsophisticated, low dynamic
(ship or land vehicle) user, with limited access to the system, might achieve real time ‘absolute’
accuracy of 10–20 metres.
The GPS navigation system relies on satellites that continuously broadcast their own position in
space and in this the satellites may be thought of as no more than control stations in space.
Theoretically, a user who has a clock, perfectly synchronized to the GPS time system, is able to
observe the time delay of a GPS signal from its own time of transmission at the satellite, to its time
of detection at the user’s equipment. The time delay, multiplied by the mean speed of light, along
the path of the transmission from the satellite to the user equipment, will give the range from the
satellite at its known position, to the user. If three such ranges are observed simultaneously, there
is sufficient information to compute the user’s position in three-dimensional space, rather in the
manner of a three-dimensional trilateration. The false assumption in all this is that the user’s
receiver clock is perfectly synchronized with the satellite clocks.

As already mentioned GPS was developed to replace the TRANSIT system which had two major
shortcomings. These were;
(i) Large time gaps in coverage (a satellite would pass overhead nearly every 90
minutes), thus not enabling continuous positioning.
(ii) Relatively low navigational accuracy.

So what does GPS do? GPS answers such as questions;

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(i) What is my position?

(ii) What time is it?
(iii) What velocity is it?
It does these quickly, accurately and inexpensively anywhere on the earth’s surface or near it at
any time.

To enable continuous positioning, a scheme had to be developed for GPS so that at least four
satellites are electronically in view anywhere and anytime on the earth. The provision of time is
enabled by use of several atomic clocks both onboard the satellites and at various places on the
earth.

2. GLOBAL POSITIONING SYSTEMS

GPS is a satellite navigation system designed to provide instantaneous position, velocity and
time information almost anywhere on the globe at any time, and in any weather. (NAVSTAR
GPS stands for the Navigation Satellite Timing And Ranging Global Positioning System

2.1. GPS SEGMENTS

The GPS system can be broadly divided into three segments:

i. the space segment,
ii. the control segment and the
iii. User segment.

2.1.1. the space segment

Figure 2.1.1: satellite

The space segment is composed of satellites. The constellation consists at the time of writing the
source of this notes 29 satellites including spares. The satellites are in almost circular orbits, at a
height of 20 200 km above the Earth or about three times the radius of the Earth and with orbit
times of just under 12 hours. The six orbital planes are equally spaced (Figure 2.1), and are
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inclined at 55◦ to the equator. Individual satellites may appear for up to five hours above the
horizon. The system has been designed so that at least four satellites will always be in view at
least 15◦ above the horizon. The GPS satellites weigh, when in final orbit, approximately 850 kg.
The design life of the satellites is 7.5 years but they carry 10 years’ worth of propulsion
consumables. Two sun-seeking single degree of

Figure 2.1.2: satellite constellation in orbits

Summary of space segment

 Space segment consists of the GPS space vehicles (SVs).

 Nominally 29 SVs plus spares.
 Each vehicle has a12 hour orbit.
 Repeats same ground track daily.
 6 orbital planes with 4 vehicles each.
 Planes are equally spaced 60 degrees apart.
 Inclined 55 degrees from equatorial plane.
 20,200 km above the earth.
 5 to 8 SVs visible from anywhere on earth.

2.1.2. GPS Control Segment

The control segment comprises five stations located at Falcon Air Force Base, Colorado
Springs, Hawaii, Ascension Island, Diego Garcia and Kwajalein .

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These stations are the eyes and ears of GPS, monitoring the satellites as they pass
overhead by measuring distances to them every 1.5 seconds. This data is then
smoothed using ionospheric and meteorological information before 15 minute normal
points are generated and sent to the Master Control Station at the US Air Force's
Space Command facilities at Colorado Springs. It is here that parameters describing
the satellites' orbit and clock performance are estimated, as well as assessing the
health status of the satellites and determining if any re-positioning may be required.
This information is then returned to three uplink stations (collocated at the Ascension
Island, Diego Garcia and Kwajalein monitor stations) which transmit the information

Summary
 SVs are controlled by five system tracking stations to the satellites.

Figure 2.1.3: location of the control stations

 Stations monitor and measure signals from the SVs which are incorporated into orbital
models for each of the satellites.
 The models compute precise orbital data (ephemeris) and SV clock corrections for each
satellite.
 The Master Control station uploads updated (ephemeris and clock data) to the SVs.

2.2. User segment

The user segment comprises the receivers that have been designed to decode the signals
transmitted from the satellites for the purposes of determining position, velocity or time. To
decipher the GPS signals, the receiver must perform the following tasks: (Anon, 1989)

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 selecting one or more satellites in view

 acquiring GPS signals
 measuring and tracking
 recovering navigational data

There are two types of service available to GPS users - the SPS and the PPS.

SPS - Standard Positioning Service is the positioning accuracy that is provided by GPS
measurements based on the single L1 frequency C/A code

PPS - Precise Positioning Service is the highest level of dynamic positioning accuracy that is
provided by GPS measurements based on the dual frequency P-code

where the C/A code is the 'standard' (Coarse/Acquisition, or Clear/Access) GPS code sequence
of 1023 pseudo-random binary biphase modulations of the GPS L1 carrier signal at a chip rate of
1.023MHz, producing a code repetition period of one millisecond.

Also, the P-Code is the Precise (or Protected) GPS code - a very long sequence (about 10 to the
power 14) of pseudo-random binary bi phase modulations on the GPS carrier at a chip rate of
10.23MHz which does not repeat itself for 267 days. Each one-week segment of the P-code is
unique to one GPS satellite and is reset each week.

Summary
CIVILIAN
 SPS - Standard Positioning Service
 Uses single frequency L1
 Uses C/A code only

MILITARY

 PPS - Precise Positioning Service

 Uses two frequencies L1/L2
 Uses C/A code and P-code

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Overview of GPS system

Figure 2.2.1: GPS system

3. Positioning Signals

GPS satellites transmit two L-Band signals which can be used for positioning purposes. The
reasoning behind transmitting using two different frequencies is so that errors introduced by
ionospheric refraction can be eliminated.

The signals, which are generated from a standard frequency of 10.23 MHz, are L1 at 1575.42
MHz and L2 at 1227.60 MHz and are often called the carriers.

The frequencies are generated from the fundamental satellite clock frequency of fo =10.23 MHz.

Signal Frequency (MHz) Wavelength (cm)

L1 154fo = 1575.42 ~19
L2 120fo =1227.60 ~24

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Since the carriers are pure sinusoids, they cannot be used easily for instantaneous positioning
purposes and therefore two binary codes are modulated onto them: the C/A (coarse acquisition)
code and P (precise) code.

Also it is necessary to know the coordinates of the satellites and this information is sent within
the broadcast data message which is also modulated onto the carriers.

For purposes of imposing the binary data onto the carriers, all of the codes are transferred from
the 0 and 1 states to the -1 and 1 factors respectively.

The broadcast data message is then modulo-2 added to both the C/A code and the P code. This
inverts the code and has the effect of also inverting the autocorrelation function.

3.1. Modernized GPS

Due to the vast civil applications of GPS technology during the past decade or so and due to the
new technologies used in the satellite and receivers, the U.S government has decided to extend
the capabilities of GPS to give more benefits to the civil community. In addition to the existing
GPS signals, new signals will be transmitted by GPS satellite; see Figure 3 Moreover, this will
increase the robustness in the signals and improve the resistance to signal interference. This
definitely will lead to a better quality of service (QoS). The new signals added to the GPS
), are:
i. a new L5 frequency in an aeronautical radio navigation service (ARNS) band with a
signal structure designed to improve aviation applications,
ii. C/A code to L2C carrier (L2 civil signal), and
iii. (a new military (M) code on L1 and L2 frequency for the DoD has been added. It has the
potential to track signal even in poor conditions where the C/A code tracking on L1
would not be possible. The new military code will be transmitted from the
Block IIR-M and IIF satellites.

It is well known that the presence of dual frequency measurements (L1 and L2) has good
advantages to eliminate the effect of the ionosphere and enhance the ambiguity resolution
especially for the high precision measurements (Liu and Lachapelle, 2002). High-end civil dual
frequency systems will be based on L1 CA-code and the newly designed L2 C-code. In the
coming few years the receivers will become more complex in order to allow tracking the new
civil code on L2 and tracking the encrypted P on L2 (A-S).
The frequency of L5 is 1176.45MHz, with chipping rate of 10.23 MHz similar to P- code. The
high chipping rate of L5 code will provide high performance ranging capabilities and better code
measurement than L1 C/A code measurements (Dierendonck and Hegarty, 2000).
L2 has a better correlation protection with respect to L1 since it has a long code. This will be
useful in severe conditions where the GPS signals are weak such as navigation in urban, indoor,
and forested areas.
The old codes and the new codes (Millitary and civil), on the L1, L2 and L5 need more advanced
modulation that better share existing frequency allocations with all signals by increasing spectral
separation, and hence conserve the spectrum. Consequently, binary offset carrier (BOC) is used
for the Military code modulations (Betz, 2002). Figure 5. Modernized GPS signals

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FIGURE 3.1: modernized GPS signals

3.2. Principle of satellite positioning

The position of a point can be given in terms of;

(i) latitude, longitude and elevation
(ii) rectangular coordinates (x, y, z)

In satellite positioning, this is achieved by measuring the distance (range) between the survey point
and the satellite. Measurements to at least four satellites provide a unique position of the observing
antenna. Normally the positions of the satellite are known a priori. Consider Figure 3.2 below. The
positions of the satellites ρs relative to the center of the earth are computed from the ephemerides
broadcast by the satellite (i.e. positions of satellites are interpolated).

If the ground receiver ρR carries an accurate clock synchronized with GPS time, the true distance,
ρ to each satellite could be derived by measuring the time taken by a signal to reach the receiver.
The time taken is multiplied by the speed, c =299792458 ms-1 of the electromagnetic signal (light).

Each range defines the surface of a sphere with the satellite as the center. Ranges to only three
satellites would be enough to position the receiver ρ R since the intersection of the spheres give a
unique position (φ, λ, h) as show in Figure 3.2.1

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Satellite S

Satellite orbit
ρ
ρS

receiver
ρR Earth’s surface

Geocenter

Figure 3.2: Principle of satellite positioning

GPS receivers however use an inexpensive crystal clock which is also not precisely set to GPS
time. The distances, thus measured are either shorter or longer than the true ones. They are not true
ranges and are called pseudoranges, R. To enable precise time measurement, a fourth satellite is
observed so that the clock offset (‘error’) can be determined. The observations to all the four
satellites must be done simultaneously. A model of the pseudorange is thus
R        c (1)
Where δ is the clock bias. We therefore have four unknowns namely positional elements φ, λ, h
and the clock bias, δ. Observation to each satellite results to one equation with all the four
unknowns; hence the need to observe to at least four satellites. We could write thus;
1
R  [( X 1  X R )  (Y1  YR )  ( Z1  Z R ) ]  c , for satellite 1.
S 2 S 2 S 2 2
(2)

The unknowns, here are XR, YR, ZR, cδ. Four such equations are needed for a solution. The
resulting accuracy of the receiver position is clearly influenced by
- accuracy of the satellite position XiS,
- accuracy of the pseudorange measurement,
- Geometry of the participating satellites.

Normally systematic errors in the satellite position and satellite clock biases in the pseudoranges
can be reduced or eliminated by differencing the pseudoranges measured from two sites to the
satellite. Poor satellite geometry cannot be minimized by the differencing technique. A measure
of satellite geometry is called Geometric Dilution of Precision (GDOP).

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Figure3.2.1 Intersection of spheres at the receiver position

3.2.1. Positioning using GPS

Computation of receiver position in GPS survey is similar to a distance resection. Pseudoranges to

several satellites are measured and the receiver position is fixed from them. Remember that the
GPS positions in space are known from the broadcast ephemeris. Thus the satellites act as flying
beacons (control points). Figure 3.2.2 shows a receiver whose position is to be fixed from several
satellites.

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GPS satellite, S (XS,YS,ZS)

GPS receiver, P (XP,YP,ZP)

Figure 3.2.2: Point positioning using GPS

To each satellite is measured the range (pseudorange), R from receiver position P. Thus
RSP  c(t  e) . (3)
RSP is the true range from satellite S, e is the clock error, Δt is the signal flight time. In terms of
satellite coordinates, we write for each satellite i
1
[( X Si  X P )  (YSi  YP )  ( Z Si  Z P ) ]  c(t  e)
2 2 2 2
(4)

The flight time, Δt is here the observable and the unknowns are the three receiver coordinates XP,
YP, ZP and the clock error e. To solve for the four unknowns, we therefore require four equations
of type equation (4). This means that at least four satellites must be electronically in view of the
receiver simultaneously. Usually more than four satellites are in view and a least squares
adjustment is used to obtain the receiver position.

3.2.2. GPS Positioning Methods

There are basically two distinct observables used when positioning using GPS. These are;
(i) Code measurements and
(ii) Carrier phase measurements.

3.2.3. Code measurements

The principle of code measurements is illustrated in figure 3.2.3. The observable is the flight time,
Δt. The receiver position is obtained as in equation (4). When using the code measurements and a
single C/A code receiver, the accuracies are about 5m in horizontal positioning and slightly worse
in elevation, in absence of selective availability. Presence of SA can degrade this accuracy to about
100m at the 95% probability level.

If a single receiver is used to obtain the absolute position of a point, one talks of single point
positioning (SPP). The accuracies quoted here are in most cases not sufficient for surveying and
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GIS work. There are methods that have been developed to improve this accuracy. The most
commonly used is the differential GPS (DGPS) in which two or more receivers placed at two
different points work together as shown in Figure 3.2.3

Satellite signal

Receiver generated signal

Δt

Figure 3.2.2: time delay

In DGPS, one of the receivers is placed at a point whose coordinates are precisely known in
advance (reference receiver) while the second receiver is placed at the point whose coordinates are
required (the rover). The two receivers must run simultaneously so that they observe to the same
set of satellites. Basically, the derived GPS coordinates of the known point are compared with the
a priori known coordinates and corrections derived from them.

These corrections are passed on to the GPS coordinates at the new point and an improved position
is obtained. The corrections are assumed to be due to atmospheric and ionospheric errors, incorrect
satellite orbits and possibly downgrading due to SA. Receivers observing to the same set of
satellites are subjected to the same errors. As a general guide, one should limit him/her- self within
an area of less than 50 km for better accuracies particularly when using code receivers.

The corrections may be passed on to the rover by either through

(i) radio link (the receivers must be within the range of the link)
(ii) Post processing, whereby data is collected and saved within the receivers. Later the
data is downloaded on to a computer and using appropriate software (usually from
the manufacturer) the baselines are processed.

Even when employing DGPS using C/A code receivers, the accuracy may not improve to beyond
one meter. This may only be sufficient for limited surveying tasks and possibly for several GIS
applications and navigation.

3.2.4. Carrier Phase measurements

Instead of the codes, the carriers themselves are used in this method to measure receiver-satellite
distances. The phases of the carriers L1 and L2 are the observables. The carriers have very short
wavelengths (0.19m for L1 and 0.24 m for L2), which means it is possible to observe the ranges
with millimeter precision.

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In this approach, the complete integer number of wavelengths for each signal from the satellite to
the receiver is determined. This integer number of wavelengths is called ambiguity, N. The
fractional part of the wavelength that completes the whole range is the phase. It is this phase, Δλ
that is measured.

satelites

rover
Reference
receiver

Figure 3.2.3: Differential GPS

Ambiguity determination is the biggest problem in this method. However techniques have been
developed which cope well with the problem. The range would now be given by
R=Nλ + Δλ (5)
In equation (5), Δλ is measured and N has to be resolved for.

Figure 5.2: Integer ambiguity

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4. Methods of Surveying with GPS Receivers

a. Static differential positioning

This method requires at least two GPS receivers located at different points. Normally one
is a reference receiver while the other(s) is/ are rovers. The two receivers run
simultaneously for a period ranging 30 minutes to several hours depending on the length
of the baseline. This long period allows the satellite geometry to change enough so that
ambiguity resolution is possible and systematic errors are removed.

All data collected is saved either in a card or internally in the receiver and post- processed
later to give the relative position between the receivers. Static Surveying is the standard
GPS surveying method using GPS and gives very high accuracies; about 5-10mm plus 1-
2 parts per million (ppm).

b. Stop and Go method

A reference receiver is kept at one end while the rover is moved from the other end of the
baseline to points whose coordinates are needed. The rover is only kept at the new points for
very short periods e.g. a few seconds to few minutes. Integer ambiguity is resolved first before
the rover moves. Static surveys can be used for this purpose. Once the rover is in motion, there
should be no loss of lock to at least four satellites.
This method is not very useful where signal obstruction may occur e.g. under trees. The
accuracy range is 10-30mm.

c. Pseudo- Kinematic Surveying

It is similar to Stop and Go method only that requirement of no loss of lock is now dropped.
The rover collects data at the new stations and the whole procedure is repeated within 30
minutes to two hours with all the new stations being resurveyed. The rover can be switched off
between sites. All data collected is post- processed after the survey. Accuracy levels are similar
to Stop and Go method.

d. Rapid Static Method (Fast Static Surveying)

This is similar to static surveying only that observation periods are now much reduced to less
than 30 minutes. Accuracy of baselines is in the cm level.

e. Full Kinematic GPS

This is also known as On the Fly Ambiguity Resolution. It enables integer ambiguity to be
resolved instantly.

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Error sources in GPS

The final position of the survey point is influenced by

- the error in the range measurement
- the satellite- receiver geometry
- the accuracy of the satellite ephemeris
- the effect of atmospheric refraction
- the processing software.

The major error sources are:

i. Receiver clock error:

Error in time measurements can result to large errors in range determination. This error
is determined by observing a fourth satellite.

ii. Receiver noise:

This is generally low and it is not eliminated by differential methods.

Satellite clock error: GPS clocks are normally monitored and their corrections included in the
broadcast message. The clock synchronization is kept to within 20ns which translates to 6m
in range. Differential GPS methods eliminate this error.

iii. Satellite ephemeris error:

Satellite orbit errors result to range errors. The orbit error is in the region of ±5m. Precise
orbits (normally computed after the observation and posted in the internet two weeks later)
are fairly more accurate.

iv. Atmospheric refraction:

These can be divided into ionospheric and tropospheric errors.

Ionospheric errors: The ionosphere is the region 50 – 1000km above the earth and contains ionized
particles. GPS signals are slowed down and refracted from their true path within this region. The
ionosphere effect is frequency dependent and can cause range errors between 5m – 150m. The
ionosphere is normally not of uniform density and thickness. Its effect is normally reduced by
performing linear combinations of L1 and L2 frequencies. Thus only dual frequency receivers
have the capability to reduce this effect. The broadcast message may also contain some information
on the ionosphere which the receivers can use.

v. Tropospheric errors:

This is the lower region of the atmosphere. Tropospheric effects can be modeled and their effects
reduced.

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vi. Multipath errors:

If GPS signals are reflected off hard surfaces, the final received signal will have followed a longer
path than the true range. This effect is called multipath and causes errors in positioning. This effect
may be reduced by choosing sites that are not close to hard and reflecting surfa

Figure 4 multipath effect

vii. Dilution of Precision

The quality of an instantaneous positioning solution is largely a function of two parameters; the
quality of an individual pseudo-range to a satellite and the geometry of the relative position of
observer and satellites. This situation has its parallels in trilateration in terms of the quality of the
EDM in use and the positions of the known and unknown control stations. Dilution of Precision
(DOP) is the concept whereby the problem of geometry is analyzed and a numerical parameter is
derived to describe the quality of the geometric relationship between the user’s equipment and
the chosen satellites. Depending upon the user’s application, there are several interrelated DOP
statistics; Geometrical, Position, Horizontal, Vertical and Time Dilutions of Precision. In each
case the DOP statistics are the amplification factor, which, when multiplied by the pseudo-range
measurement error, give the error of the computed position or time, etc. These statistics are only
a function of the effect of satellite and user geometry. The reader is probably a surveyor and
therefore most interested in three-dimensional position and hence the PDOP of the satellites. A
sailor navigating on the relatively flat sea would be more interested in HDOP, since they will
already have sufficient information about their height. If a particular user were using the GPS for
time transfer, their interest would only be in TDOP, since they will not need to know where they
are. We will consider the surveyor’s PDOP, but similar arguments can apply for any of the
DOPs. PDOP

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is a dimensionless number which will vary from about 1.6 in the best possible geometrical
configurations

5. Global Navigation Satellite Systems (GNSS)

The GNSS consist of three main satellite technologies: GPS, Glonass and Galileo. Each of them
consists mainly of three segments: (a) space segment, (b) control segment and (c) user
segment. These segments are almost similar in the three satellite technologies, which are all
together make up the GNSS. As of today, the complete satellite technology is the GPS
technology and most of the existing worldwide applications related to the GPS technology. The
GNSS technology will become clearer after the operation of Galileo (2012) and the
reconstruction of Glonass in the next few years.

5.1. GLONASS

The GLONASS (GLObal Navigation Satellite System or “GLObalnaya Navigation naya

Sputnikovaya Sistema”) is nearly identical to GPS. Glonass satellite-based radio-navigation
system provides the positioning and timing information to users. It is operated by the Ministry of
Defense of the Russian Federation (GLONASS-ICD, 2002). Glonass space segment is consist of
24 satellites, equally distributed in 3 orbit separated by 120o in the equatorial plane. Satellite
orbital altitude is about 19,130 km above the ground surface. This results in an orbital period of
11:15:44 corresponding to 8/17 of a sidereal day. The future of GLONASS seems uncertain due
to economic problems facing the Russian Federation. The number of operational satellites was

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steadily decreasing over the past few years. The launch of three new GLONASS satellites in
December 1998 was the first launch after a lapse of 3 years. As of January 2006, a total of 10
GLONASS satellites are operational. The oldest of the still active satellites was launched in
October, 2000. According to Russian officials the GLONASS system shall again be restored by
2008

5.2. GALILEO

GALILEO is Europe’s initiative for a state-of-the-art global navigation satellite system,

providing a highly accurate, guaranteed global positioning service under civilian control.
Galileowill be not too different from the other GNSS parts (modernized GPs and Glonass
(Salgado et al., 2001). It will provide autonomous navigation and positioning services, but at the
same time will be interoperable with the two other global satellite navigation systems; the GPS
and GLONASS. A user will be able to take a position with the same receiver from any of the
satellites in any combination. By providing dual frequencies as standard, however, GALILEO
will deliver real-time positioning accuracy down to the meter range. It will guarantee availability
of the service under all, but the most extreme circumstances and will inform users within seconds
of a failure of any satellite. This will make it appropriate for applications where safety is vital,
such as running trains, guiding cars and landing aircraft. The combined use of GALILEO and
other GNSS systems can offer much improved performance for all kinds of users worldwide.
GALILEO is expected to be in operation by the year 2008. The first satellite of Galileo system
(GIOVE A) has already been lunched in 27th December 2005.

5.2.1. Galileo segments

Galileo segments are almost similar to GPS, but with some modification. The main extension of
Galileo compared to GPS is the implementation of a global/ regional segment for integrity
monitoring. The objective is to assist the safety critical aircraft navigation and locate and guide
railway trains (GALILEO, 2003).

5.2.2. Space Segment

The space segment or the constellation features consists of 30 Medium Earth Orbiting (MEO)
satellites (27 and 3 active spare satellite), distributed evenly and regularly over three orbit planes.
+
The projected altitude is slightly larger than for GPS 23,616 km and the inclination is 56°
(Benedicto and Ludwig, 2002).

5.2. 3. Ground Segment

The Galileo ground segment is responsible for managing the constellation of navigation
satellites, controlling core functions of the navigation mission such as orbit determination of
satellites, and clock synchronization, and determining and disseminating (via the MEO satellites)
the integrity information, such as the warning alerts within time-to-alarm requirements, at global
level. The Global ground segment will also provide interfaces with service centers. The Ground

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control centers. The ground segment also will include 16-20 monitor stations, three up-link
stations for integrity data and two central stations for integrity computations.

5.2.3. User Segment:

The user segment consists of different types of user receivers, with different capabilities related
to the different GALILEO signals in order to fulfill the various GALILEO services

5.2.4. Galileo signals

The GALILEO frequency should respect the radio-regulations as they are discussed and agreed
on at the International Telecommunications Union (ITU) forums such as the World Radio-
Communication Conference (WRC). There were different studies that were conducted before the
determination of the Galileo signal allocations in order to avoid interference with GPS and
Glonass systems, which operate in the same portion of the RF spectrum (Hein et al., 2003).
Galileo will provide several navigation signals in right-hand circular polarization (RHCP) in the
frequency ranges of 1164–1215 MHz (E5a and E5b), 1260–1300 MHz (E6) and 1559–1592
MHz (E2-L1-E1) that are part of the Radio Navigation Satellite Service (RNSS) allocation
(Heinet al., 2003). All Galileo satellites will share the same nominal frequency, making use of
code division multiple access (CDMA) techniques. Galileo will use a different modulation
scheme for its signals, the binary offset carrier (BOC) and quadrature phase skip keying (QPSK).

6. APPLICATIONS

The previous pages have already indicated the basic application of GPS in engineering surveying
such as in control surveys, topographic surveys and setting-out on site. Indeed, much three-
dimensional spatial data normally captured using conventional surveying techniques with a total
station can be captured by GPS, even during the night, provided sufficient satellites are visible.
However, GPS is not the solution for all survey data capture problems. Where GPS works, i.e. in
an open skies environment, it works very well. However, once the skies become obstructed as
they often are on the construction site, then conventional survey techniques may be more
appropriate. GPS does not, at present, work well or at all close to buildings, indoors,
underground or underwater. On a national scale, horizontal and, to a certain extent, vertical
control, used for mapping purposes and previously established by classical triangulation with all
its built-in scale error, are being replaced by three-dimensional GPS networks. In relation to
Great Britain and the Ordnance Survey, this has been dealt with in previous pages. The great
advantage of this to the engineering surveyor is that, when using GPS at the local level, there is
no requirement for coordinate transformations. Kinematic methods can be used for rapid
detailing, and Real-Time Kinematic (RTK) for setting-out. Whilst the above constitutes the main
area of interest for the engineering surveyor, other applications will be briefly mentioned to
illustrate the power and versatility of GPS.

6.1. Machine guidance and control

Earth moving is required to shape the ground prior to construction taking place. In this context
machine guidance is concerned with guiding the operator to move the blade or dozer, scraper,
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excavator or grader using GPS as the reference. On the other hand, machine control is when this
information is used directly to control the machine’s hydraulics to automate the blade.
Initially a GPS base station is established on site. The base station collects the code and phase
data and this is broadcast by radio throughout the whole site. Rover units working in RTK mode
get corrections from the base station. Shortly after, position at the machine is determined with
20–30 mm precision at a data rate of at least 0.1 second with an even smaller latency. Usually
there are two GPS antennae attached to each end of the blade so that the grade profile may be
determined precisely. The machine operator needs to be guided in terms of what to do with
his/her machine, therefore the GPS derived coordinates and site design components need to be
transparent to the operator in the cab. The site DTM and project design are loaded into the
control unit aboard the machine. As the task progresses 366 Engineering Surveying and changes
are made to the plan, these can be added either with updated physical media or by transferring
the data by radio link. The operator may be guided on the task by light bars telling him/her
whether to raise, lower or angle the machine’s blade or there may be a visual display of the task
so that the ground ahead can be compared with a design visualization. With machine guidance
there is no need for conventional setting-out because no profile or batter boards need to be
established. The role of the surveyor is now more concerned with setting up the GPS system and
ensuring that the correct coordinate systems are in use, that the GPS is functioning correctly as
well as ensuring the design data is correctly formatted for the task in hand. As well as using the
system to make the process of cut, fill and grading more efficient the GPS can be used to do a
survey of the work achieved so far on a daily basis. This can be used to calculate payment for the
task and to determine whether the specification for the work has been achieved. The same design
file can be used for the initial rough cuts and moves of mass of dirt as well as the finished grades.
Where there is automatic control of the blade this helps with more accurate grading with fewer
passes. When the GPS is interfaced to the machines’ hydraulic valves there can be automatic
control of elevation and cross-slope. For large sites where parts are beyond the range of the base
station radio repeater radios may extend operations up to about 20 km. GPS has its limitations in
terms of the precision that can be achieved in real-time. If the system is augmented by lasers then
final profiles can be achieved down to a few millimetres. Cut and fill to planes defined by
conventional profiles and batter boards can easily be achieved. What is more difficult is to create
a smooth surface defined by vertical profiles in more than one direction such as in landscaping,
especially golf [Link] a DTM and GPS machine control this is more easily achieved. GPS
antennae mounted on masts attached to plant blades are subject to harsh shocks and vibrations so
the antennae need to be firmly attached and robust. Antennae are expensive and therefore
vulnerable to theft and damage when the site is not active or guarded. Using GPS means there
will be fewer personnel such as surveyors on site and therefore the site becomes safer. Where
there are areas of danger on the site which are invisible to the operator, such as pipelines or
contaminated ground, they can be included in the data for the control unit and an audible
warning given to the operator if the machine gets too close.

6.2. Plate tectonics

Plate tectonics is centred on the theories of continental drift and is the most widely accepted
model describing crustal movement. GPS is being used on a local and regional basis to measure
three-dimensional movement. Locally, inter-station vectors across faults are being continually
monitored to millimetre accuracy, whilst regionally, GPS networks have been established across

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continental plate boundaries. The information obtained adds greatly to the study of earthquake
prediction, volcanoes and plate motion.

6.3. Precision farming

The concepts are similar to those used in machine guidance and control; however, DGPS levels
of accuracy are often sufficient. The unit steers the agricultural machine along parallel, curved,
or circular evenly spaced swaths taking account of the swath width. Automated steering may be
used to free the operator from steering the equipment until he/she comes to the end or the corner
of the field. Yield monitoring may also be incorporated into the system. The system may also be
used to vary the levels of seed or fertilizer distribution across the field to ensure there

6.4. Geographical information systems (GIS)

GPS is the ideal tool for the collection of spatially related data because the speed at which the
position element of the data may be captured and because the precision of the position element is
likely to be acceptable for almost all applications that the engineering surveyor will be involved
with. GPS, in any mode from stop-and-go to RTK, lends itself particularly well to the process of
recording vector data such as pipeline routes, property boundaries and pavement edges. Because
the data is in electronic form it is easily compiled into files for use within a GIS.

6.5. Navigation

GPS is now used in all aspects of navigation. GPS voice navigation systems are standard with
many models of car. Simply typing the required destination into the unit results in a graphical
display of the route, along with voiced directions. Similar systems are used by private boats as
digital charts and by aero planes, whilst handheld receivers are now standard equipment for
many walkers, and cyclists. GPS has many applications for sports monitoring and provides the
spatial and time element of the data for sports performance analysis. PS enabled wristwatches
and mobile phones have been available for several years now. GPS is used in fleet management
for determining the vehicles’ positions and status so that they can be transmitted to a central
control, thereby permitting better management of the assets. At the individual vehicle level the
driver can use GPS as an aid to destination and route location. GPS is used by surveying ships
for major offshore hydrographic surveys. Ocean-going liners use it for navigation purposes,
whilst most harbours have a DGPS system to enable precise docking. Even recreational craft rely
on it almost to the exclusion of traditional methods of navigation and pilotage. At the present
time, aircraft landing and navigation are controlled by a variety of disparate systems. GPS is well
used and may eventually provide a single system for all aircraft operations. The uses to which
GPS can be put are limited only by the imagination of the user. They can range from the
complexities of measuring tectonic movement to the simplicity of spreading fertilizer in
precision farming, and include many areas of scientific study, such as meteorology,
oceanography, and geophysics. As satellite systems continue to develop the applications will
continue to grow.

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6.6. Deformation monitoring

The advantage of using GPS is that it enables near real-time monitoring for deformation if data is
recorded and processed online. There are a number of such projects currently operational and are
described at their respective websites. Examples include monitoring by Nottingham University
of the Humber Bridge

7. THE FUTURE FOR SURVEYORS AND ENGINEERS

The future for GPS, WAAS and EGNOS and Galileo looks promising. The future for GLONASS
is harder to assess but could also match expectations. In the worst case, if only the GPS
modernization programme and Galileo go ahead, then there will still be many more Galileo and
GPS satellites and all of those GPS satellites launched after 2005 will have significantly
enhanced capabilities. However, it will take some time before there are sufficient satellites with
enhanced capabilities for the new signals and codes to be universally useful. How the equipment
manufacturers will exploit the new resources is also hard to assess, but it is certain that they will
and we should expect our speed of survey production and capability in difficult environments to
improve significantly. It is less likely that prices for geodetic survey receivers will fall
significantly because of the overall limited volume of the market. When Galileo is operational
then the possibilities for combined GPS, GLONASS and Galileo receivers mean that the
enhanced coverage will permit satellite survey in some previously very difficult environments.
However, geodetic survey receivers using GPS, Galileo and GLONASS will most likely
command a high premium. Satellite positioning 365 undoubtedly there will be many different
and varied applications of satellite technology and the survey market will only have a very small
share of the total applications market. It seems likely that equipment manufacturers select signals
based on:
 Purpose of product
 Chipset availability
 Satellites and signals currently available and their limitations
 Satellites and signals expected to be available in the next 2–4 years
 Manufacturing cost
 Expected market
 Competitor activity
However, it is likely that manufacturers will also be making their current products more
attractive by future
Proofing them, i.e. making existing products capable of using new signals and codes when they
become available.

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